Surface Integral of

Scalar Field

Surface
Surface Integral of
Integrals Vector Field

Vector Calculus(MATH-243)
Instructor: Dr. Naila Amir
 Vector Calculus
16
Book: Calculus Early Transcendentals (6th Edition) By James Stewart.
• Chapter: 16
• Section: 16.7
Book: Thomas’ Calculus Early Transcendentals (14th Edition) By George B. Thomas, Jr.,
Joel Hass, Christopher Heil, Maurice D. Weir.
• Chapter: 16
• Section: 16.6
Surface Integrals for Scalar Fields
• The relationship between surface integrals and surface area is much the same as the
relationship between line integrals and arc length.
• Suppose 𝑓 is a function of three variables whose domain includes a surface 𝑆.
• We will define the surface integral of 𝑓 over 𝑆 such that the value of the surface integral is
equal to the surface area of 𝑆 in the case where 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 1.
• If 𝑆 is a smooth surface defined parametrically as:
𝐫 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑥 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐤; 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝐷,
and 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a continuous function defined on 𝑆, then the integral of 𝒇 over 𝑺 is:

ඵ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 𝑓 𝐫(𝑢, 𝑣) 𝐫𝑢 × 𝐫𝑣 𝑑𝐴.
𝑆 𝐷
• When using this formula, remember that 𝑓 𝐫(𝑢, 𝑣) is evaluated by writing 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑢, 𝑣),
𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑢, 𝑣), 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑢, 𝑣) in the formula for 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). Moreover, observe that:

ඵ 1𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 𝐫𝑢 × 𝐫𝑣 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐴 𝑆 .
𝑆 𝐷
Graphs of a Function
Any surface 𝑆 with equation 𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) can be regarded as a parametric surface with
parametric equations:
𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 .
So, we have:

2 2
ඵ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) 1 + 𝑧𝑥 + 𝑧𝑦 𝑑𝐴.
𝑆 𝐷

Similar formulas apply when it is more convenient to project 𝑆 onto the 𝑦𝑧 −plane or
𝑥𝑦 −plane.
Example:
Evaluate

ඵ 𝑦𝑑𝑆,
𝑆
where 𝑆 is the surface 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2.
Solution:
For the present case we have: 𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 . Thus,

1 2
2 2 2 2 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
13 2
ඵ 𝑦𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 𝑦 1 + 𝑧𝑥 + 𝑧𝑦 𝑑𝐴 = න න 𝑦 1 + 1 + 2𝑦 = .
3
𝑆 𝐷 0 0
Applications
Surface integrals have applications similar to those for the integrals we have previously
considered. For example, suppose a thin sheet (say, of aluminum foil) has the shape of a
surface 𝑆 with the density (mass per unit area) at the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) as 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). Then, the
total mass of the sheet is:

𝑀 = ඵ 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 .
𝑆
The center of mass is: 𝑥,ҧ 𝑦,
ത 𝑧ҧ , where,
1 1 1
𝑥ҧ = ඵ 𝑥𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 , 𝑦ത = ඵ 𝑦𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 , 𝑧ҧ = ඵ 𝑧𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 .
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆

First moments and moments of inertia can also be defined as before.

Example:
Find the center of mass of a thin hemispherical shell of radius 𝑎 and constant density 𝜌 = 𝑐.
Solution:
We model the shell with the hemisphere: 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 , 𝑧 ≥ 0.
The symmetry of the surface about the 𝑧 −axis tells us that 𝑥ҧ = 𝑦ത = 0. It remains only to
𝑀𝑥𝑦
find 𝑧ҧ from the formula 𝑧ҧ = . The mass of the shell is:
𝑀

𝑀 = ඵ 𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑐 ඵ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑐𝐴 𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑎2 𝑐.
𝑆 𝑆
For the present case:
𝐫 𝜑, 𝜃 = 𝑎 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜃 , 𝑎 sin 𝜑 sin 𝜃 , 𝑎 cos 𝜑 ,
where the parameter domain is:
The center of mass of a
𝐷 = 𝜑, 𝜃 0  𝜑  𝜋, 0  𝜃  2𝜋 }.
thin hemispherical shell of
Moreover, constant density lies on the
𝐫𝜑 × 𝐫𝜃 = 𝑎2 sin2 𝜑 cos 𝜃 , 𝑎2 sin2 𝜑 sin 𝜃 , 𝑎2 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 . axis of symmetry halfway
from the base to the top.
Solution:
and
𝐫𝜑 × 𝐫𝜃 = 𝑎2 sin 𝜑 .
Thus,
2𝜋 𝜋/2

𝑀𝑥𝑦 = ඵ 𝑧𝜌 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑐 ඵ 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑐 න න 𝑎3 cos 𝜑 sin 𝜑 𝑑𝜑𝑑𝜃

𝑆 𝑆 0 0
2𝜋 𝜋/2
𝑐𝑎3
= න න sin(2𝜑) 𝑑𝜑𝑑𝜃 = 𝑐𝑎3 𝜋,
2
0 0
and
𝑀𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑎3 𝜋 𝑎
𝑧ҧ = = 2
= .
𝑀 2𝜋𝑎 𝑐 2
Thus, the center of mass of a thin hemispherical shell of radius 𝑎 and constant density 𝜌 is
given as:
𝑎
𝑥,ҧ 𝑦,
ത 𝑧ҧ = 0,0, .
2
Piecewise Smooth Surfaces
If 𝑆 is a piecewise smooth surface—a finite union of smooth surfaces 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 , … , 𝑆𝑛 that
intersect only along their boundaries—then the surface integral of 𝑓 over 𝑆 is defined by:

ඵ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 + ඵ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 + ⋯ + ඵ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑆 .
𝑆 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆𝑛
Example:
Evaluate

ඵ 𝑧𝑑𝑆,
𝑆
where 𝑆 is the surface whose:
• Sides 𝑆1 are given by the cylinder 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1.
• Bottom 𝑆2 is the disk 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 1 in the plane 𝑧 = 0.
• Top 𝑆3 is the part of the plane 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑥 that
lies above 𝑆2 .

Note: We have changed the

usual position of the axes to
get a better look at 𝑆.
Solution:
For 𝑆1 , we use 𝜃 and 𝑧 as parameters and write its parametric equations as:
𝑥 = cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = sin 𝜃 , 𝑧 = 𝑧,
where: 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋, 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 1 + 𝑥 = 1 + cos 𝜃.
Therefore,

 z dS =  z | r  r
S1 D
z | dA

2 1+ cos
=  z dz d , where: | r  rz |= 1
0 0
2
= 1
2 (1 + cos  ) 2 d
0
2
= 1
2 0 1 + 2 cos  + 2 (1 + cos 2 )  d
1

3 2
=   + 2sin  + sin 2  =
1
2
3
2
1
4 0
2
Solution:
Since 𝑆2 lies in the plane 𝑧 = 0, we have:

ඵ 𝑧𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 0𝑑𝑆 = 0.
𝑆2 𝑆2

𝑆3 lies above the unit disk 𝐷 and is part of the plane 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑥. So, taking 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑥 and
converting to polar coordinates, we have the following result.
2
 z   z 
2

S z dS =D (1 + x) 1 +  x  +  y  dA
3

2 1
=  (1 + r cos  ) 1 + 1 + 0 r dr d
0 0
2 1
= 2  (r + r 2 cos  ) dr d = 2 
0 0
Example:
Therefore,

 z dS =  z dS +  z dS +  z dS
S S1 S2 S3

3
= +0+ 2
2
= ( 3
2 )
+ 2 
Example:
Integrate 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦𝑧 over the surface of the cube cut from the first octant by the
planes 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1, and 𝑧 = 1.
Solution:
We integrate 𝑥𝑦𝑧 over each of the sides and add the results. Since 𝑥𝑦𝑧 = 0 on the sides that
lie in the coordinate planes, the integral over the surface of the cube reduces to:

ඵ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑆 + ඵ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑆 + ඵ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑆.

𝑆 Side 𝐴 Side 𝐵 Side 𝐶

Side 𝐴 is the surface 𝑧 = 1 over the square region 𝑅𝑥𝑦 : 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1,

0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1, in the 𝑥𝑦 −plane. For this surface and region,

1 1
2 2 𝑑𝐴
1
ඵ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 𝑥𝑦 1 + 0 + 0 = න න 𝑥𝑦 1𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = .
4
Side 𝐴 𝑅𝑥𝑦 0 0
Solution:
1
Using symmetry, the integrals of 𝑥𝑦𝑧 over sides 𝐵 and 𝐶 are also . Hence,
4

ඵ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑆 + ඵ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑆 + ඵ 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑆

𝑆 Side 𝐴 Side 𝐵 Side 𝐶

1 1 1
= + +
4 4 4
3
= .
4
Oriented Surface & Orientation
To define surface integrals of vector fields, we need to rule out non-orientable surfaces
such as the Möbius strip shown in the figure below. We can construct one for ourself by
taking a long rectangular strip of paper, giving it a half-twist, and taping the short edges
together. If an ant were to crawl along the Möbius strip starting at a point , it would end up
on the “other side” of the strip (that is, with its upper side pointing in the opposite
direction). Then, if the ant continued to crawl in the same direction, it would end up back at
the same point without ever having crossed an edge. Therefore, a Möbius strip really has
only one side. From now on we consider only orientable (two-sided) surfaces.

Constructing a Möbius strip

A Möbius strip
Oriented Surface & Orientation
We start with a surface 𝑆 that has a tangent plane at every point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) on 𝑆 (except at
any boundary point).

There are two unit normal vectors: 𝐧1 and 𝐧2 = −𝐧1 at (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).

If it is possible to choose a unit normal vector 𝐧 at every such point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) so that 𝐧 varies
continuously over 𝑆, then 𝑆 is called an oriented surface.

The given choice of 𝐧 provides 𝑆 with an orientation.

Oriented Surface & Orientation
There are two possible orientations for any orientable (two-sided) surface.

If 𝑆 is a smooth orientable surface given in parametric form by a vector function 𝐫(𝑢, 𝑣),
then it is automatically supplied with the orientation of the unit normal vector:

𝐫𝑢 × 𝐫𝑣
𝐧= .
𝐫𝑢 × 𝐫𝑣

This gives the upward orientation of the surface. The opposite orientation is given by – 𝐧.
Oriented Surface & Orientation
For a surface 𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) given as the graph of 𝑔, we use:

𝐫𝑥 × 𝐫𝑦 = −𝑔𝑥 , −𝑔𝑦 , 1 ,

to associate with the surface a natural orientation given by the unit normal vector:

𝐫𝑥 × 𝐫𝑦 −𝑔𝑥 , −𝑔𝑦 , 1
𝐧= = .
𝐫𝑥 × 𝐫𝑦 2
2
1 + 𝑔𝑥 + 𝑔𝑦

As the 𝐤 −component is positive, this gives the upward orientation of the surface.
Oriented Surface & Orientation
For instance, a parametric representation of the sphere of radius 𝑎:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 ,
is given by a vector function:
𝐫 𝜑, 𝜃 = 𝑎 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜃 , 𝑎 sin 𝜑 sin 𝜃 , 𝑎 cos 𝜑 ,
where the parameter domain is:
𝐷 = 𝜑, 𝜃 0  𝜑  𝜋, 0  𝜃  2𝜋 }.
Moreover,
𝐫𝜑 × 𝐫𝜃 = 𝑎2 sin2 𝜑 cos 𝜃 , 𝑎2 sin2 𝜑 sin 𝜃 , 𝑎2 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 .
and
𝐫𝜑 × 𝐫𝜃 = 𝑎2 sin 𝜑 .
Thus, the orientation induced by 𝐫 𝜑, 𝜃 is defined by the unit normal vector:
𝐫𝜑 × 𝐫𝜃 𝑎2 sin2 𝜑 cos 𝜃 , 𝑎2 sin2 𝜑 sin 𝜃 , 𝑎2 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 1
𝐧= = 2
= 𝐫 𝜑, 𝜃 .
𝐫𝜑 × 𝐫𝜃 𝑎 sin 𝜑 𝑎
Oriented Surface & Orientation
Observe that 𝐧 points in the same direction as the position vector, that is, outward from the
sphere (figure a). The opposite (inward) orientation would have been obtained (figure 9) if
we had reversed the order of the parameters because 𝐫𝜃 × 𝐫𝜑 = − 𝐫𝜑 × 𝐫𝜃 .

(Figure: a) (Figure: b)
Oriented Surface & Orientation
For a closed surface—a surface that is the boundary of a solid region 𝐸—the convention is
that:
• The positive orientation is the one for which the normal vectors point outward from
𝐸. (Figure: a)

• Inward-pointing normal vectors give the negative orientation. (Figure: b)

(Figure: a) (Figure: b)
Surface Integrals of Vector Fields
Suppose that 𝑆 is an oriented surface with unit normal vector 𝐧. Then, imagine a fluid with
density 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and velocity field 𝐯(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) flowing through 𝑆. Think of 𝑆 as an imaginary
surface that doesn’t impede the fluid flow—like a fishing net across a stream. Then, the rate
of flow (mass per unit time) per unit area is 𝜌𝐯. If we divide 𝑆 into small patches 𝑆𝑖𝑗 ,
then 𝑆𝑖𝑗 is nearly planar. So, we can approximate the mass of fluid crossing 𝑆𝑖𝑗 in the
direction of the normal 𝐧 per unit time by the quantity:
𝜌𝐯 · 𝐧 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑗 ,
where 𝜌, 𝐯, and 𝐧 are evaluated at some point on 𝑆𝑖𝑗 (recall that the component of the
vector 𝜌𝐯 in the direction of the unit vector 𝐧 is 𝜌𝐯 · 𝐧).
Summing these quantities and taking the limit, we get the surface
integral of the function 𝜌𝐯 · 𝐧 over 𝑆:

ඵ 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝐯(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) · 𝐧(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑑𝑆. (∗)

𝑠

This is interpreted physically as the rate of flow through 𝑆.

Surface Integrals of Vector Fields
If we write 𝐅 = 𝜌𝐯, then 𝐅 is also a vector field on ℝ3 . Then, the integral (∗) takes the form:

𝐫𝑢 × 𝐫𝑣
ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 𝐅 𝑑𝑺 = ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐫𝑢 × 𝐫𝑣 𝑑𝐴 = ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐫𝑢 × 𝐫𝑣 𝑑𝐴,
𝐫𝑢 × 𝐫𝑣
𝑠 𝑠 𝐷 𝐷

where 𝐷 is the parameter domain. It is called the surface integral (or flux integral) of 𝐅 over
𝑆, where 𝐅 is a continuous vector field defined on an oriented surface 𝑆 with unit normal
vector 𝐧.
Example: Flux Integral
Find the flux of the vector field: 𝐅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑧, 𝑦, 𝑥 across the sphere: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1.
Solution:
Using the parametric representation of sphere, we get:
𝐫 𝜑, 𝜃 = sin 𝜑 cos 𝜃 , sin 𝜑 sin 𝜃 , cos 𝜑 ,
where, 0  𝜑  𝜋, 0  𝜃  2𝜋, we have:
𝐅 𝐫 𝜑, 𝜃 = cos 𝜑 , sin 𝜑 sin 𝜃 , sin 𝜑 cos 𝜃 .
Now:
𝐫𝜑 × 𝐫𝜃 = sin2 𝜑 cos 𝜃 , sin2 𝜑 sin 𝜃 , sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 .
Therefore,
𝐅 𝐫 𝜑, 𝜃 · 𝐫𝜑 × 𝐫𝜃 = 2 cos 𝜑 sin2 𝜑 cos 𝜃 + sin3 𝜑 sin2 𝜃 .
Thus, the flux of the vector field is given as:
2𝜋 𝜋
2 3 2
4𝜋
ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐫𝑢 × 𝐫𝑣 𝑑𝐴 = න න 2 cos 𝜑 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜑 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑𝑑𝜃 = .
3
𝑠 𝐷 0 0
Example: Flux Integral
• The figure shows the vector field 𝐅 at points on the unit sphere.
• If, for instance, the vector field 𝐅 is a velocity field describing the flow of a fluid with
density 1, then the answer, 4𝜋/3, represents: the rate of flow through the unit sphere in
units of mass per unit time.
Surface Integrals of Vector Fields
In the case of a surface 𝑆 given by a graph of the function 𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦), we can think of 𝑥 and
𝑦 as parameters and write:
𝐅 · 𝐫𝑥 × 𝐫𝑦 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 · −𝑔𝑥 , −𝑔𝑦 , 1
𝐅·𝐧= =
𝐫𝑥 × 𝐫𝑦 2 2
1 + 𝑔𝑥 + 𝑔𝑦
So that:

ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ −𝑃𝑔𝑥 − 𝑄𝑔𝑦 + 𝑅 𝑑𝐴.

𝑠 𝐷
Note:
• This formula assumes the upward orientation of 𝑆.
• For a downward orientation, we multiply by −1.
• Similar formulas can be worked out if 𝑆 is given by 𝑦 = ℎ(𝑥, 𝑧) or 𝑥 = 𝑘(𝑦, 𝑧).
Example:
Evaluate:

ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆
𝑠
where 𝐅 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑦 𝐢 + 𝑥 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝐤 and 𝑆 is the boundary of the solid region E enclosed by the
paraboloid 𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 and the plane 𝑧 = 0.
Solution:
𝑆 consists of a parabolic top surface 𝑆1 and a circular bottom surface 𝑆2 . Since 𝑆 is a closed
surface, we use the convention of positive (outward) orientation.
This means that 𝑆1 is oriented upward. Moreover, D is the projection
of 𝑆1 on the 𝑥𝑦 −plane, namely, the disk: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 1.
Solution:
On 𝑆1 , 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑦, 𝑄 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑅 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 .
Also, 𝑧 = 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , so:
𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑔
= −2𝑥, = −2𝑦.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
So, we have:

ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ −𝑃𝑔𝑥 − 𝑄𝑔𝑦 + 𝑅 𝑑𝐴 = ඵ 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴

𝑠 𝐷 𝐷

2𝜋 1
𝜋
= ඵ 4𝑥𝑦 + 1 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 𝑑𝐴 = න න 1 − 𝑟2 + 4𝑟 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 = .
2
𝐷 0 0
Solution:
The disk 𝑆2 is oriented downward. So, its unit normal vector is 𝐧 = −𝐤. Moreover, 𝑧 = 0 on
𝑆2 , thus we have:

ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 𝐅 · (−𝐤) 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ −𝑧 𝑑𝐴 = ඵ 0 𝑑𝐴 = 0.
𝑠 𝑠 𝐷 𝐷

Finally, we compute ‫ 𝑆𝑑 𝐧 · 𝐅 𝑠׭‬as the sum of the surface integrals of 𝐅 over the pieces 𝑆1
and 𝑆2 , as:

ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆 + ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆
𝑠 𝑆1 𝑆2
𝜋
= + 0,
2
𝜋
= .
2
Applications
• Although we motivated the surface integral of a vector field using the example of fluid
flow, this concept also arises in other physical situations.
• For instance, if 𝐄 is an electric field, the surface integral

ඵ 𝐄 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆
𝑠

is called the electric flux of E through the surface S.

• One of the important laws of electrostatics is Gauss’s Law, which says that the net charge
enclosed by a closed surface 𝑆 is:

𝑄 = ℰ0 ඵ 𝐄 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆
𝑠

where ℰ0 ≈ 8.8542 × 10−12 C 2 /N · m2 is a constant (called the permittivity of free

space) that depends on the units used.
Applications
Another application occurs in the study of heat flow. Suppose the temperature at a point
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in a body is 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). Then, the heat flow is defined as the vector field:
𝐅 = – 𝐾 ∇𝑢,

where 𝐾 is an experimentally determined constant called the conductivity of the substance.

Then, the rate of heat flow across the surface 𝑆 in the body is given by the surface integral:

ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆 = −𝐾 ඵ ∇𝑢 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆.
𝑠 𝑠
Example:
The temperature 𝑢 in a metal ball is proportional to the square of the distance from the
center of the ball. Find the rate of heat flow across a sphere 𝑆 of radius 𝑎 with center at the
center of the ball.
Solution:
Taking the center of the ball to be at the origin, we have:
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐶(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )
where 𝐶 is the proportionality constant.
Then, the heat flow is:

𝐅 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = −𝐾 ∇𝑢 = −𝐾𝐶(2𝑥 𝐢 + 2𝑦 𝐣 + 2𝑧 𝐤)

where 𝐾 is the conductivity of the metal.

Solution:
Instead of using the usual parametrization of the sphere, we observe that the outward unit
normal to the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 at the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is:
1
𝐧 = (𝑥 𝐢 + 𝑦 𝐣 + 𝑧 𝐤)
𝑎
Thus,
2𝐾𝐶 2
𝐅·𝐧=− 𝑥 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 .
𝑎
However, on 𝑆, we have: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 and 𝐅 · 𝐧 = −2𝑎𝐾𝐶. Thus, the rate of heat
flow across 𝑆 is:

ඵ 𝐅 · 𝐧 𝑑𝑆 = −2𝑎𝐾𝐶 ඵ 𝑑𝑆 = −2𝑎𝐾𝐶𝐴 𝑆 = −2𝑎𝐾𝐶 4𝜋𝑎2 = −8𝐾𝐶𝜋𝑎3 .

𝑠 𝑠
 Book: Calculus Early Transcendentals (6th Edition) By
James Stewart.

Chapter: 16

Exercise-16.7: Q – 5 to 30, Q – 33 to 47.

Practice Book: Thomas’ Calculus Early Transcendentals (14th
Questions Edition) By George B. Thomas, Jr., Joel Hass,
Christopher Heil, Maurice D. Weir.

Chapter: 16

Exercise-16.6: Q – 1 to 46.