BIO 01 REVIEWER

Basic Features of Cell Structure and Function

CELL THEORY

Discovery of Cells

 1665 – Robert Hooke, (English Scientist) discovered cells while looking at a thin slice of cork.
He described the cells as tiny boxes or a honeycomb. He thought that cells only existed in
plants and fungi.
 1673 – Anton Van Leuwenhoek used a handmade microscope to observe pond-scum and
discovered single-celled organism. He called them “animalcules.” He also observed blood
cells from fish, birds, frogs, dogs and humans. Therefore, it was known that cells are found in
animals as well as plants.
 1838 – Robert Brown (German Botanist) discovered nucleus as a discrete, spherical body
inside cells
 1858 – Matthias Schleiden (German Physician) development of a cell
 1839 – Rudolf Virchow discovered cell division
 1882 – Theodor Schwann proposed that animal and plant cells contains nucleus.

The 3 basic components of the Cell Theory were now complete:

1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. (Schleiden & Schwann)
2. The cell is the best unit of life in all living things. (Schleiden & Schwann)
3. All cells are produced by the division of pre-existing cells. (Virchow)

- Cells carry out the essentials processes of life.

- Cells of all kinds are divided internally into a central region containing the genetic material
and the cytoplasm, which consist of the cytosol, the cytoskeleton and organelle and is
bounded by the plasma membrane.
- Plasma membrane is a lipid bilayer in which transport proteins are embedded.
- Cytosol the aqueous component of the cytoplasm of a cell, within which various organelles
and particles are suspended. Cytoskeleton a microscopic network of protein filaments and
tubules in the cytoplasm of many living cells, giving them shape and coherence. Organelles
(“little organs”) are small, organized structures important for cell function.
- In the Cytoplasm, proteins are made, most of the other molecules required for growth and
reproduction are assembled and energy absorbed from the surroundings is converted into
energy usable by the cell.

Light and Electron Microscopy

To see cells and the structures within them biologist use Microscopy, a technique for producing
visible images of objects, biological or otherwise, that are too small.

The instrument of microscopy is the microscope.

Two common types of microscopes are:

 Light Microscopy which use light to illuminate the specimen

 Electron Microscopy which use electrons to illuminate the specimen
Different types of microscopes:

 Magnification is the ratio of the object as viewed to its real size

 Resolution is the minimum distance two points in the specimen can be separated and still be
seen two points

Different technique of light and electron microscopy

 Light microscopy – micrographs are of the protist Paramecium

 Bright field microscopy – light passes directly through the specimen, this treatment usually
fixes and kills the cells
 Dark field microscopy – this gives a bright image of the cell against a black background
 Phase-contrast microscopy – invisible structures are revealed with this technique, and living
cells in action can be photographed or filmed
 Electron microscopy – micrographs are of the green alga Scenedesmus
 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) – a beam of electrons is focused on a thin section
of a specimen in a vacuum. TEM is used primarily to examine structures within cells
 Scanning electron microscopy – a beam of electrons is scanned across a whole cell or
organism
 Confocal laser scanning microscopy – lasers can across a fluorescently stained specimen
 Fluorescence – different structures or molecules in cells are stained with specific fluorescent
dyes
 Nomarski (differential interference contrast) – similar to phase-contrast microscopy, special
lenses enhance differences in density, giving a cell a 3D appearance

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Organisms fall into two fundamental groups, prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Prokaryotic Cells (pro = before; karyon = nucleus) make up two domains of organism, the Bacteria
and the Archaea. It is surrounded by a plasma membrane and in most groups, are enclosed by a cell
wall. The genetic material, typically a single, circular DNA molecule, is located in the nucleoid. The
cytoplasm contains masses of ribosomes.

Nucleoid has no boundary membrane separating it from the cytoplasm

The three shapes most common among prokaryotes are spherical, rodlike and spiral.

Escherichia coli (E.coli) a normal inhabitant of the mammalian intestine that has been studied
extensively as a model organism in genetics, molecular biology and genomics research, is rodlike in
shape.

Prokaryotic chromosome the DNA is a single, circular molecule that unfolds when released from the
cell.

Individual genes in the DNA molecule encode the information required to make proteins. This
information is copied into a type of RNA molecule called messenger (mRNA).

Ribosomes use the information in the mRNA to assemble amino acids into proteins.

A prokaryotic ribosome consist of a large and a small subunit, each formed from a combination of
ribosomal (rRNA)
Cell Wall which ranges in thickness from 15 to 100 nm or more. It provides rigidity to prokaryotic
cells and helps protect the cell from physical damage.

Glycocalyx (a “sugar coating” from glykys = sweet; calyx = cup or vessel) helps protect prokaryotic
cells from physical damage and desiccation

When the glycocalyx is diffuse and loosely associated with the cells it is Slime layer; when it is
gelatinous and attached more firmly to cells, it is a Capsule.

Many bacteria and archaeans can move through liquids and across wet surfaces. Flagella (singular
flagellum meaning whip) most commonly they do so using long, threadlike protein fibers. Some
bacteria and archaeans have hairlike shafts of protein called Pili (singular, pilus) extending from their
cell walls.

Eukaryotic Cells have true nucleus, which is separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear envelope
perforated by nucleus pores. A plasma membrane forms the outer boundary of the cell. The domain
of the eukaryotes, Eukarya, is divided into four major groups: the protist, fungi, animals, and plants.

The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear envelope which consists of two lipid
bilayer membranes.

Lamins a network of protein filaments

Nuclear pore complex is a large, octagonally symmetric, cylindrical structure formed of many types
of proteins, called nucleoporins

Nuclear pore – a channel through the nuclear pore complex – is the path for the assisted exchange
of large molecules

Nuclear localization signal short amino acid sequence

Nucleoplasm the liquid or semiliquid substance within the nucleus

Chromatin a combination of DNA and proteins

Eukaryotic chromosome each individual DNA molecule with its associated proteins

The terms chromatin and chromosome are similar but have distinct meanings. Chromatin refers to
any collection of eukaryotic DNA molecules with their associated proteins. Chromosome refers to
one complete DNA molecule with its associated proteins.

Eukaryotic nuclei contain much more DNA than do prokaryotic nucleoids.

Nuclei (singular nucleolus) which look like irregular masses of small fibers and granules.

A. Diagram of an animal cell

- Mitochondrion – energy metabolism
- Lysosome – digests food
- Microtubules – radiating from cell center
- Centrosome – site near the nucleus where microtubules are formed
- Vesicle – small membrane bound
- Golgi complex – modifies protein
- Cytosol – organic molecules
- Plasma membrane – lipid bilayer membrane that bound the cells
- Microfilaments – fibrous proteins; from the cellular cortex
 - Smooth ER – associated with ribosomes; makes secretory and membrane proteins
- Rough ER – synthesis, modification and transport of proteins
- Ribosome – synthesis of proteins
- Nucleolus – considered region where ribosome are formed
- Chromatin – DNA plus associated proteins
- Nuclear Envelope – membrane enclosing the nucleus
- Nuclear pore complex – controls between of material between nucleus and cytoplasm
- Microbody – contains enzymes for some bio chemical microscopy

Specialized Structures of Plant Cells

Plants cells contain in all the eukaryotic structures found in animal cells except for lysosomes. They
also contain 3 structures not found in animal cells: chloroplasts, a central vacuole and cell wall.
Chloroplasts contain pigments and molecular systems that absorb light energy and convert it to
chemical energy. The large central vacuole which consists of a tonoplast enclosing an inner space,
develops pressure that supports plant cells. A cell wall surrounds plant cells, providing support and
protection.

B. Diagram of a plant cell

Animal Cell Surface

Animal cells have specialized surface molecules and structures that function in cell adhesion,
communication and support. Cell adhesion molecules bind to specific molecules on other cells. The
adhesions organize and hold together cells of the same type in body tissues.

How Cells Reproduce

Henrietta’s Immortal Cells

 An immortal line of human cells (HeLa) is legacy of a cancer victim Henrietta Lacks.

Cell Cycle includes all the recognizable stages and events of a cell’s lifetime; it starts when a new cll
forms, and ends when the cell reproduces. Most of a cell’s activities, including DNA replication that
copies its homologous chromosome, occur during interphase.

Mitosis is a mechanism of nuclear division that maintains the chromosome number. Mitosis and
cytoplasmic division are also part of sexual reproduction, a reproductive mode by which offspring
are produced by one parent only.

A cell spends most of its life in interphase, which includes 3 stages: G1, S1 and G2. G1 is the phase of
growth before the DNA replication. The cell’s chromosomes are unduplicated. S1 is the phase of
synthesis, during which the cells makes copies of its chromosome/s by DNA replication. G2 is the
phase of after DNA replication and before mitosis. The cell prepares to divide during this stage.

Cell Cycle of Mitosis

 Interphase cells are shown for comparison, but interphase is not part of mitosis.
 Early Prophase mitosis begins. Transcription stops, and the DNA begins to appear grainy as it
starts to condense.
  Prophase the duplicated chromosomes become visible as they condense.
 Metaphase all of the chromosomes are aligned midway between the spindle poles
 Anaphase spindle microtubules separate the sister chromatids and move them toward
opposite spindle poles.
 Telophase the chromosomes reach opposite sides of the cell and loosen up.

Cytokinesis typically follows nuclear division. In animal cells, a contractile ring of microfilaments
pulls the plasma membrane inward, forming a cleavage furrow that pinches the cytoplasm in two. In
plant cells, vesicles guided by microtubules to the future plane of division merge as a cell plate.

Telomeres that protect the end of eukaryotic chromosomes shorten with every DNA replication.

When checkpoint mechanism fail, a cell loses control over its cell cycle, and the cell’s descendants
form a neoplasm. Neoplasm may form lumps called tumors.

Genes encoding growth factor receptors are examples of proto-oncogenes, which means mutations
can turn them into tumor-causing oncogenes. Metastasis cells of malignant neoplasms can break
loose from their home tissues and colonize other part of the body. Cancer occurs when malignant
neoplasms physically and metabolically disrupt normal body tissues.

Basal cell carcinoma is the most common type of skin cancer. This slow-growing, raised lump may be
uncolored, reddish-brown or black.

Squamous cell carcinoma is the second most common type of skin cancer. This pink growth, firm to
the touch, grows under the skin’s surface.

Melanoma spreads fastest. Cells from dark, encrusted lumps that may itch or bleed easily.

Biological Membrane

Evaluate the importance of membranes to cells, emphasizing their various functions.

Plasma membrane physically separates the interior of the cell from the extracellular environment,
receives information about changes in the environment, regulates the passage of materials into and
out of the cells, and communicates with other cells.

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter is composed of elements, each
consisting.

Fluid mosaic model, membranes consist of a fluid phospholipid bilayer in which a variety of proteins
are embedded. The phospholipid molecules are amphipathic: they have hydrophobic and
hydrophilic regions. Hydrophilic heads of the phospholipids are at the two surfaces of the bilayer,
and their hydrophobic fatty acid chains are in the interior.

Lipid bilayers are flexible and self-sealing and can fuse with other membranes.

Integral membrane proteins are embedded in the bilayer with their hydrophilic surfaces exposed to
the aqueous environment and their hydrophobic surfaces in contact with the hydrophobic interior of
the bilayer.

Transmembrane proteins are integral proteins that extend completely through the membrane.

Peripheral membrane proteins are associated with the surface of the bilayer.
Biological membranes are selectively permeable membranes: they allow the passage of substances
but not others.

ABC transporters are carrier proteins that use energy from ATP to transport solutes.

PASSIVE TRANSPORT

Diffusion is the net movement of a substance down its concentration gradient from a region of
greater concentration to one lower concentration.

Simple diffusion through a biological membrane, solite molecules or ions move directly through the
membrane down their concentration gradient.

Facilitated diffusion uses specific trabsport proteins to move solutes across a membrane.

Osmosis is a kind of diffusion in which molecules of water pass through a selectively permeable
membrane from a region where water has a higher effective concentration to a region where its
effective concentration is lower.

Osmotic pressure the concentration of dissolved substances (solutes) in a solution

Isotonic solution has an equal soluite concentration compared with that of another fluid

Hypertonic one that has a greater solute concentration than that of the cell, a cell loses water to its
surroundings; plant cells undergo plasmolysis a process in which the plasma membrane separates
from the cell wall.

Hypotonic solution one that has a lower solute concentration that the solute concentration of the
cell, water enters the cells and causes them to well.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Active transport the cell expands metabolic energy to move ions or molecules across a membrane
against a concentration gradient.

Cotransport also called indirect active transport, two solutes are transported at the same time.

EXOCYTOSIS AND ENDOCYTOSIS

Endocytosis materials such as food particles are moved into the cell.

Phagocytosis the plasma membrane encloses a large particle such as a bacterium, forms a vacuole
around it and moves into the cell.

Pinocytosis the cell takes in dissolved material by forming tiny vesicles

Receptor-mediated endocytosis specific receptors in coated pits along the plasma membrane bind
ligand molecules.

CELL JUNCTIONS

Cells in close contact with one another may form intercellular junctions.

Desmosomes spot-weld adjacent animal cells together.

Adhering junctions are formed by cadherins transmembrane proteins that cement cells together.
Tight junctions seal membrane of adjacent animal cells together, preventing substances from
moving through the spaces between the cells.

Gap junctions composed of the protein connexin from channels that allow communication between
the cytoplasm of adjacent animal cells.

Plasmodesmata are channels connecting adjacent plant cells.