Chapter 1: The Particulate Nature of Matter: Solids

Chapter 1: The Particulate nature of matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. There are 3 states of matter, solids, liquids and gases.
Solids:
The particles are packed closely together. The forces between particles are strong
enough so that the particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate. As a result, a
solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume. Solids can only change
their shape by force, as when broken or cut.
In crystalline solids, the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) are packed in a

regularly ordered, repeating pattern. There are many different crystal structures,
and the same substance can have more than one structure (or solid phase). Solids
can be transformed into liquids by melting, and liquids can be transformed into
solids by freezing. Solids can also change directly into gases through the process
of sublimation.
Liquids:
A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid which is able to conform to the shape of its
container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of pressure.
The volume is definite if the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid
is heated above its melting point, it becomes liquid.
This means that the shape of a liquid is not definite but is determined by its
container, the most well known exception being water, H2O.
Gases:
A gas is a compressible fluid. Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its
container but it will also expand to fill the container.
In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic energy so that the effect of forces is
small, and the typical distance between neighboring molecules is much greater
than the molecular size.
A gas has no definite shape or volume, but occupies the entire container in which
it is confined. A liquid may be converted to a gas by heating to the boiling point.
The Kinetic Theory of Matter States:

The kinetic theory is a theory put together by the finest chemists and physicians of all time. It consists of a number of
true facts related to matter and their states. The theory explains the behavior of matter and their physical properties.
The kinetic theory of matter states:
 All matter is made up of tiny, microscopic moving particles. And each matter has a different type of particles
with different size and mass.
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 Particles are in continuous movement. All particles are moving all the time in random directions (Brownian
motion).
 The speed of movement depends on the mass of the particle, temperature and several other factors that you
will know later on.
Kinetic means movement, and so kinetic energy means movement energy.
Comparing Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases:
Solid Liquid Gas
Molecular
Structure
Very closely packed Closely packed Very far apart

Particles
Regularly arranged Irregular Very irregular
Arrangement
in lattice arrangement arrangement
Intermolecular Almost none Minimal
Very large
Spaces Negligible Tiny spaces
Not weak
Intermolecular
Extremely strong Weaker than in Very weak
Forces
solids
Movement of Vibrating in a fixed Slowly slide over Fast movement in
Particles position each other randomly random direction
No fixed shape
Shape Fixed definite shape Depends on the No fixed shape
container
No fixed volume
Volume fixed fixed Depends on the
container
Cannot be Can be hardly
Compressibility Very compressible
compressed compressed
Diffusion Cannot diffuse Diffuses slowly Diffuses quickly
Physical Changes (Change in State):
Physical changes are changes in which no new substance is formed. For example melting and ice cube or dissolving
salt in water. Physical changes are reversible. For instance if you heat and melt and ice cube to water, you can put it
in a freezer and have it changed back to ice.
Changing the state of a matter is a physical change. And it is done by either heating or cooling. The following
diagram represents changes in state:
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Melting: The change of state from solid to liquid. The temperature at which a solid melts is called the melting point.
Evaporation: The change of state from liquid to gas. The temperature at which a liquid evaporates is called the
boiling point.
Some substances never exist in a liquid form. If they are solid and you heat them they turn into a gas, and if they are
a gas and you cool them they turn into a solid. This process is called Sublimation.
The change in state occurs when the temperature is raised or dropped. Melting occurs when you heat a solid
because heating gives the particles more kinetic energy making them move faster and further apart, making the solid
expand. Until at some point they have enough energy to break the forces of attraction between them and the lattice
turning into liquid. If you keep heating the liquid, particles will gain even more kinetic energy and start moving even
faster, pushing each other away. The particles at the surface have the highest amount of energy that they can break
the forces of attraction and escape as a gas; this is the start of evaporation. At some point, particles will try to escape
so quickly that they form bubbles of gas in the liquid. This is the boiling point at which the pressure of the gas forming
above the liquid is the same as atmospheric pressure.
On the other hand, cooling a gas will make its particles lose their kinetic energy and move closer and slower.
Eventually the forces of attraction will hold them together forming a liquid (condensation). And if a liquid is cooled, its
particles will move closer and slower until the forces of attraction are strong enough to hold them tight together
forming a solid (freezing).
During the actual change of the state, the temperature of the matter is constant because any heat energy supplied is
used to break the bonds. So if you record the temperature change during heating a solid, the temperature will first
rise, then it will remain constant for a while (this is the melting point) and then it will rise again.
The following figure is a heating curve of a solid. At point ‘A’ the state is solid. At point ‘B’ the solid is melting;; it is a
mixture of solid and liquid. At point ‘C’ the state is liquid. At point ‘D’ the liquid is evaporating, it is a mixture of liquid
and gas. At point ‘E’ the state is gas. Temperature ‘X’ is the melting point while temperature ‘Y’ is the boiling point.
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The following figure is a cooling curve of a gas. At point ‘A’ the state is gas. At point ‘B’ the gas is condensing;; the
state is a mixture of gas and liquid. At point ‘C’ the state is liquid. At point ‘D’ the liquid is freezing, the state is a
mixture of liquid and solid. At point ‘E’ the state is solid. Temperature ‘X’ is the melting point and temperature ‘Y’ is
the boiling point.
Some liquids evaporate extremely quickly at room temperature, they are said to be volatile liquids.
The purity of substances can be easily determined by testing its boiling and melting points. This is because pure
substances have sharp boiling and melting points, while those of impure substances are ranging.
Presence of impurities will rise the boiling point and lower the melting point.
Diffusion:
Diffusion is the random movement of liquid or gas particles to fill the available space and spread evenly. For
instance, if you pass by a trash can, you can smell the ugly scent of trash. This is because molecules from the
garbage diffused out of the can to the air which you breathed in.
Diffusion rate depends on several factors, these are:
 Mass of the substance. The lighter the substance (lower Mr or Ar) the faster it diffuses
 Temperature. The more kinetic energy the particles have, the faster they move and diffuse.
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 Presence of other substance. Diffusion is faster when it occurs in an area where there are fewer particles of
other substances present. This is why diffusion is extremely fast in vacuums. This is because the diffusing
particles have less other particles to stand in their way.
 Intermolecular spaces. This is why gases diffuse faster than liquids and solids do not diffuse.
Diffusion of gases can be proved very easily. We can prove it by putting some bromine liquid in a cylinder and
sealing it, then putting another inverted cylinder above it. When the bromine liquid evaporates, we remove the lid
between the two cylinders, the brown bromine gas will diffuse upwards filling the available space.
We can also prove diffusion in liquids by a very simple experiment. Pour some water in a beaker, then add a drop of
blue ink in the water. After a period of time, you will find that the black ink spread throughout the water and turned it
into a blue solution. This was caused by diffusion.

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Chapter 1: The Particulate Nature of Matter: Solids

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Chapter 1: The Particulate nature of matter

In crystalline solids, the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) are packed in a

The Kinetic Theory of Matter States:

The kinetic theory of matter states:

Kinetic means movement, and so kinetic energy means movement energy.

Comparing Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases:

Solid Liquid Gas

Very closely packed Closely packed Very far apart

Physical Changes (Change in State):

Diffusion rate depends on several factors, these are:

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