PQM-700 Manual v1.07.1 GB PDF

USER MANUAL
POWER QUALITY ANALYZER

PQM-700
SONEL S.A.
Wokulskiego 11
58-100 Świdnica
Poland
Version 1.07.1 12.10.2018

Due to continuous product development, the manufacturer reserves the right to make changes to
functionality, features and technical parameters of the analyzers. This manual describes the firm-
ware version 1.07 and the Sonel Analysis v4.0.0 software.
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CONTENTS
1 General Information ............................................................................... 6
1.1 Safety ............................................................................................................. 7
1.2 General characteristics ................................................................................... 8
1.3 Power supply of the analyzer.......................................................................... 9
1.4 Tightness and outdoor operation .................................................................. 10
1.5 Mounting on DIN rail ..................................................................................... 11
1.6 Measured parameters .................................................................................. 12
1.7 Compliance with standards .......................................................................... 14
2 Operation of the analyzer .................................................................... 15
2.1 Buttons ......................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Signalling LEDs ............................................................................................ 15
2.3 Switching the analyzer ON/OFF ................................................................... 15
2.4 Auto-off ......................................................................................................... 16
2.5 PC connection and data transmission .......................................................... 16
2.6 Indication of connection error ....................................................................... 17
2.7 Warning about too high voltage or current .................................................... 17
2.8 Taking measurements .................................................................................. 18
2.8.1 Start / stop of recording ....................................................................................... 18
2.8.2 Inrush current measurement ............................................................................... 18
2.8.3 Approximate recording times .............................................................................. 18
2.9 Measuring arrangements .............................................................................. 19
2.10 Key Lock ....................................................................................................... 25
2.11 Sleep mode .................................................................................................. 25
2.12 Firmware update........................................................................................... 25
2.12.1 Automatic update ................................................................................................ 25
2.12.2 Manual update .................................................................................................... 26
3 "Sonel Analysis" software ................................................................... 26

4 Design and measurement methods .................................................... 27
4.1 Voltage Inputs............................................................................................... 27
4.2 Current inputs ............................................................................................... 27
4.2.1 Digital integrator.................................................................................................. 27
4.3 Signal sampling ............................................................................................ 28
4.4 PLL synchronization ..................................................................................... 28
4.5 Frequency measurement .............................................................................. 29
4.6 Harmonic components measuring method ................................................... 29
4.7 Event detection ............................................................................................. 30
5 Calculation formulas ............................................................................ 33
5.1 One-phase network ...................................................................................... 33
5.2 Split-phase network ...................................................................................... 36
5.3 3-phase wye network with N conductor ........................................................ 38
5.4 3-phase wye and delta network without neutral conductor ........................... 40
5.5 Methods of parameter‘s averaging ............................................................... 42
3
6 Power Quality - a guide ........................................................................ 43
6.1 Basic Information .......................................................................................... 43
6.2 Current measurement................................................................................... 44
6.2.1 Current transformer clamps (CT) for AC measurements ..................................... 44
6.2.2 AC/DC measurement clamps .............................................................................. 44
6.2.3 Flexible current probes ....................................................................................... 45
6.3 Flicker ........................................................................................................... 45
6.4 Power measurement .................................................................................... 46
6.4.1 Active power ....................................................................................................... 46
6.4.2 Reactive power ................................................................................................... 47
6.4.3 Reactive power and three-wire systems .............................................................. 50
6.4.4 Reactive power and reactive energy meters ....................................................... 51
6.4.5 Apparent power .................................................................................................. 52
6.4.6 Distortion power DB and effective nonfundamental apparent power SeN .............. 53
6.4.7 Power factor ....................................................................................................... 54
6.5 Harmonics .................................................................................................... 54
6.5.1 Harmonics characteristics in three-phase system ............................................... 56
6.5.2 THD .................................................................................................................... 57
6.6 Unbalance .................................................................................................... 57
6.7 Detection of voltage dip, swell and interruption ............................................ 59
6.8 CBEMA and ANSI curves ............................................................................. 60
6.9 Averaging the measurement results ............................................................. 62
7 Technical specifications ...................................................................... 65
7.1 Inputs ............................................................................................................ 65
7.2 Sampling and RTC ....................................................................................... 66
7.3 Measured parameters - accuracy, resolution and ranges ............................. 66
7.3.1 Reference conditions .......................................................................................... 66
7.3.2 Voltage ............................................................................................................... 66
7.3.3 Current ............................................................................................................... 66
7.3.4 Frequency........................................................................................................... 67
7.3.5 Harmonics .......................................................................................................... 67
7.3.6 Power and energy ............................................................................................... 67
7.3.7 Estimating the uncertainty of power and energy measurements .......................... 68
7.3.8 Flicker ................................................................................................................. 70
7.3.9 Unbalance .......................................................................................................... 70
7.4 Event detection - voltage and current RMS .................................................. 70
7.5 Event detection - other parameters .............................................................. 70
7.5.1 Event detection hysteresis .................................................................................. 71
7.6 Inrush current measurement......................................................................... 71
7.7 Recording ..................................................................................................... 71
7.8 Power supply,battery and heater .................................................................. 72
7.9 Supported networks...................................................................................... 73
7.10 Supported current clamps ............................................................................ 73
7.11 Communication............................................................................................. 73
7.12 Environmental conditions and other technical data ...................................... 73
7.13 Safety and electromagnetic compatibility ..................................................... 74
7.14 Standards ..................................................................................................... 74
8 Equipment ............................................................................................. 75
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8.1 Standard equipment (non-US model version) .............................................. 75
8.2 Standard equipment (US model version) ...................................................... 75
8.3 Optional accessories .................................................................................... 76
8.3.1 C-4(A) current probe ........................................................................................... 76
8.3.2 C-5(A) current probe ........................................................................................... 78
8.3.3 C-6(A) current probe ........................................................................................... 80
8.3.4 C-7(A) current probe ........................................................................................... 81
8.3.5 F-1(A), F-2(A), F-3(A) current probes .................................................................. 82
9 Other information ................................................................................. 84

9.1 Cleaning and maintenance ........................................................................... 84
9.2 Storage ......................................................................................................... 84
9.3 Dismantling and disposal .............................................................................. 84
9.4 Manufacturer ................................................................................................ 84
10 Laboratory services ............................................................................. 85
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PQM-700 User Manual
1 General Information
The following international symbols are used on the analyzer and in this manual:
Warning;
Alternating voltage/
See explanation in Functional earth terminal
current
manual
Conforms to relevant
Direct voltage/ Double Insulation European Union direc-
current (Protection Class) tives (Conformité
Européenne)
Do no dispose of
this product as un- Conforms to relevant
Recycling information
sorted Australian standards
municipal waste
UL/cUL Safety Certification Mark
The PQM-700 (US model) analyzer has been investigated and certified by Underwriters Labora-
tories (UL) in accordance with the following Standards:
UL 61010-1, 3rd Edition, May 11, 2012, Revised July 15 2015,
IEC 61010-2-030: 2010 (First Edition),
UL 61010-2-030: 2012 (First Edition),
CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 61010-1-12, 3rd Edition, Revision dated July 2015,
CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 61010-2-030-12 (First Edition).
It is UL/cUL listed under the UL File: E490376.
6
1.1 Safety
Warning
To avoid electric shock or fire, you must observe the following guidelines:
 Before you proceed to operate the analyzer, acquaint yourself thoroughly with the pre-
sent manual and observe the safety regulations and specifications provided by the pro-
ducer.
 Any application that differs from those specified in the present manual may result in
damage to the device and constitute a source of danger for the user.
 Analyzers must be operated only by appropriately qualified personnel with relevant cer-
tificates authorizing the personnel to perform works on electric systems. Operating the
analyzer by unauthorized personnel may result in damage to the device and constitute a
source of danger for the user.
 The device must not be used for networks and devices in areas with special conditions,
e.g. fire-risk and explosive-risk areas.
 Before starting the work, check the analyzer, wires, current probes and other accesso-
ries for any sign of mechanical damage. Pay special attention to the connectors.
 It is unacceptable to operate the device when:
 it is damaged and completely or partially out of order,
 its cords and cables have damaged insulation,
 of the device and accessories mechanically damaged.
 Do not power the analyzer from sources other than those listed in this manual.
 Do not connect inputs of the analyzer to voltages higher than the rated values.
 Use accessories and probes with a suitable rating and measuring category for the tested
circuit.
 Do not exceed the rated parameters of the lowest measurement category (CAT) of the
used measurement set consisting of the analyzer, probes and accessories. The meas-
urement category of the entire set is the same as of the component with the lowest meas-
urement category.
 If possible, connect the analyzer to the de-energized circuits.
 Opening the device socket plugs results in the loss of its tightness, leading to a possible
damage in adverse weather conditions. It may also expose the user to the risk of electric
shock.
 Do not handle or move the device while holding it only by its cables.
 Do not unscrew the nuts from the cable glands, as they are permanently fixed. Unscrew-
ing the nuts will void the guarantee.
 Repairs may be performed only by an authorized service point.
The analyzer is equipped with an internal Li-Ion battery, which has been tested by an inde-
pendent laboratory and is quality-certified for compliance with the standard UN Manual of Tests and
Criteria Part III Subsection 38.3 (ST/SG/AC.10/11/Rev.5). Therefore, the analyzer is approved for
air, maritime and road transport.
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PQM-700 User Manual
1.2 General characteristics

Power Quality Analyzer PQM-700 (Fig. 1) is a high-tech device providing its users with a com-
prehensive features for measuring, analysing and recording parameters of 50/60 Hz power net-
works and power quality in accordance with the European Standard EN 50160. The analyzer is fully
compliant with the requirements of IEC 61000-4-30:2009, Class S.
The device is equipped with four cables terminated with banana plugs, marked as L1, L2, L3,
N. The range of voltages measured by the four measurement channels is max. ±1150 V. This range
may be extended by using external voltage transducers.
Fig. 1. Power Quality Analyser PQM-700. General view.

Current measurements are carried out using four current inputs installed on short cables termi-
nated with clamp terminals. The terminals may be connected to the following clamp types: flexible
claps (marked as F-1(A), F-2(A), F-3(A)) with nominal rating up to 3000 A (differing from others only
by coil diameter); and CT clamps marked as C-4(A) (range up to 1000 A AC), C-5(A) (up to 1000 A
AC/DC), C-6(A) (up to 10 A AC) and C-7(A) (up to 100 A AC). The values of nominal measured
currents may be changed by using additional transducers - for example, using a transducer of
1000:5 ratio, the user may select C-6(A) clamps to measure currents up to 1000 A.
The device has a built-in 2 GB microSD memory card. Data from the memory card may be read
via USB slot or by an external reader.
Note
microSD card may be removed only when the analyzer is turned off. Removing the
card during the operation of the analyser may result in the loss of important data.
8
Fig. 2. The rear wall of PQM-700 analyzer.

Recorded parameters are divided into groups that may be independently turned on/off for re-
cording purposes and this solution facilitates the rational management of the space on the memory
card. Parameters that are not recorded, leave more memory space for further measurements.
PQM-700 has an internal power supply adapter operating in a wide input voltage range
(100…415 V AC / 140…415 V DC), which is provided with independent cables terminated with ba-
nana plugs.
An important feature of the device is its ability to operate in harsh weather conditions – the
analyzer may be installed directly on electric poles. The ingress protection class of the analyzer is
IP65, and operating temperature ranges from -20°C to +55°C.
Uninterrupted operation of the device (in case of power failure) is ensured by an internal re-
chargeable lithium-ion battery.
The user interface consists of five LEDs and 2 buttons.
The full potential of the device may be released by using dedicated PC software Sonel Analysis.
Communication with a PC is possible via USB connection, which provides the transmission
speed up to 921.6 kbit/s
1.3 Power supply of the analyzer

The analyzer has a built-in power adapter with nominal voltage range of 100…415 V AC /
140…415 V DC (90…460 V AC / 127…460 V DC including fluctuations). The power adapter has
independent terminals (red cables) marked with letter P (power) To prevent the power adapter from
being damaged by undervoltage, it automatically switches off when powered with input voltages
below approx. 80 V AC (110 V DC).
To maintain power supply to the device during power outages, the internal rechargeable battery
is used. It is charged when the voltage is present at terminals of the AC adapter. The battery is able
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PQM-700 User Manual
to maintain power supply up to 6 hours at temperatures of -20 °C...+55 °C. After the battery is
discharged the meter stops its current operations (e.g. recording) and switches off in the emergency
mode. When the power supply from mains returns, the analyzer resumes interrupted recording.
Note
The battery may be replaced only by the manufacturer's service de-
partment.
1.4 Tightness and outdoor operation

PQM-700 analyzer is designed to work in difficult weather conditions – it can be installed directly
on electric poles. Two bands with buckles and two plastic fasteners are used for mounting the ana-
lyzer. The fasteners are screwed to the back wall of the housing, and bands should be passed
through the resulting gaps.
Fig. 3. Fasteners for bands (for mounting the analyzer on a pole)
The ingress protection class of the analyzer is IP65, and operating temperature ranges from -
20°C to +55°C.
Note
In order to ensure the declared ingress protection class IP65, the fol-
lowing rules must be observed:
 Tightly insert the stoppers in the slots of USB and microSD card,
 Unused clamp terminals must be sealed with silicone stoppers.
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At ambient temperatures below 0C or when the internal temperature drops below this point,
the internal heater of the device is switched on – its task is to keep the internal temperature above
zero, when ambient temperatures range from -20C to 0C.
The heater is powered from AC/DC adapter, and its power is limited to approx.
5 W.
Due to the characteristics of the built-in lithium-ion rechargeable battery, the process of charging
is blocked when the battery temperature is outside the range of 0C…60C (in such case, Sonel
Analysis software indicates charging status as "charging suspended").
1.5 Mounting on DIN rail

The device is supplied with a bracket for mounting the analyzer on a standard DIN rail. The
bracket must be fixed to the back of the analyzer with the provided screws. The set includes also
positioning catches (in addition to fasteners for mounting the analyzer on a pole), which should be
installed to increase the stability of the mounting assembly. These catches have special hooks that
are supported on the DIN rail.
Fig. 4. The rear wall of the analyzer with fixtures for mounting on DIN rail.
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PQM-700 User Manual
1.6 Measured parameters

PQM-700 analyzer is designed to measure and record the following parameters:
 RMS phase and phase-to-phase voltages – up to 760 V (peak voltages up to ±1150 V),
 RMS currents: up to 3000 A (peak currents – up to ±10 kA) using flexible clamps (F-1(A), F-
2(A), F-3(A)); up to 1000 A (peak values – up to ±3600 A) using CT clamps (C-4(A) or C-5(A));
up to 10 A (peak values – up to ±36 A) using C-6(A) clamps, or up to 100 A (peak values – up
to ±360 A) using C-7(A) clamps,
 crest factors for current and voltage,
 mains frequency within the range of 40...70 Hz,
 active, reactive and apparent power and energy, distortion power,
 harmonics of voltages and currents (up to 40th),
 Total Harmonic Distortion THDF and THDR for current and voltage,
 power factor, cosφ, tanφ,
 unbalance factors for three-phase mains and symmetrical components,
 flicker PST and PLT,
 inrush current for up to 60 s.
Some of the parameters are aggregated (averaged) according to the time selected by the user
and may be stored on a memory card. In addition to average value, it is also possible to record
minimum and maximum values during the averaging period, and to record the current value occur-
ring in the time of measurement.
The module for event detection is also expanded. According to EN 50160, typical events include
voltage dip (reduction of RMS voltage to less than 90% of nominal voltage), swell (exceeding 110%
of the nominal value) and interruption (reduction of the supplied voltage below 5% of the nominal
voltage) The user does not have to enter the settings defined in EN 50160, as the software provides
an automatic configuration of the device to obtain energy measurement mode compliant with EN
50160 The user may also perform manual configuration – the software is fully flexible in this area.
Voltage is only one of many parameters for which the limits of event detection may be defined. For
example, the analyzer may be configured to detect power factor drop below a defined value, THD
exceeding another threshold, and the 9th voltage harmonic exceeding a user-defined percentage
value. Each event is recorded along with the time of occurrence. For events that relate to exceeding
the pre-defined limits for voltage dip, swell, interruption, and exceeding minimum and maximum
current values, the recorded information may also include a waveform for voltage and current. It is
possible to save two periods before the event, and four after the event.
A very wide range of configurations, including a multitude of measured parameters make PQM-
700 analyzer an extremely useful and powerful tool for measuring and analysing all kinds of power
supply systems and interferences occurring in them. Some of the unique features of this device
make it distinguishable from other similar analyzers available in the market.
Tab. 1 presents a summary of parameters measured by PQM-700, depending on the mains

type.
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Tab. 1. Measured parameters for different network configurations.

Network type, 1- 3-phase triangle
2-phase 3-phase wye with N,
channel phase 3-phase wye without N,
Parameter L1/A N L1/A L2/B N Ʃ L1/A L2/B L3/C N Ʃ L12/AB L23/BC L31/CA Ʃ
U RMS voltage         
Voltage DC
UDC component         
I RMS current            
Current DC
IDC component            
F Frequency    
Voltage crest
CF U factor         
Current crest
CF I factor            
P Active power         
Reactive
Q1, QB power         (1)
Distortion
D, SN power        
Apparent
S power         
PF Power Factor         
Displacement
cosφ power factor        
tangent φ Fac-
tgφ tor         (1)
Voltage Total
THD U harmonic dis-         
tortion
Current Total
THD I harmonic dis-            
tortion
Active energy
EP+, EP- (consumed         
and supplied)
EQ1+, EQ1- Reactive en-
ergy (con-
EQB+, sumed and         (1)
EQB- supplied)
Apparent en-
ES ergy         
Voltage har-
Uh1..Uh40 monic ampli-         
tudes
Current har-
Ih1..Ih40 monic ampli-            
tudes
Symmetrical
Unbal- components
ance U, I and unbalance  
factors
Pst, Plt Flicker factors         
Explanations: L1/A, L2/B, L3/C (L12/AB, L23/BC, L31/CA) indicate subsequent phases
N is a measurement for current channel IN,
Ʃ is the total value for the system.
(1) In 3-wire networks, the total reactive power is calculated as inactive power 𝑁 = √𝑆𝑒2 − 𝑃2
(see discussion on reactive power in section 6.4.3)
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PQM-700 User Manual
1.7 Compliance with standards

PQM-700 is designed to meet the requirements of the following standards.
Standards valid for measuring network parameters:
 IEC 61000-4-30:2009 – Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) - Testing and measurement
techniques - Power quality measurement methods,
IEC 61000-4-7:2002 – Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Testing and Measurement
Techniques - General Guide on Harmonics and Interharmonics Measurements and
Instrumentation for Power Supply Systems and Equipment Connected to them,
 IEC 61000-4-15:2011 – Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) – Testing and Measurement
Techniques - Flickermeter – Functional and Design Specifications,
 EN 50160:2010 – Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public distribution networks.
Safety standards:
 IEC 61010-1 – Safety requirements for electrical equipment for measurement control and
laboratory use. Part 1: General requirements
Standards for electromagnetic compatibility:

 IEC 61326 – Electrical equipment for measurement, control and laboratory use. Requirements
for electromagnetic compatibility (EMC).
The device meets all the requirements of Class S as defined in IEC 61000-4-30. The summary
of the requirements is presented in the table below.
Tab. 2. Summary of selected parameters in terms of their compliance with the standards
IEC 61000-4-30 Class S:
 Basic measurement time for parameters (voltage, current, harmonics, unbal-
Aggregation of measure- ance) is a 10-period interval for 50 Hz power supply system and 12-period in-
ments at different inter- terval for 60 Hz system,
vals  Interval of 3 s (150 periods for the nominal frequency of 50 Hz and 180 peri-
ods for 60 Hz),
 Interval of 10 minutes.
IEC 61000-4-30 Class S:
Real-time clock (RTC)  Built-in real-time clock, set via Sonel Analysis software, no GPS/radio syn-
uncertainty chronization.
 Clock accuracy better than ± 0.3 seconds/day
Compliant with IEC 61000-4-30 Class S of the measurement method and uncer-
Frequency
tainty
Compliant with IEC 61000-4-30 Class S of the measurement method and uncer-
Power supply voltage
tainty
Voltage fluctuations The measurement method and uncertainty meets the requirements of IEC
(flicker) 61000-4-15 standard.
Dips, interruptions and Compliant with IEC 61000-4-30 Class S of the measurement method and uncer-
swells of supply voltage tainty
Supply voltage unbal- Compliant with IEC 61000-4-30 Class S of the measurement method and uncer-
ance tainty
Voltage and current har- Measurement method and uncertainty is in accordance with IEC 61000-4-7 Class
monics I
14
2 Operation of the analyzer

2.1 Buttons
The keyboard of the analyzer consists of two buttons: ON/OFF and START/STOP
. To switch-on the analyzer, press ON/OFF button. START/STOP button is used to start and stop
recording.
2.2 Signalling LEDs

The analyzer is equipped with five LEDs that indicate different operating states:
 ON (green) – the LED is on when the analyzer is turned on. During recording with activated
sleep mode, the LED is off.
 LOGG (yellow) – indicates recording in process. During recording with activated sleep mode,
the LED is off and it is switched on in 10-sec. intervals
 ERROR (red) – blinking of this LED indicates a potential problem with connecting to the tested
network or the incompatibility of the active configuration with network parameters. Control cri-
teria are defined in chapter 2.6. Continuous light indicates one of the possible internal errors
of the analyzer (see also the description of additional statuses presented below).
 MEM (red) – when this LED is on, it indicates that the data cannot be recorded on the memory
card. MEM LED is continuously lit when the entire space on the memory card is filled. See
also the description of additional statuses presented below.
 BATT (red) - battery status. Blinking indicates that the battery is low (charged in 20% or less).
When the battery is completely discharged, LED lights up for 5 seconds (with beep) and then
the analyzer is switched off in emergency mode.
Additional statuses indicated by LEDs:

 Continuous light of MEM and ERROR LEDs – no memory card, the card is damaged or not
formatted. When these LEDs are on after inserting a memory card, there are two possible
scenarios:
o the card is damaged or incompatible with the analyzer. In this case there is no possibility
of further work with the analyzer. START button is inactive.
o the card is not formatted (missing files required by the analyzer or files damaged) – in
this case you can press the START button (it is active), which will start the pro-
cess of formatting the card (NOTE: all data on the card will be deleted). If the process
is successful MEM and ERROR LEDs will go off and the analyzer will be ready for
further work.
 Blinking ON LED – FIRMWARE.PQF file detected on the card, containing the correct firmware
update file. You may press the START button to begin the update process. During the
update process ON and MEM LEDs blink simultaneously. After this process is completed, the
meter will restart. You may skip the firmware update by pressing the ON/OFF button or
by waiting 10 seconds.
2.3 Switching the analyzer ON/OFF

 The analyzer may be switched-on by pressing button . Green ON LED indicates that
analyzer is switched on. Then, the analyzer performs a self-test and when an internal fault is
detected, ERROR LED is lit and a long beep (3 seconds) is emitted – measurements are
blocked. After the self-test, the meter begins to test if the connected mains configuration is the
same as the configuration in analyzer’s memory, and when an error is detected ERROR LED
flashes every 0.5 seconds. When ERROR LED flashes the analyzer still operates as normal
and measurements are possible.
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PQM-700 User Manual
 When the meter is switched on and detects full memory, MEM LED is lit – measurements are
blocked, only read-out mode for current data remains active.
 When the meter is switched on and fails to detect the micro-SD card or detects its damage,
ERROR and MEM LEDs are lit and measurements are blocked.
Note
The ERROR and MEM LEDs behaves the same way when a new microSD card
has been inserted to the analyzer’s slot. To format the card to be usable with
PQM-700 analyzer the (START/STOP) button must be pressed. Ana-
lyzer will then confirm start of formatting process with 3 beeps. All the data on
the card will be erased. If the formatting finishes successfully the ERROR and
MEM LEDs will switch off, and the analyzer will be ready for further operation.
 If the connection test was successful, after pressing the meter enters the recording
mode, as programmed in the PC.
 To switch the analyzer OFF, keep button pressed for 2 seconds, when no button or
recording lock are active.
2.4 Auto-off
When the analyzer operates for at least 30 minutes powered by the battery (no power supply
from mains) and it is not in the recording mode and PC connection is inactive, the device automat-
ically turns-off to prevent discharging the battery.
The analyzer turns off automatically also when the battery is fully discharged. Such an emer-
gency stop is preceded by activating BATT LED for 5 s and it is performed regardless of the current
mode of the analyzer. In case of active recording, it will be interrupted. When the power supply
returns, the recording process is resumed.
2.5 PC connection and data transmission

When the meter is switched-on, its USB port remains active.
 In the read-out mode for current data, PC software refreshes data with a frequency higher than
once every 1 second.
 During the recording process, the meter may transmit data already saved in memory. Data may
be read until the data transmission starts.
 During the recording process the user may view mains parameters in PC:
- instantaneous values of current, voltage, all power values, total values for three phases,
- harmonics and THD,
- unbalance,
- phasor diagrams for voltages and currents,
- current and voltage waveforms drawn in real-time.
 When connected to a PC, button is locked, but when the analyzer operates with key lock
mode (e.g. during recording), button is also locked.
 To connect to the analyzer, enter its PIN code. The default code is 000 (three zeros). The PIN
code may be changed using Sonel Analysis software.
 When wrong PIN is entered three times in a row, data transmission is blocked for 10 minutes.
Only after this time, it will be possible to re-entry PIN.
 When within 30 sec of connecting a PC to the device no data exchange occurs between the
analyzer and the computer, the analyzer exits data exchange mode and terminates the
connection.
16
Notes
 Holding down buttons and for 5 seconds results in an
emergency setting of PIN code (000).
 If you the keys are locked during the recording process, this lock has a
higher priority (first the user would have to unlock buttons to reset the
emergency PIN). This is described in chapter 2.10.
USB is an interface that is continuously active and there is no way to disable it. To connect the
analyzer, connect USB cable to your PC (USB slot in the device is located on the left side and is
secured with a sealing cap). Before connecting the device, install Sonel Analysis software with the
drivers on the computer. Transmission speed is 921.6 kbit/s.
2.6 Indication of connection error

During operation, the analyzer continuously monitors the measured parameters for compliance
with the current configuration. Basing on several criteria listed below, the analyzer controls the light-
ing of ERROR LED. If the analyzer does not detect any inconsistency, this LED remains off. When
at least one of the criteria indicates a potential problem, ERROR LED starts to blink.
The criteria used by the analyzer for detecting a connection error are as follows:
 deviation of RMS voltage exceeding ±15% of nominal value,
 deviation of the phase angle of the voltage fundamental component exceeding ±30 of the the-
oretical value with resistive load and symmetrical mains (see note below)
 deviation of the phase angle of the current fundamental component exceeding ±55 of the the-
oretical value with resistive load and symmetrical mains (see note below)
 network frequency deviation exceeding ±10% of the nominal frequency.
Note
To detect a phase error, the fundamental component of the measured se-
quence must be at least equal to 5% of the nominal voltage, or 1% of the
nominal current. If this condition is not fulfilled, the correctness of angles
is not verified.
2.7 Warning about too high voltage or current

During its operation, the analyzer monitors continuously the value of voltages and currents con-
nected to the measuring inputs. If the voltage of any active phase exceeds approx. 20% of the
nominal voltage (> 120% UNOM) set in the measurement configuration, a two-tone continuous beep
is activated. The same applies for currents – an alarm signal is activated if the measured current in
any of the active channels exceeds 20% of nominal current (range of clamps; >120% INOM). In such
a situation, check whether the voltage and current in the measured network is within voltage and
current limits allowable for the analyzer or check if the analyzer configuration is correct and change
it, if necessary.
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PQM-700 User Manual
2.8 Taking measurements
2.8.1 Start / stop of recording

Recording may be triggered in three ways:
 immediate triggering - manually by pressing button after configuring the meter from a
PC, LOGG LED is lit,
 scheduled triggering - according to time set in the PC. The user must first press button
to enter recording stand-by mode; in this case pressing button does not trigger the
recording process immediately (the meter waits for the first pre-set time and starts
automatically) – LOGG LED flashes every 1 second in stand-by mode and after triggering it is
lit continuously,
 threshold triggering. The user must first press button to enter recording stand-by mode;
in this case pressing button does not trigger the recording process immediately – the
normal recording starts automatically after exceeding any threshold set in the settings. LOGG
flashes every 1 second in stand-by mode and after triggering it is lit continuously.
Stopping the recording process:

 Recording may be manually stopped by holding for one second button or from the PC
application.
 Recording ends automatically as scheduled (if the end time is set), in other cases the user stops
the recording (using button or the software).
 Recording ends automatically when the memory card is full.
 After finishing the recording, when the meter is not in the sleep mode, LOGG LED turns off and
the meter waits for next operator commands.
 If the meter had LEDs turned-off during the recording process, then after finishing the recording
no LED is lit; pressing any button activates ON LED.
2.8.2 Inrush current measurement

This function allows user to record half-period values of voltage and current within 60 sec after
starting the measurement. After this time, the measurements are automatically stopped. Before the
measurement, set aggregation time at ½ period. Other settings and measurement arrangements
are not limited.
2.8.3 Approximate recording times

The maximum recording time depends on many factors such as the size of the memory card,
averaging time, the type of system, number of recorded parameters, waveforms recording, event
detection, and event thresholds. A few selected configurations are given in Tab. 3. The last column
presents approximate recording times for 2 GB memory card. The typical configurations shown in
Tab. 3 assumes that IN current measurement is enabled.
18
Tab. 3. Approximate recording times for a few typical configurations.

System Approximate
type Waveforms recording
Configuration Averaging Event wave-
(current Events after averag- time with 2GB
mode/profile time forms
measure- ing period allocated
ment on) space
according to EN
10 min
3-phase   60 years
50160 wye (1000 events) (1000 events)
according to the
3-phase
"Voltages and 1s 270 days
wye
currents" profile
according to the
3-phase
"Power and har- 1s 23 days
wye
monics" profile
according to the
"Power and har- 1s
3-phase   22.5 day
wye (1000 events) (1000 events)
monics" profile
all possible pa- 3-phase

10 min 4 years
rameters wye
all possible pa- 3-phase
10 s 25 days
rameters wye
all possible pa-
10 s 1-phase 64 days
rameters
all possible pa-  
rameters
10 s 1-phase (1000 events (1000 events /  22 days
/ day) day)
2.9 Measuring arrangements

The analyzer may be connected directly and indirectly to the following types of networks:
 1-phase (Fig. 5),
 2-phase (split-phase) with split-winding of the transformer (Fig. 6),
 3-phase wye with a neutral conductor (Fig. 7),
 3-phase wye without neutral conductor (Fig. 8),
 3-phase delta (Fig. 9).
In three-wire systems, current may be measured by the Aron method, which uses only two
clamps that measure linear currents IL1 and IL3. IL2 jest current is then calculated using the following
formula:
𝐼𝐿2 = −𝐼𝐿1 − 𝐼𝐿3
This method can be used in delta systems (Fig. 10) and wye systems without a neutral conduc-
tor (Fig. 11).
Note
As the voltage measuring channels in the analyzer are referenced to N
input, then in systems where the neutral is not present, it is necessary to
connect N input to L3 network terminal. In such systems, it is not required
to connect L3 input of the analyzer to the tested network. It is shown in
Fig. 8, Fig. 9, Fig. 10 and Fig. 11 (three-wire systems of wye and delta
type).
19
PQM-700 User Manual
In systems with neutral conductor, the user may additionally activate current measurement in
this conductor, after installing additional clamps in IN channel. This measurement is performed after
activating in settings the option of Current in N conductor.
Note
In order to correctly calculate total apparent power Se and total Power
Factor (PF) in a 4-wire 3-phase system, it is necessary to measure the
current in the neutral conductor. Then it is necessary to activate option
Current in N conductor and to install 4 clamps as shown in Fig. 7. More
information may be found in sec. 6.4.5.
Pay attention to the direction of current clamps (flexible and CT). The clamps should be installed
with the arrow indicating the load direction. It may be verified by checking an active power meas-
urement - in most types of passive receivers active power is positive. When clamps are incorrectly
connected, it is possible to change their polarity using Sonel Analysis software.
The following figures show schematically how to connect the analyzer to the tested network
depending on its type.
Fig. 5. Wiring diagram – single phase.
20
Fig. 6. Wiring diagram – 2-phase.
Fig. 7. Wiring diagram – 3-phase wye with a neutral conductor.
21
PQM-700 User Manual
Fig. 8. Wiring diagram – 3-phase wye without neutral conductor.
Fig. 9. Wiring diagram – 3-phase delta.
22
Fig. 10. Wiring diagram – 3-phase delta (current measurement using Aron method).
Fig. 11. Wiring diagram – 3-phase wye without neutral conductor (current measurement
using Aron method).
23
PQM-700 User Manual
Fig. 12. Wiring diagram – indirect system with transducers – wye configuration.
Fig. 13. Wiring diagram – indirect system with transducers – delta configuration.
24
2.10 Key Lock

Using the PC program, the user may select an option of locking the keypad after starting the
process of recording. This solution is designed to protect the analyzer against unauthorized stop-
ping of the recording process.
To unlock the keys, follow these steps:
 press three times in a row button in steps of 0.5 s and 1 s,
 then press button within 0.5 s to 1 s,
When buttons are pressed, the user hears the sounds of inactive buttons – after completing the
whole sequence the meter emits a double beep.
2.11 Sleep mode

PC software has the feature that can activate the sleep mode. In this mode, when the user
starts recording, the meter turns off LEDs after 10 seconds. From this moment the following options
are available:
 immediate triggering – after LEDs are turned off, LOGG LED blinks every 10 s signalling the
recording process,
 triggering by event – after LEDs are turned off, LOGG LED blinks every 30 s in stand-by mode,
and when the recording process starts LOGG LED starts to blink every 10 s,
 scheduled triggering – after LEDs are turned off, LOGG LED blinks every 30 s in stand-by
mode, and when the recording process starts LOGG LED starts to blink every 10 s.
In addition to the above cases:

 if the user interrupts the recording process by pressing , then LEDs are lit, unless the
next recording is triggered,
 if the analyzer finishes the recording process due to the lack of space on the memory card or
due to a completed schedule, the LEDs remain off.
Pressing any button (shortly) activates ON LED (and possibly other LEDs e.g. MEM depending
on the state) and activates desired feature (if available).
2.12 Firmware update

Firmware of the analyzer must be regularly updated in order to correct discovered errors or
introduce new functionalities. When the firmware is updated, check whether a new version of Sonel
Analysis (and vice versa) is available, if yes – proceed with the upgrade.
2.12.1 Automatic update

Automatic update (recommended) is carried out with Sonel Analysis software. If the user acti-
vates option Check online updates in the software settings, the software will connect to the update
server during startup. If updates are available, they are displayed (with a list of changes) and the
user can confirm their download. The check for updates may be also activated manually by entering
the menu and selecting Help  On-line update. If the firmware update is available and has been
downloaded, you can upgrade the firmware of the meter. To do this:
1. Before starting the update, download all the data from the analyzer to a computer (download
and save the recorded data on the disk).
2. Connect the analyzer to the mains for battery charging.
3. Connect the analyzer to the computer via a USB cable and establish a connection between the
analyzer and the application. Immediately after connecting, Sonel Analysis should display a
25
PQM-700 User Manual
message about the option of updating the firmware (if the user sets in software options "Check
firmware version while connecting").
4. After confirming the update, wait until the process is completed.
5. NOTE: After a successful update, it is necessary to program the analyzer at least once before
starting recording, in order to avoid inconsistencies in the recorded data.
2.12.2 Manual update

Manual update requires saving the appropriate firmware file on the memory card and starting
the update with the button.
1. Before starting the update, download all the data from the analyzer to a computer (download
and save the recorded data on the disk).
2. Connect the analyzer to the mains for battery charging.
3. Download a new firmware from the manufacturer's website www.sonel.pl. If the file is com-
pressed, extract file FIRMWARE.PQF.
4. FIRMWARE.PQF file must be saved in the root directory of the microSD card using an external
card reader.
5. Insert the card into the analyzer. ON LED indicates that the firmware file was recognized and
readiness to start the update.
6. Press START button to begin the update. If the START button is not pressed within 10
seconds, the update is cancelled. The process progress is indicated by blinking LEDs ON and
MEM.
7. NOTE: After a successful update, it is necessary to program the analyzer at least once before
starting recording, in order to avoid inconsistencies in the recorded data.
3 "Sonel Analysis" software

Sonel Analysis is an application required to work with PQM-700 analyzer. It enables the user
to:
 configure the analyzer,
 read data from the device,
 real-time preview of the mains,
 delete data in the analyzer,
 present data in the tabular form,
 present data in the form of graphs,
 analysing data for compliance with EN 50160 standard (reports), or other user-defined refer-
ence conditions,
 independent operation of multiple devices,
 upgrade the software and the device firmware to newer versions.
Detailed manual for Sonel Analysis is available in a separate document (also downloadable
from the manufacturer's website www.sonel.pl).
26
4 Design and measurement methods

4.1 Voltage Inputs
The voltage input block is shown in Fig. 14. Three phase inputs L1/A, L2/B, L3/C have common
reference line, which is the N (neutral) input. Such inputs configuration allows reducing the number
of conductors necessary to connect the analyzer to the measured mains. Fig. 14 presents that the
power supply circuit of the analyzer is independent of the meas-
uring circuit. The power adapter has a nominal input voltage
range 100...415 V AC (140…415 V DC) and has a separate
terminals.
The analyzer has one voltage range, with voltage range
±1150V.
4.2 Current inputs

The analyzer has four independent current inputs with iden-
tical parameters. Current transformer (CT) clamps with voltage
output in a 1 V standard, or flexible clamps (probes) F-1(A), F-
2(A) and F-3(A) can be connected to each input.
A typical situation is using flexible clamps with built-in elec-
tronic integrator. However, the PQM-700 allows connecting the Fig. 14. Voltage Inputs
Rogowski coil alone to the input and a digital signal integration. and integrated AC power
adapter.
4.2.1 Digital integrator
The PQM-700 uses the solution with digital integration of signal coming directly from the
Rogowski coil. Such approach has allowed the elimination of the analog integrator problems con-
nected with the necessity to ensure declared long-term accuracy in difficult measuring environ-
ments. The analog integrators must also include the systems protecting the inputs from saturation
in case DC voltage is present on the input.
A perfect integrator has an infinite amplification for DC signals which falls with the rate of
20 dB/decade of frequency. The phase shift is fixed over the whole frequency range and equals -
90°.
Theoretically infinite amplification for a DC signal, if present on the integrator input, causes the
input saturation near the power supply voltage and makes further operation impossible. In practi-
cally implemented systems, a solution is applied which limits the amplification for DC to a specified
value, and in addition periodically zeroes the output. There are also techniques of active cancella-
tion of DC voltage which involve its measurement and re-applying to the input, but with an opposite
sign, which effectively cancels such voltage. There is a term “leaky integrator” which describes an
integrator with finite DC gain. An analog leaky integrator is just an integrator featuring a capacitor
shunted with a high-value resistor. Such a system is then identical with a low-pass filter of a very
low pass frequency.
Digital integrator implementation ensures excellent long-term parameters – the entire procedure
is performed by means of calculations, and aging of components, drifts, etc. have been eliminated.
However, just like in the analog version, also here we can find the saturation problem and without
a suitable counteraction the digital integration may become useless. It should be remembered that
both, input amplifiers and analog-to-digital converters, have a given finite and undesirable offset
which must be removed prior to integration. The PQM-700 analyzer firmware includes a digital filter
which is to remove totally the DC voltage component. The filtered signal is subjected to digital inte-
gration. The resultant phase response has excellent properties, and the phase shift for most critical
frequencies 50 and 60 Hz is minimal.
Ensuring the least possible phase shift between the voltage and current components is very
important for obtaining small power measurement errors. It can be proven that approximate power
27
PQM-700 User Manual
measurement error can be described with the following relationship1:
Power measurement error ≈ phase error (in radians) × tan(φ) × 100 %
where tan(φ) is the tangent of the angle between the fundamental voltage and current components.
From the formula, it can be concluded that the measurement errors are increasing as the displace-
ment power factor is decreasing; for example, at the phase error of only 0.1° and cosφ = 0.5, the
error is 0.3%. Anyway, for the power measurements to be accurate, the phase coincidence of volt-
age and current circuits must be the highest possible.
4.3 Signal sampling

The signal is sampled simultaneously in all eight channels at the frequency synchronized with
the frequency of power supply voltage in the reference channel. This frequency equals 10.24 kHz
for the 50 Hz and 60 Hz mains systems.
Each period includes then about 205 samples for 50 Hz systems, and about 170 samples for
60 Hz systems. A 16-bit analog-to-digital converter has been used which ensures 64-fold over-
sampling.
3-decibel channels attenuation has been specified for frequency of about 12 kHz, and the am-
plitude error for the 2.4 kHz maximum usable frequency (i.e. the frequency of 40th harmonics in the
60 Hz system) is about 0.3 dB. The phase shift for this frequency is below 15°. Attenuation in the
stop band is above 75 dB.
Please note that for correct measurements of phase shift between the voltage harmonics in
relation to current harmonics and power of these harmonics, the important factor is not absolute
phase shift in relation to the basic frequency, but the phase coincidence of voltage and current
circuits. The highest phase difference error for f = 2.4 kHz is maximum 15°. Such error is decreasing
with the decreasing frequency. Also an additional error caused by used clamps are transducers
must be considered when estimating the measurement errors for harmonics power measurements.
4.4 PLL synchronization

The sampling frequency synchronization has been implemented by hardware. After passing
through the input circuits, the voltage signal is sent to a band-pass filter which is to reduce the
harmonics level and pass only the voltage fundamental component. Then, the signal is sent to the
phase locked loop circuits as a reference signal. The PLL system generates the frequency which is
a multiple of the reference frequency necessary for clocking of the analog-to-digital converter.
The necessity to use the phase locked loop system results directly from the requirements of the
IEC 61000-4-7 standard which describes the methodology and admissible errors during the meas-
urements of harmonic components. The standard requires that the measuring window, being the
basis for a single measurement and evaluation of harmonics content, is equal to the duration of 10
periods in the 50 Hz mains systems and 12 periods in the 60 Hz systems. In both cases, it corre-
sponds to about 200 ms. Because the mains frequency can be subject to periodical changes and
fluctuations, the window duration might not equal exactly 200 ms and for the 51 Hz frequency will
be about 196 ms.
The standard also recommends that before the Fourier transform (to separate the spectral com-
ponents), the data are not subject to windowing operation. Absence of frequency synchronization
and allowing the situation in which the FFT is performed on the samples from not the integer number
of periods can lead to spectral leakage. This phenomenon causes that the spectral line of a har-
monic blurs also to a few neighboring interharmonic spectral lines which may lead to loss of data
about actual level and power of the tested spectral line. The use of Hann weighting window, which
reduces the undesirable spectral leakage, has been permitted, but is limited to the situations when
the PLL has lost synchronization.
The IEC 61000-4-7 defines also the required accuracy of the synchronization block: the time
1 “Current sensing for energy metering”, William Koon, Analog Devices, Inc.
28
between the sampling pulse rising edge and (M+1)-th pulse (where M is the number of samples in
the measuring window) should equal the duration of indicated number of periods in the measuring
window (10 or 12) with maximum allowed error of ±0,03%. To explain it in simpler terms, let’s use
the following example. For nominal frequencies the measuring window duration is exactly 200ms.
If the first sampling pulse occurs exactly at time t = 0, the first sampling pulse of the next measuring
window should occur at t = 200±0.06 ms. ±60 µs is allowed deviation of the sampling edge. The
standard also defines the recommended minimum frequency range at which the above-mentioned
synchronization system accuracy should be maintained and specifies it as ±5% of rated frequency
that is 47.5…52.5 Hz and 57…63 Hz for 50 Hz and 60 Hz mains, respectively.
The input voltage range for which the PLL system will work correctly is quite another matter.
The 61000-4-7 standard does not give here any concrete indications or requirements. The PQM-
700 PLL circuit needs L1-N voltage above 10 V for proper operation.
4.5 Frequency measurement

The signal for measurement of 10-second frequency values is taken from the L1 voltage chan-
nel. It is the same signal which is used for synchronization of the PLL. The L1 signal is sent to the
2nd order band pass filter which passband has been set to 40...70 Hz. This filter is to reduce the
level of harmonic components. Then, a square signal is formed from such filtered waveform. The
signal periods number and their duration is counted during the 10-second measuring cycle. 10-
second time intervals are determined by the real time clock (every full multiple of 10-second time).
The frequency is calculated as a ratio of counted periods to their duration.
4.6 Harmonic components measuring method

The harmonics are measured according to the recommendations given in the IEC 61000-4-7
standard.
The standard specifies the measuring method for individual harmonic components.
The whole process comprises a few stages:
 synchronous sampling (10/12 periods),
 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT),
 grouping.
Fast Fourier Transform is performed on the 10/12-period measuring window (about 200 ms).
As a result of FFT, we receive a set of spectral lines from the 0 Hz frequency (DC) to the 40th
harmonics (about 2.0 kHz for 50Hz or 2.4 kHz for 60 Hz). The distance between successive spectral
lines depends directly on the determined length of measuring window and is about 5 Hz.
As the PQM-700 analyzer collects 2048 samples per measuring window (for 50 Hz and 60 Hz),
this fulfills the requirement of Fast Fourier Transform that the number of samples subjected to trans-
formation equals a power of 2.
A very important thing is to maintain a constant synchronization of sampling with the mains.
FFT can be performed only on the data which include a multiple of the mains period. This condition
must be met in order to minimize a so-called spectral leakage which leads to falsified information
about actual spectral lines levels. The PQM-700 meets these requirements because the sampling
frequency is stabilized by the phase locked loop (PLL).
Because the sampling frequency can fluctuate over time, the standard provides for grouping
together with the harmonics main spectral lines also of the spectral lines in their direct vicinity. The
reason is that the components energy can pass partially to neighboring interharmonic components.
There are two grouping methods:
 harmonic group (includes the main spectral line and five or six neighboring interharmonic com-
ponents on each side),
 harmonic subgroup (includes the main spectral line and one neighboring line on each side).
29
PQM-700 User Manual
Fig. 15. Determination of harmonic subgroups (50 Hz system).
The IEC 61000-4-30 standard recommends that the harmonic subgroup method is used in
power quality analyzers.
Example
In order to calculate the 3rd harmonic component in the 50 Hz system, use
the 150 Hz main spectral line and neighboring 145 Hz and 155 Hz lines.
The resultant amplitude is calculated with the RMS method.
4.7 Event detection

The PQM-700 analyzer gives a lot of event detection options in the tested mains system. An
event is the situation when the parameter value exceeds the user-defined threshold.
The fact of event occurrence is recorded on the memory card as an entry which includes:
 parameter type,
 channel in which the event occurred,
 times of event beginning and end,
 user-defined threshold value,
 parameter extreme value measure during the event,
 parameter average value measure during the event.
Depending on the parameter type, you can set one, two or three thresholds which will be
checked by the analyzer. The table below lists all parameters for which the events can be detected,
including specification of threshold types.
30
Tab. 4. Event threshold types for individual parameters

Parameter Interruption Dip Swell Minimum Maximum
U RMS voltage   
UDC DC voltage 
f Frequency  
CF U Voltage crest factor  
u2 Voltage negative sequence unbalance 
Pst Short-term flicker Pst 
Plt Long-term flicker Plt 
I RMS current  
CF I Current crest factor
i2 Current negative sequence unbalance 
P Active power  
Q1, QB Reactive power  
S Apparent power  
D, SN Distortion power  
PF Power factor  
cos Displacement power factor  
tan tan  
EP+, EP- Active energy (consumed and supplied) 
EQ+, EQ- Reactive energy (consumed and supplied) 
ES Apparent energy 
THDF U Voltage THDF 
Voltage harmonic amplitudes
Uh2..Uh40
(order n = 2…40)

THDF I Current THDF 
Current harmonic amplitudes
Ih2..Ih40
(order n = 2…40)

Some parameters can take positive and negative values. Examples are active power, reactive
power, power factor and DC voltage. As the event detection threshold can only be positive, in order
to ensure correct detection for above-mentioned parameters, the analyzer compares with the
threshold their absolute values.
Example
Event threshold for active power has been set at 10 kW. If the load has a
generator character, the active power with correct connection of clamps
will be a negative value. If the measured absolute value exceeds the
threshold, i.e. 10 kW (for example -11 kW) an event will be recorded – ex-
ceeding of the maximum active power.
Two parameter types: RMS voltage and RMS current can generate events for which the user
can also have the waveforms record.
The analyzer records the waveforms of active channels (voltage and current) at the event start
and end. In both cases, six periods are recorded: two before the start (end) of the event and four
after start (end) of the event. The waveforms are recorded in an 8-bit format with 10.24 kHz sam-
pling frequency.
The event information is recorded at its end. In some cases it may happen that event is active
when the recording is stopped (i.e. the voltage dip continues). Information about such event is also
recorded, but with the following changes:
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PQM-700 User Manual
 no event end time,

 extreme value is only for the period until the stop of recording,
 average value is not given,
 only the beginning waveform is available for RMS voltage or current related events.
In order to eliminate repeated event detection when the parameter value oscillates around the
threshold value, the analyzer has a functionality of user-defined event detection hysteresis. It is
defined in percent in the following manner:
 for RMS voltage events, it is the percent of the nominal voltage range (for example 2% of 230 V,
that is 4.6 V),
 for RMS current events, it is the percent of the nominal current range (for example for C-4
clamps and absence of transducers, the 2% hysteresis equals 0.02×1000 A = 20 A),
 for remaining parameters, the hysteresis is specified as a percent of maximum threshold (for
example, if the maximum threshold for current crest factor has been set to 4.0, the hysteresis
will be 0.02×4.0 = 0.08.
32
5 Calculation formulas
5.1 One-phase network
One-phase network
Parameter
Designa- Method of calculation
Name Unit
tion
𝑀
1
𝑈𝐴 = √ ∑ 𝑈𝑖2
Voltage (True RMS) UA V 𝑀
𝑖=1
where Ui is a subsequent sample of voltage UA-N

M = 2048 for 50 Hz and 60 Hz
𝑀
1
𝑈𝐴𝐷𝐶 = ∑ 𝑈𝑖
Voltage DC component UADC V 𝑀
𝑖=1
M = 2048 for 50 Hz and 60 Hz
number of full voltage periods UA-N
Frequency F Hz counted during 10-sec period (clock time) divided by the
total duration of full periods
𝑀
1
𝐼𝐴 = √ ∑ 𝐼𝑖2
Current (True RMS) IA A 𝑀
𝑖=1
where Ii is subsequent sample of current IA

M = 2048 for 50 Hz and 60 Hz
𝑀
1
𝐼𝐴𝐷𝐶 = ∑ 𝐼𝑖
Current constant compo- 𝑀
IADC A 𝑖=1
nent
where Ii is a subsequent sample of current IA
M = 2048 for 50 Hz and 60 Hz
𝑀
1
𝑃= ∑ 𝑈𝑖 𝐼𝑖
𝑀
𝑖=1
Active power P W
Ii is a subsequent sample of current IA
M = 2048 for 50 Hz and 60 Hz
40
𝑄𝐵 = ∑ 𝑈ℎ 𝐼ℎ sin 𝜑ℎ
ℎ=1
Budeanu reactive power QB var
where Uh is h-th harmonic of voltage UA-N
Ih jest h-th harmonic of current IA
h is h-th angle between harmonic Uh and Ih
𝑄1 = 𝑈1𝐼1 sin 𝜑1
Reactive power of funda- where U1 is fundamental component of voltage UA-N
Q1 var
mental component I1 is fundamental component of current IA
1 is angle between fundamental components U1 and I1
Apparent power S VA 𝑆 = 𝑈𝐴𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝐴𝑅𝑀𝑆
Apparent distortion
power
SN VA 𝑆𝑁 = √𝑆 2 − (𝑈1 𝐼1)2
Budeanu distortion power DB var 𝐷𝐵 = √𝑆 2 − 𝑃2 − 𝑄𝐵2
𝑃
𝑃𝐹 =
Power Factor PF - 𝑆
If PF < 0, then the load is of a generator type
If PF > 0, then the load is of a receiver type
33
PQM-700 User Manual
cos 𝜑 = 𝐷𝑃𝐹 = cos(𝜑𝑈1 − 𝜑𝐼1 )

Displacement power fac- cos where U1 is an absolute angle of the fundamental com-
- ponent of voltage UA-N
tor DPF
I1 is an absolute angle of the fundamental component
of current IA
𝑄
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 =
Tangent  tan - 𝑃
where: Q = QB when Budeanu method was chosen,
Q = Q1 when IEEE 1459 method was chosen,
method of harmonic subgroups according to IEC 61000-
Harmonic components of Uhx V
4-7
voltage and current Ihx A
x (harmonic) = 1..40
Total Harmonic Distortion √∑40 2
ℎ=2 𝑈ℎ
for voltage, referred to 𝑇𝐻𝐷𝑈𝐹 = × 100%
THDUF - 𝑈1
the fundamental compo-
nent where Uh is h-th harmonic of voltage UA-N
U1 is fundamental component of voltage UA-N
ℎ=2 𝑈ℎ
for voltage, referred to THDUR - 𝑇𝐻𝐷𝑈𝑅 = × 100%
RMS 𝑈𝐴𝑅𝑀𝑆
where Uh is h-th harmonic of voltage UA-N
ℎ=2 𝐼ℎ
for current, referred to 𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼𝐹 = × 100%
THDIF - 𝐼1
the fundamental compo-
nent where Ih is h-th harmonic of current IA
I1 is fundamental component of current IA
ℎ=2 𝐼ℎ
for current, referred to THDIR - 𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐼𝑅 = × 100%
RMS 𝐼𝐴𝑅𝑀𝑆
where Ih is h-th harmonic of current IA
𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝑈𝑖 |
𝐶𝐹𝑈 =
𝑈𝐴𝑅𝑀𝑆
Voltage crest factor CFU - 𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝑈𝑖 |Where the operator expresses the highest abso-
lute value of voltage UA-N samples
i = 2048 for 50 Hz and 60 Hz
𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝐼𝑖 |
𝐶𝐹𝐼 =
𝐼𝐴𝑅𝑀𝑆
Current crest factor CFI - 𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝐼𝑖 |Where the operator expresses the highest abso-
lute value of current IA samples
i = 2048 for 50 Hz and 60 Hz
Short-term flicker Pst - calculated according to IEC 61000-4-15
12
1
𝑃𝐿𝑇 = √∑(𝑃𝑆𝑇𝑖 )3
Long-term flicker Plt - 3
𝑖=1
where PSTi is subsequent i-th indicator of short-term

flicker
34
𝐸𝑃+ = ∑ 𝑃+ (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)
𝑖=1
𝑃(𝑖) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃(𝑖) > 0
𝑃+ (𝑖) = {
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃(𝑖) ≤ 0
𝑀
𝐸𝑃− = ∑ 𝑃− (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)
𝑖=1
Active energy (consumed EP+ |𝑃(𝑖)| 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃(𝑖) < 0
Wh
and supplied) EP- 𝑃− (𝑖) = {
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃(𝑖) ≥ 0
where:
i is subsequent number of the 10/12-period measure-
ment window
P(i) represents active powerP calculated in i-th measur-
ing window
T(i) represents duration of i-th measuring window (in
hours)
𝑀
𝐸𝑄𝐵+ = ∑ 𝑄𝐵+ (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)

𝑖=1
𝑄 (𝑖) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝐵 (𝑖) > 0
𝑄𝐵+ (𝑖) = { 𝐵
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝐵 (𝑖) ≤ 0
𝑀
𝐸𝑄𝐵− = ∑ 𝑄𝐵− (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)

𝑖=1
Budeanu reactive energy EQB+ |𝑄𝐵 (𝑖) | 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝐵 (𝑖) < 0
varh
(consumed and supplied) EQB- 𝑄𝐵− (𝑖) = {
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝐵 (𝑖) ≥ 0
where:
ment window
QB(i) represents Budeanu active power QB calculated in
i-th measuring window
hours)
𝐸𝑄1+ = ∑ 𝑄1+ (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)

𝑖=1
𝑄 (𝑖) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄1(𝑖) > 0
𝑄1+ (𝑖) = { 1
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄1(𝑖) ≤ 0
𝑀
𝐸𝑄1− = ∑ 𝑄1− (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)

Reactive energy of fun- 𝑖=1
EQ1+ |𝑄1 (𝑖) | 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄1 (𝑖) < 0
damental component varh
EQ1- 𝑄1− (𝑖) = {
(consumed and supplied) 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄1(𝑖) ≥ 0
where:
ment window
Q1(i) represents reactive power of fundamental compo-
nent Q1 calculated in i-th measuring window
hours)
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PQM-700 User Manual
𝐸𝑆 = ∑ 𝑆(𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)
𝑖=1
where:
Apparent energy ES VAh
ment window
S(i) represents apparent power S calculated in i-th
measuring window
hours)
5.2 Split-phase network
Split-phase network
(parameters not mentioned are calculated as for single-phase)
Parameter
Name Unit
tion
Total active power Ptot W 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵
Total Budeanu reactive
QBtot var 𝑄𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑄𝐵𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵𝐵
power
Total reactive power of
Q1tot var 𝑄1𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑄1 𝐴 + 𝑄1𝐵
fundamental component
Total apparent power Stot VA 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑆𝐴 + 𝑆𝐵
Total apparent distortion
SNtot VA 𝑆𝑁𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑆𝑁𝐴 + 𝑆𝑁𝐵
power
Total Budeanu distortion
DBtot var 𝐷𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐷𝐵𝐴 + 𝐷𝐵𝐵
power
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡
Total Power Factor PFtot - 𝑃𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 =
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡
Total displacement costot 1
- cos 𝜑𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐷𝑃𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = (cos 𝜑𝐴 + cos𝜑𝐵 )
power factor DPFtot 2
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑𝑡𝑜𝑡 =
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡
Total tangent  tantot -
where: Qtot = QBtot, when Budeanu method was chosen,
Qtot = Q1tot, when IEEE 1459 method was chosen,
𝑀
𝐸𝑃+𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡+ (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)

𝑖=1
𝑃 (𝑖) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) > 0
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡+ (𝑖) = { 𝑡𝑜𝑡
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) ≤ 0
𝑀
𝐸𝑃−𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡− (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)

𝑖=1
Total active energy (con- EP+tot |𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖)| 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) < 0
Wh
sumed and supplied) EP-tot 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡− (𝑖) = {
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) ≥ 0
where:
ment window
Ptot(i) represents total active power Ptot calculated in i-th
measuring window
hours)
36
𝑀
𝐸𝑄𝐵+𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑄𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡+ (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)

𝑖=1
𝑄 (𝑖) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) > 0
𝑄𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡+ (𝑖) = { 𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) ≤ 0
𝑀
𝐸𝑄𝐵−𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑄𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡− (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)

Total Budeanu reactive 𝑖=1
EQB+tot |𝑄𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖)| 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) < 0
energy varh
EQB-tot 𝑄𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡− (𝑖) = {
(consumed and supplied) 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) ≥ 0
where:
ment window
QBtot(i) represents total reactive power QBtot calculated in
hours)
𝑀
𝐸𝑄1+𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑄1𝑡𝑜𝑡+ (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)

𝑖=1
𝑄1𝑡𝑜𝑡+ (𝑖) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄1𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) > 0
𝑄1𝑡𝑜𝑡+ (𝑖) = {
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄1𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) ≤ 0
𝑀
𝐸𝑄1−𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑄1𝑡𝑜𝑡− (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)

Total reactive energy of 𝑖=1
EQ1+tot |𝑄1𝑡𝑜𝑡− (𝑖)| 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄1𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) < 0
fundamental component varh
EQ1-tot 𝑄1𝑡𝑜𝑡− (𝑖) = {
(consumed and supplied) 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄1𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) ≥ 0
where:
ment window
Q1tot(i) represents total reactive power Q1tot calculated in
hours)
𝑀
𝐸𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)

𝑖=1
where:
Total apparent energy EStot VAh
ment window
Stot(i) represents total apparent power Stot calculated in i-
th measuring window
hours)
37
PQM-700 User Manual
5.3 3-phase wye network with N conductor
3-phase wye network with N conductor

(parameters not mentioned are calculated as for single-phase)
Parameter
Name Unit
tion
Total active power Ptot W 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵 + 𝑃°𝐶

QBtot var 𝑄𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑄𝐵𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵𝐵 + 𝑄𝐵𝐶
power
𝑄1+ = 3𝑈1+ 𝐼1+ sin 𝜑1+
where:
U1+ is the voltage positive sequence component (of the
Total reactive power
Q1+ var fundamental component
acc. to IEEE 1459
I1+ his the current positive sequence component (of the
fundamental component)
1+ is the angle between components U1+ and I1+
𝑆𝑒 = 3𝑈𝑒 𝐼𝑒
where:
2
3(𝑈𝐴 2 + 𝑈𝐵 2 + 𝑈°𝐶 2) + 𝑈𝐴𝐵 + 𝑈𝐵𝐶 2 + 𝑈𝐶𝐴 2
𝑈𝑒 = √
Effective apparent power Se VA 18
𝐼𝐴 2 + 𝐼𝐵 2 + 𝐼°𝐶 2 + 𝐼𝑁 2
𝐼𝑒 = √
3
𝑆𝑒𝑁 = √𝑆𝑒 2 + 𝑆𝑒1 2

where:
𝑆𝑒1 = 3𝑈𝑒1 𝐼𝑒1
Effective apparent distor- 2

tion power
SeN VA 3(𝑈𝐴1 2 + 𝑈𝐵1 2 + 𝑈𝐶1 2 ) + 𝑈𝐴𝐵1 + 𝑈𝐵𝐶1 2 + 𝑈𝐶𝐴1 2
𝑈𝑒1 = √
18
𝐼𝐴12 + 𝐼𝐵12 + 𝐼𝐶1 2 + 𝐼𝑁12

𝐼𝑒1 = √
3
DBtot var 𝐷𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐷𝐵𝐴 + 𝐷𝐵𝐵 + 𝐷𝐵𝐶
power
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑆𝑒
Total displacement costot 1
- cos 𝜑𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐷𝑃𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = (cos 𝜑𝐴 + cos𝜑𝐵 + cos𝜑°𝐶 )
power factor DPFtot 3
𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑𝑡𝑜𝑡 =
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡
Total tangent  tantot -
where: Qtot = QBtot, when Budeanu method was chosen,
Qtot = Q1tot, when IEEE 1459 method was chosen,
Total active energy (con- EP+tot

Wh formula same as in split-phase system
sumed and supplied) EP-tot

EQB+tot
energy varh formula same as in split-phase system
EQB-tot
(consumed and supplied)
38
Total reactive energy of

EQ1+tot
fundamental component varh formula same as in split-phase system
EQ1-tot
(consumed and supplied)
𝑀
𝐸𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑆𝑒 (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)
𝑖=1
where:
ment window
Se(i) represents the effective apparent power Se, calcu-
lated in i-th measuring window
hours)
1
𝑈0 = (𝑈𝐴1 + 𝑈𝐵1 + 𝑈𝐶1 )
3
RMS value of zero volt- 𝑈0 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔(𝑈0 )

U0 V
age sequence
where UA1, UB1, UC1 are vectors of fundamental compo-
nents of phase voltages UA, UB, UC
Operator mag() indicates vector module
1
𝑈1 = (𝑈𝐴1 + 𝑎𝑈𝐵1 + 𝑎2 𝑈𝐶1 )
3
𝑈1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔(𝑈1 )
RMS value of positive where UA1, UB1, UC1 are vectors of fundamental compo-
U1 V
voltage sequence nents of phase voltages UA, UB, UC
1 √3
𝑎 = 1𝑒 𝑗120° = − + 𝑗
2 2
1 √3
𝑎2 = 1𝑒 𝑗240° = − − 𝑗
2 2
1
𝑈2 = (𝑈𝐴1 + 𝑎2 𝑈𝐵1 + 𝑎𝑈𝐶1 )
3
𝑈2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔(𝑈2 )
RMS value of negative where UA1, UB1, UC1 are vectors of fundamental compo-
U2 V
voltage sequence nents of phase voltages UA, UB, UC
1 √3
𝑎 = 1𝑒 𝑗120° = − + 𝑗
2 2
2 𝑗240°
1 √3
𝑎 = 1𝑒 =− − 𝑗
2 2
Voltage unbalance factor 𝑈0
u0 % 𝑢0 = ∙ 100%
for zero component 𝑈1
Voltage unbalance factor 𝑈2
u2 % 𝑢2 = ∙ 100%
for negative sequence 𝑈1
1
𝐼0 = (𝐼 + 𝐼𝐵1 + 𝐼𝐶1 )
3 𝐴1
𝐼0 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔(𝐼0)
Current zero sequence I0 A
where IA1, IB1, IC1 are vectors of fundamental compo-
nents for phase currents IA, IB, IC
39
PQM-700 User Manual
1
𝐼1 = (𝐼 + 𝑎𝐼𝐵1 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝐶1)
3 𝐴1
RMS value of positive 𝐼1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔(𝐼1)
I1 A
current sequence where IA1, IB1, IC1 are vectors of fundamental current
components IA, IB, IC
1
𝐼2 = (𝐼𝐴1 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝐵1 + 𝑎𝐼𝐶1 )
3
RMS value of negative 𝐼2 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔(𝐼2)
I2 A
current sequence where IA1, IB1, IC1 are vectors of fundamental compo-
nents for phase voltages IA, IB, IC
Current unbalance factor 𝐼0

i0 % 𝑖0 = ∙ 100%
for zero sequence 𝐼1
Current unbalance factor 𝐼2
i2 % 𝑖2 = ∙ 100%
for negative sequence 𝐼1
5.4 3-phase wye and delta network without neutral conductor
3-phase wye and delta network without neutral conductor

(Parameters: RMS voltage and current, DC components of voltage and current, THD, flicker are calculated as for 1-phase circuits;
instead of the phase voltages, phase-to-phase voltages are used. Symmetrical components and unbalance factors are calculated
as in 3-phase 4-wire systems.)
Parameter
Name Unit
tion
Phase-to-phase voltage
UCA V 𝑈𝐶𝐴 = −(𝑈𝐴𝐵 + 𝑈𝐵𝐶 )
UCA
Current I2
I2 A 𝐼2 = −(𝐼1 + 𝐼3)
(Aron measuring circuits)
𝑀 𝑀
1
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = (∑ 𝑈𝑖𝐴𝐶 𝐼𝑖𝐴 + ∑ 𝑈𝑖𝐵𝐶 𝐼𝑖𝐵 )
𝑀
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
where:
Total active power Ptot W UiAC is a subsequent sample of voltage UA-C
UiBC is a subsequent sample of voltage UB-C
IiA is a subsequent sample of current IA
IiB is a subsequent sample of current IB
M = 2048 for 50 Hz and 60 Hz
where:
𝑈𝐴𝐵 2 + 𝑈𝐵𝐶 2 + 𝑈𝐶𝐴 2
𝑈𝑒 = √
Total apparent power Se VA 9
𝐼𝐴 2 + 𝐼𝐵 2 + 𝐼°𝐶 2
𝐼𝑒 = √
3
Total reactive power (Bu-

deanu and IEEE 1459)
QBtot var 𝑄 = 𝑁 = √𝑆𝑒2 − 𝑃2

DBtot var 𝐷𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 0
power
40
𝑆𝑒𝑁 = √𝑆𝑒 2 + 𝑆𝑒1 2

where:
𝑆𝑒1 = 3𝑈𝑒1 𝐼𝑒1
Effective apparent distor-

tion power
SeN VA 𝑈𝐴𝐵1 2 + 𝑈𝐵𝐶1 2 + 𝑈𝐶𝐴1 2
𝑈𝑒1 = √
9
𝐼𝐴1 2 + 𝐼𝐵1 2 + 𝐼𝐶12

𝐼𝑒1 = √
3
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡
𝑆𝑒
𝐸𝑃+𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑃+𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)

𝑖=1
𝑃 (𝑖) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) > 0

𝑃+𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) = { 𝑡𝑜𝑡
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) ≤ 0
𝐸𝑃−𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑃−𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)

Active energy (consumed EP+tot 𝑖=1
Wh
and supplied) EP-tot
|𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖)| 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) < 0
𝑃−𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) = {
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 (𝑖) ≥ 0
where:
ment window
Ptot(i) represents total active power Ptot calculated in i-th
measuring window
hours)
𝑀
𝐸𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑ 𝑆𝑒 (𝑖)𝑇(𝑖)
𝑖=1
where:
iis subsequent number of the 10/12-period measurement
window
Se(i) represents the total apparent power Se calculated in
hours)
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PQM-700 User Manual
5.5 Methods of parameter‘s averaging
Method of averaging parameter
Parameter Averaging method

RMS Voltage RMS
DC voltage arithmetic average
Frequency arithmetic average
Crest factor U, I arithmetic average
Symmetrical components U, I RMS
Unbalance factor U, I calculated from average values of symmetrical components
RMS Current RMS
Active, Reactive, Apparent and arithmetic average
Distortion Power
Power factor PF calculated from the averaged power values
cos arithmetic average
tan calculated from the averaged power values
THD U, I calculated as the ratio of the average RMS value of the higher harmonics
to the average RMS value of the fundamental component (for THD-F), or
the ratio of the average of RMS value of higher harmonics to the average
value of RMS value (for THD-R)
Harmonic amplitudes U, I RMS
The angles between voltage arithmetic average
and current harmonics
Active and reactive power of arithmetic average
harmonics
Note:
RMS average value is calculated according to the formula:
𝑁
1
𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √ ∑,2𝑖
𝑁
𝑖=1
The arithmetic average (AVG) is calculated according to the formula:

𝑁
1
𝐴𝑉𝐺 = ∑,𝑖
𝑁
𝑖=1
where:
 Xi is subsequent parameter value to be averaged,
 N is the number of values to be averaged.
42
6 Power Quality - a guide

6.1 Basic Information
The measurement methodology is mostly imposed by the energy quality standards, mainly IEC
61000-4-30. This standard, introducing precise measurement algorithms, ordered analyzers mar-
ket, allowing customers to easily compare the devices and their results between the analyzers from
different manufacturers. Previously, these devices used different algorithms, and often the results
from measurements on the same object were completely different when tested with different de-
vices.
The factors behind growing interest in these issues have included wide use of electronic power
controllers, DC/DC converters and switched-mode power supplies, energy-saving fluorescent
lamps, etc., that is widely understood electrical power conversion. All of these devices had a ten-
dency to significantly deform the supply current waveform.
The design of switched-mode power supplies (widely used in household and industrial applications)
is often based on the principle that the mains alternating voltage is first rectified and smoothed with
the use of capacitors, meaning that it is converted to direct voltage (DC), and then with a high
frequency and efficiency is converted to required output voltage. Such a solution, however, has an
undesirable side effect. Smoothing capacitors are recharged by short current pulses at moments
when the mains voltage is close to peak value. From power balance rule it is known that if the
current is taken only at short intervals, its crest value must be much higher than in case it is taken
in a continuous manner. High ratio of current crest value to RMS value (a so-called crest factor)
and reduction of power factor (PF) will result in a situation in which in order to obtain a given active
power in a receiver (in watts), the power supplier must supply power greater than the receiver active
power (this is a so-called apparent power expressed in volt-amperes, VA). Low power factor causes
higher load on the transmission cables and higher costs of electricity transfer. Harmonic current
components accompanying such parameters cause additional problems. As a result, the electricity
suppliers have started to impose financial penalties upon the customers who have not provided
sufficiently high power factor.
Among entities that may be potentially interested in power quality analyzers are power utility
companies on one hand, (they may use them to control their customers), and on the other hand the
power consumers who may use the analyzers to detect and possibly improve the low power factor
and solve other problems related to widely understood power quality issues.
The power source quality parameters, as well as the properties of receivers, are described with
many various magnitudes and indicators. This section can shed some light on this area.
As already mentioned, the lack of standardization of measurement methods has caused signif-
icant differences in values of individual mains parameters calculated with various devices. Efforts
of many engineers resulted in IEC 61000-4-30 standard concerning power quality. For the first time,
this standard (and related standards) provided very precise methods, mathematical relations and
required measurement accuracy for power quality analyzers. Compliance with the standard (in par-
ticular, the class A) should be a guarantee of repeatable and almost identical measurement results
of the same magnitudes measured with devices from different manufacturers.
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PQM-700 User Manual
6.2 Current measurement
6.2.1 Current transformer clamps (CT) for AC measurements

CT Current Transformer Clamp is just a transformer converting a large current in primary wind-
ing to a smaller current in secondary winding. The jaws of typical current clamp are made of a
ferromagnetic material (such as iron) with the secondary winding wound around. The primary wind-
ing is a conductor around which the clamp jaws are closed, hence
most often it is one single coil. If the 1000-ampere current flows
through the tested conductor, in the secondary winding with 1000
coils the current will be only 1 A (if the circuit is closed). In case
of clamps with voltage output, a shunt resistor is located in the
clamps.
Such current transformer has a few characteristic proper-
ties. It can be used to measure very large currents, and its power
consumption is low. The magnetizing current causes some phase
shift (tenth of a degree) which can result in some power measure-
Fig. 16. Current ment error (particularly when the power factor is low). Another dis-
transformer clamp with advantage of this clamp type is also the core saturation phenom-
voltage output. enon when very large currents are measured (above the rated
range). Core saturation as a result of magnetizing hysteresis
leads to significant measurement errors which can be eliminated
only by the core demagnetization. The core becomes saturated also when the measured current
has a significant DC component. An undeniable disadvantage of such clamp is also its considerable
weight.
Despite such drawbacks, the CT clamps are presently the most widely used non-invasive alter-
nating current (AC) measurement method.
The following CT clamps can be used with the PQM-700 analyzers to measure alternating cur-
rents:
 C-4(A), rated range 1000 A AC,
 C-6(A), rated range 10 A AC,
 C-7(A), rated range 100 A AC.
6.2.2 AC/DC measurement clamps

There are situations when it is necessary to measure the current DC component. In such case,
the clamps must be based on different principle of operation than a traditional current transformer.
The clamps in this case use the physical phenomenon known as the Hall effect and include a Hall
sensor. In brief: the effect is the production of voltage across an electrical conductor through which
the current is flowing and which is placed in a magnetic field. The voltage is transverse to the field
induction vector.
The clamps based on this phenomenon can measure the DC and AC current component. The
conductor with current located inside the clamps generates a magnetic field which concentrates in
an iron core. In the core slot, where both clamp parts are joined, placed is a semiconductor Hall
sensor, and its output voltage is amplified by an electronic circuit supplied from a battery.
This clamp type usually has the current zero adjustment knob. To adjust the current zero, close
the jaws (no conductor inside) and turn the knob until the DC indication is zero.
In the area of AC/DC measurement clamps, Sonel S.A. offers the C-5(A) clamp with rated range
of 1000 A AC / 1400 A DC. This clamp has a voltage output and for 1000 A rated current it gives a
1 V voltage signal (1 mV/A).
44
6.2.3 Flexible current probes

Flexible Current Probes are based on a totally differ-
ent physical principle than the current transformer. Their
principal part is a so-called Rogowski coil, named after
German physicist Walter Rogowski. It is an air-core coil
wound around a conductor with current. Special design
of the coil allows leading out its both ends on the same
side, thus facilitating clamp placement around the con-
ductor (the return end is placed inside the coil at its entire
length). The current flowing through the measured con-
ductor causes centric magnetic field lines which due to
the self-induction phenomenon induce the electromotive
force at the end of the coil. This voltage, however, is pro-
portional to the rate of current change in the conductor,
and not to the current itself.
In comparison with current transformers, the
Rogowski coil has a few indisputable advantages. As it
does not have a core, the core saturation effect is elimi-
nated; thus being a perfect instrument to measure large
currents. Such coil has also an excellent linearity and a
wide pass band, much wider than a current transformer,
Fig. 17. Rogowski coil. and its weight is much smaller.
However, until recently the wider expansion of flex-
ible clamps in the current measurement area was diffi-
cult. There are some factors which hinder practical implementation of a measurement system with
a Rogowski coil. One of them is a very low voltage level which is induced on the clamps (it depends
on geometrical dimensions of the coil). For example, the output voltage for the 50 Hz frequency of
the F-series flexible probes (to be used with PQM-700) is about 45 µV/A. Such low voltages require
the use of precise and low-noise amplifiers which of course increase the costs.
Because the output voltage is proportional to the current derivative, it is necessary to use an
integrating circuit; generally, the flexible probes comprise a Rogowski coil and an analog integrator
circuit (characteristic battery-powered module). On the integrator output available is the voltage
signal proportional to measured current and suitably scaled (for example 1 mV/A).
Another problem connected with the Rogowski coil is its sensitivity to external magnetic fields.
A perfect coil should be sensitive only to the fields closed within its area and should totally suppress
external magnetic fields. But this is a very difficult task. The only way to obtain such properties is
very precise manufacture of the coil, with perfectly homogenous windings and impedance as low
as possible. It is the high precision which causes a relatively high price of such probe.
The PQM-700 analyzer can be used with the following flexible probes from Sonel S.A.:
 F-1(A), with coil circumference 120 cm,
 F-2(A), with coil circumference 80 cm,
 F-3(A), with coil circumference 45 cm.
All these probes have identical electrical parameters. The peak current which can be measured
after connecting to PQM-700 is about 10 kA (the limitation is due to the properties of the input
channels, and not the probe itself).
6.3 Flicker
In terms of power quality, flicker means a periodical changes of the luminous intensity as a
result of fluctuations of voltage supplied to light bulbs.
The flicker measurement function appeared in the power quality analyzers when it turned out
that this phenomenon causes a deteriorated well-being, annoyance, sometimes headache, etc. The
luminous intensity fluctuations must have a specified frequency, they may not be to slow as then
human iris can adapt to changed lighting, and they may not be too fast because the filament inertia
45
PQM-700 User Manual
offsets these fluctuations almost totally.

The tests have proved that maximum arduousness occurs at the frequency of about 9 changes
per second. The most sensitive light sources are traditional incandescent bulbs with tungsten fila-
ment. Halogen bulbs, which filaments have much higher temperature, have also much higher inertia
which reduces the perceived brightness changes. Fluorescent lamps have the best flicker “re-
sistance”, as due to their some specific properties they stabilize the current flowing through the lamp
during the voltage changes, and thus reduce the fluctuations.
Flicker is measured in so-called perceptibility units, and there are two types of flicker: short-
term PST which is determined once every 10 minutes, and long-term PLT which is calculated on the
basis of 12 consecutive PST values, i.e. every 2 hours. Long measurement time results directly from
slow-changing character of this phenomenon – in order to collect a reliable data sample, the meas-
urement must be long. PST equal to 1 is considered a value on the border of annoyance – certainly
sensitivity to flicker is different in different people; this threshold has been adopted after tests carried
out on a representative group of people.
What causes flicker? Most frequently, the reason is the voltage drop as a result of connecting
and disconnecting large loads and some level of flicker is present in the majority of mains systems.
Disregarding the unfavorable effect on humans described above, flicker does not need to be – and
usually is not – a symptom of malfunctioning of our installation. However, if a rather abrupt and
unexplainable flicker level increase is observed in the mains (increase of P ST and PLT), this should
not be ignored under any circumstances. It may turn out that the flicker is caused by unsure con-
nections in the installation – increased voltage drops on connections in the distribution panel (for
example) will result in higher voltage fluctuations on the receivers, such as light bulbs. The voltage
drops on connections also cause their heating, and finally sparking and possibly a fire. Periodical
mains tests and described symptoms can turn our attention and help find the source of hazard.
6.4 Power measurement

Power is one of the most important parameters defining the properties of electrical circuits. The
basic magnitude used for financial settlements between the supplier and the consumer is electric
energy which is the power multiplied by time.
A few different power types can be found in electrical engineering:
 active power, designated as P and measured in watts,
 reactive power, designated as Q, unit is var,
 apparent power, S, unit is VA.
These three types of power are the most known, but there are also other types.
At school we are taught that these three power types make up a so-called power triangle which
properties are expressed by the following equation:
P 2 + Q2 = S 2
This equation is however correct only for systems with sinusoidal voltage and current wave-
forms.
Before a more detailed discussion about the power measurement, individual types of power
should be defined.
6.4.1 Active power

Active power P is a magnitude with precise physical meaning and it expresses the ability of a
system to perform a given work. It is the power most desired by the energy consumers and it is for
this supplied power that the consumer pays the supplier in a given settlement period (the problem
of fees for additional reactive power is discussed separately – see below). It is the active power
(and consequently, the active energy) which is measured by electric energy meters in each house-
hold.
Basic formula to calculate the active power is as follows:
46
𝑡+𝑇
1
𝑃= ∫ 𝑢(𝑡)𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡
where: u(t) – instantaneous voltage value, i(t) - instantaneous current value, T – period for which
the power is calculated.
In sinusoidal systems, the active power can be calculated as:
𝑃 = 𝑈𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
where: U is RMS voltage, I is RMS current, and  is the phase shift angle between the voltage and
the current.
The PQM-700 analyzer calculates the active power directly from the integral formula, using
sampled voltage and current waveforms:
𝑀
1
𝑃= ∑ 𝑈𝑖 𝐼𝑖
𝑀
𝑖=1
where M is a number of samples in the 10/12-period measuring window (2048 for the 50 Hz and
60 Hz system), Ui and Ii are successive voltage and current samples.
6.4.2 Reactive power

The most popular formula for reactive power is also correct only for one-phase circuits with
sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms:
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
Interpretation of this power in such systems is as follows: it is an amplitude of AC component

of instantaneous power on the source terminals. Existence of a non-zero value of this power indi-
cates a bidirectional and oscillating energy flow between the source and the receiver.
Let us imagine a one-phase system with sinusoidal voltage source which load is a RC circuit.
As under such conditions, the elements’ behavior is linear, the source current waveform will be
sinusoidal, but due to the properties of capacitor it will be shifted in relation to source voltage. In
such a system, reactive power Q will be non-zero and can be interpreted as an amplitude of energy
oscillation which alternately is collected in the capacitor and returned to the source. Capacitor active
power equals zero.
However, it turns out the energy oscillation seems only an effect, and that it appears in particular
cases of circuits with sinusoidal current and voltage waveforms, and is not the cause of reactive
power. Research in this area has shown that reactive power occurs also in circuits without any
energy oscillation. This statement may surprise many engineers. In latest publications on power
theory, the only physical phenomenon mentioned which always accompanies appearance of reac-
tive power is phase shift between current and voltage.
The reactive power formula given above is correct only for one-phase sinusoidal circuits. The
question thus arises: how do we calculate the reactive power in non-sinusoidal systems? This ques-
tion opens a proverbial Pandora’s box among electrical engineers. It turns out that the reactive
power definition in real systems (and not only those idealized) has been subject to controversy and
now (2009) we do not have one, generally accepted definition of reactive power in systems with
non-sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms, not to mention even unbalanced three-phase sys-
tems. The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) 1459-2000 standard (from 2000)
does not give a formula for total reactive power for non-sinusoidal three-phase systems – as three
basic types of power the standard mentions are active power, apparent power and – attention –
47
PQM-700 User Manual
nonactive power designated as N. Reactive power has been limited only to the fundamental com-
ponent and designated Q1.
This standard is the last document of this type issued by recognized organization which was to
put the power definition issues in order. It was even more necessary as the voices had been ap-
pearing in scientific circles for many years that the power definitions used so far may give erroneous
results. Most of all, the controversies related to the definition of reactive and apparent power (and
also distortion power – see below) in one- and three-phase systems with non-sinusoidal current and
voltage waveforms.
In 1987, professor L.S. Czarnecki proved that the widely used definition of reactive power by
Budeanu was wrong. This definition is still taught in some technical schools and it was proposed by
professor Budeanu in 1927. The formula is as follows:
∞
𝑄𝐵 = ∑ 𝑈𝑛 𝐼𝑛 sin 𝜑𝑛
𝑛=0
where Un and In are voltage and current harmonics of order n, and n are angles between these
components.
As, after this magnitude has been introduced, the known power triangle equation was not met
for circuits with non-sinusoidal waveforms, Budeanu introduced a new magnitude called the distor-
tion power:
𝐷𝐵 = √𝑆 2 − (𝑃 2 + 𝑄𝐵 2 )
Distortion power was to represent in the system the power appearing due to distorted voltage
and current waveforms.
For years, reactive power had been associated with energy oscillations between the source and
the load. The formula indicates that according to Budeanu’s definition, the reactive power is a sum
of reactive power of individual harmonics. Due to the sin factor, such components can be positive
or negative, depending on the angle between the harmonics of voltage and current. Hence, a situ-
ation is possible when total reactive power QB will be zero at non-zero harmonic components. Ob-
servation that at non-zero components, total reactive power can – according to this definition – be
zero is a key to a deeper analysis which finally allowed proving that in some situations QB can give
quite surprising results. The research has questioned the general belief that there is a relation be-
tween energy oscillations and Budeanu reactive power QB. One can give examples of circuits in
which despite oscillating character of instantaneous power waveform, reactive power according to
Budeanu is zero. Over the years, the scientists have not been able to connect any physical phe-
nomenon to the reactive power according to this definition.
Such doubts about the correctness of this definition of course also cast shadow on the related
distortion power DB. The scientists have started to look for answers to the question whether the
distortion power DB really is the measure of distorted waveforms in non-sinusoidal circuits. The
distortion is a situation in which the voltage waveform cannot be “put” on the current waveform with
two operations: change of amplitude and shift in time. In other words, if the following condition is
met:
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑖(𝑡 − 𝜏)
the voltage is not distorted in relation to the current. In case of sinusoidal voltage and load which is
any combination of RLC elements, this condition is always met (for sinusoidal waveforms, these
elements maintain linearity). However, when the voltage is distorted, the RLC load does not ensure
absence of current distortion in relation to voltage any more, and the load is no longer linear – it is
necessary to meet some additional conditions (module and phase of load impedance changing with
frequency).
48
And then, is really DB a measure of such distortion? Unfortunately, also in this case the Bude-
anu’s power theory fails. It has been proven that the distortion power can be equal to zero in a
situation when voltage is distorted in relation to current waveform, and vice versa, the distortion
power can be non-zero at total absence of distortion.
Practical aspect of this power theory which relates to improvement of power factor in systems
with reactive power was to be the feature to take the most advantage of correct definitions of reac-
tive power. The compensation attempts based on the Budeanu reactive power and related distortion
power fell through. These magnitudes did not allow even a correct calculation of correction capaci-
tance which gives the maximum power factor. Sometimes, such attempts ended even with addi-
tional deterioration of power factor.
How come, then, that the Budeanu’s power theory has become so popular? There may be
several reasons. Firstly, engineers got accustomed to old definitions and the curricula in schools
have not been changed for years. This factor is often underestimated, though as a form of justifica-
tion it can be said that this theory had not been refuted for 60 years. Secondly, in the 1920s there
were no measuring instruments which could give insight in individual voltage and current harmonic
components and it was difficult to verify new theories. Thirdly, distorted voltage and current wave-
forms (i.e. with high harmonics contents) are a result of revolution in electrical power engineering
which did not start before the second part of the last century. Thyristors, controlled rectifiers, con-
verters, etc. began to be widely used. All these caused very large current distortion in the mains,
and consequently increased harmonic distortion. Only then, were the deficiencies of the Budeanu’s
theory felt. Finally, fourthly, the scientific circles related to power utilities were aware of the fact that
industrial plants had invested a fortune in the measuring infrastructure (energy meters). Each
change is this respect could bring about huge financial consequences.
However, slow changes became visible in the views of electrical engineers. With time, as non-
linear loads were more and more frequent and the waveforms more and more distorted, the limita-
tions of used formulas could no longer be tolerated.
A very significant event was the 2000 publication by IEEE of the standard 1459 called “Defini-
tions for the Measurement of Electric Power Quantities Under Sinusoidal, Non-Sinusoidal, Bal-
anced, or Unbalanced Conditions”. For the first time, Budeanu’s definition of reactive power has
been listed as not recommended which should not be used in new reactive power and energy me-
ters. Many magnitudes have been also divided into the part related to the current and voltage fun-
damental component (first harmonics) and the part related to remaining higher harmonics. In most
cases, it is recognized that the usable part of energy is transmitted by the 50/60Hz components,
with much smaller (and often harmful) participation of higher harmonics.
The standard also introduced a new magnitude – nonactive power N which represents all non-
active components of power:
𝑁 = √𝑆 2 − 𝑃 2
Reactive power is one of the components of nonactive power N. In one-phase systems with
sinusoidal voltage and current waveforms, N equals Q; hence the nonactive power does not have
any other components. In three-phase systems, this is true only for symmetrical sinusoidal systems
with a balanced purely resistive load.
Other nonactive power components are related to concrete physical phenomena. According to
the professor Czarnecki’s theory, which is one of the best in explaining the physical phenomena in
three-phase systems, the power equation in such systems is as follows:
𝑆 2 = 𝑃 2 + 𝐷𝑠 2 + 𝑄2 + 𝐷𝑢 2
Ds is the scattered power which appears in the system as a result of changing load conductance
with frequency. Hence, presence of reactive elements in the system may cause the scattered power.
In this equation, reactive power Q appears when there is a phase shift between the voltage and
current harmonics.
Du means the unbalanced power which is a measure of unbalance of a three-phase receiver.
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PQM-700 User Manual
This component explains the situation in which an unbalanced three-phase load of a purely resistive
character results in the power factor less than one. Such load does not have the reactive power Q,
and still the results from the power triangle S, P, Q are totally different (the Budeanu’s power theory
with its distortion power could not explain this situation either – in a purely resistive load, the distor-
tion power DB equals zero).
An attempt to connect the IEEE 1459-2000 standard with the Czarnecki’s power theory leads
to the conclusion that nonactive power conceals at least three separate physical phenomena which
influence the reduced effectiveness of energy transmission from the source to the receiver, i.e.
reduction of the power factor.
𝑃 𝑃
𝑃𝐹 = =
𝑆𝑒 √𝑃2 + 𝐷 2 + 𝑄2 + 𝐷 2
𝑠 𝑢
In the IEEE 1459-2000 standard, reactive power known as Q has been limited to the fundamen-
tal component, for both one-phase and three-phase systems:
𝑄1 = 𝑈1 𝐼1 sin 𝜑1
In three-phase systems, only the positive sequence component is taken into consideration:
𝑄1+ = 3𝑈1+ 𝐼1+ sin 𝜑1+
Correct measurement of this power requires the same phase rotation sequence (i.e. phase L2
delayed by 120 in relation to L1, phase L3 delayed by 240 in relation to L1).
The term of positive sequence component will be discussed in more detail in the section devoted
to unbalance.
The value of reactive power of the fundamental component is the main value which allows es-
timating the size of capacitor to improve the displacement power factor (DPF), that is the displace-
ment of the voltage fundamental components in relation to the current fundamental component (i.e.
compensator of the reactive power of the fundamental component).
6.4.3 Reactive power and three-wire systems

Correct reactive power measurement is impossible in unbalanced receivers connected accord-
ing to the three-wire system (delta and wye systems without the N conductor). Such statement may
come as a surprise for many people.
The receiver can be treated as a “black box” with only 3 terminals available. We cannot deter-
mine its internal structure. In order to calculate the reactive power, we need to know the phase shift
angle between the voltage and the current at each leg of such receiver. Unfortunately, we do not
know this angle. In the delta-type receiver we know the voltages on individual impedances, but we
do not know the current; in such systems, the phase-to-phase voltages and line currents are meas-
ured. Each line current is a sum of two phase currents. In the wye without N-type receivers, we
know the currents flowing through impedance, but we do not know the voltages (each phase-to-
phase voltage is a sum of two phase-to-neutral voltages.
We need to take account of the fact that at given voltage values at terminals and currents flowing
into such “black box”, there is an infinite number of variants of receiver internal structure which will
give us identical measurement results of voltage and current values visible outside the black box.
Then, how is it possible that there are reactive power meters intended for measurements in
three-wire systems and the mains analyzers which allow the reactive power measurement under
such circumstances?
In both cases, the manufacturers use the trick which involves an artificial creation of a reference
point (virtual neutral terminal N). Such point can be created very easily by connecting to the termi-
nals of our black box a wye-connected system of three resistors of the same value.
In no case should a measuring instrument mislead the user, and such approximation can be
50
allowed only after a clear reservation that the indicated value is not a result of actual measurement,
but only an approximated value.
6.4.4 Reactive power and reactive energy meters

Reactive energy meters are devices unknown to the household users who for settlements with
energy suppliers use the meters of active energy expressed in Wh or kWh. Household users are in
a comfortable situation – they pay only for usable energy and do not have to think what the power
factor is in their installations.
In contrast to the first group, the industrial consumers are obliged in their contracts and some-
times under pain of financial penalties to keep the power factor at an appropriate level.
The EN 50160 standard gives some guidelines for the power quality requirements, and defines
the quality parameters which should be met by energy supplier. Among these parameters are,
among others, mains frequency, RMS voltage, total harmonic distortion (THD) and allowed levels
of individual voltage harmonics. Besides EN 50160 requirements there is often an additional condi-
tion: the supplier does not need to comply with those requirements if an energy consumer does not
ensure the tan factor below some threshold (agreed value which can be changed in the contract
between the energy supplier and consumer, i.e. 0.4) and/or exceeds the agreed level of consumed
active energy.
The tan is defined as a ratio of measured reactive energy to the active energy in a settlement
period. Going back for a while to the power triangle in sinusoidal systems, we can see that the
tangent of the phase shift angle between the voltage and the current is equal to the ratio of reactive
power Q to active power P. Consequently, the requirement to maintain the tan below 0.4 means
nothing else but only that maximum level of measured reactive energy may not exceed 0.4 of the
measured active energy. Each consumption of reactive energy above this level is subject to addi-
tional fees.
Does the knowledge of tan calculated in this manner give both interested parties an actual
view of energy transmission effectiveness? Have we not mentioned before that the reactive power
is only one of the nonactive power components which influence the power factor reduction?
Indeed, it seems that instead of tan we should use the power factor PF which takes into account
also other issues.
Unfortunately, if the present regulations leave no choice, than the correct reactive power meas-
urement seems a key matter. Now, a question should be asked whether the reactive energy meters
ensure correct readings in the light of the controversies described above. And what do such widely
used meters really measure?
One can attempt to look for answers to these questions is the standard on such meters - IEC
62053-23. Unfortunately, to our disappointment, we will not find there any reference to measure-
ments in non-sinusoidal conditions – the calculation formulas relate to sinusoidal conditions (we can
read in the standard that due to “practical” reasons, non-sinusoidal waveforms have been ex-
cluded). The standard does not give any measurement criteria which would allow checking the me-
ter properties at distorted voltage and current waveforms. As a surprise comes also the fact that the
older standard IEC 61268 (already withdrawn) defined the test which involved checking the meas-
urement accuracy at 10% of the third current harmonic.
The present situation leaves the choice of measuring method to the meters designers, which
unfortunately leads to significant differences in reactive energy indications in the presence of high
harmonic distortion level.
Older, electromechanical meters have characteristics similar to that of a low-pass filter – higher
harmonics are attenuated in such meters and the reactive power measurement in the presence of
harmonics is very close to the value of reactive power of the fundamental component.
Electronic meters which are more and more popular can perform the measurement with various
methods. For example, they can measure active and apparent power, and then calculate the reac-
tive power from the power triangle (square root from the sum of both such powers squared). In
reality, in the view of the IEEE 1459-2000 standard, they measure the nonactive power, not the
reactive power. Another manufacturer may use the method with voltage waveform shift by 90,
which gives a result close to the reactive power of the fundamental component.
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PQM-700 User Manual
The higher the harmonics content, the higher difference in readings, and of course, as a con-
sequence, other fees for measured energy.
As it has been signaled before, the reactive power measurement in unbalanced three-wire sys-
tems with traditional meters is subject to an additional error caused by creation of a virtual zero
inside the meter which has little to do with actual zero of the receiver.
On top of that, the manufacturers usually do not give any information about the applied meas-
uring method.
One can only wait impatiently for the next version of the standard, which – let’s hope – will
define the measuring and testing methods much more precisely, also for non-sinusoidal conditions.
6.4.5 Apparent power
Apparent power S is expressed as the product of RMS voltage and RMS current:
𝑆 = 𝑈𝐼
As such, the apparent power does not have a physical interpretation; it is used during designing
of transmission equipment. In terms of value, it is equal to maximum active power which can be
supplied to a load at given RMS voltage and current. Thus, the apparent power defines the maxi-
mum capacity of the source to supply usable energy to the receiver.
The measure of effective use of supplied power by the receiver is the power factor, which is the
ratio of active power to apparent power.
In sinusoidal systems:
𝑃 𝑈𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
𝑃𝐹 = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
𝑆 𝑈𝐼
In non-sinusoidal systems such simplification is however not allowed, and the power factor is
calculated on the basis of actual ratio of active power and apparent power.
𝑃
𝑃𝐹 =
𝑆
In one-phase systems, the apparent power is calculated as shown in the formula above and
there are no surprises. However, it turns out that in three-phase systems calculation of this power
is equally difficult as calculation of reactive power. Of course, this is related to actual systems with
non-sinusoidal waveforms which additionally can be unbalanced.
The tests have shown that the formulas used so far can give erroneous results if the system is
unbalanced. As apparent power is a conventional magnitude and does not have a physical inter-
pretation, determination which of proposed apparent power definitions is correct could be difficult.
Yet, the attempts have been made based on the observation that the apparent power is closely
related to the transmission losses and the power factor. Knowing the transmission losses and the
power factor, one can indirectly specify a correct definition of apparent power.
The definitions which have been used so far include arithmetic apparent power and vector ap-
parent power. The test have shown however that neither the arithmetic definition nor the vector
definition give correct value of the power factor. The only definition which did not fail in such a
situation, was the definition proposed as early as in 1922 by German physicist F. Buchholz:
It is based on RMS current and voltage, and the power is called an effective apparent power
(hence, the index “e” in designations in three-phase systems). Those effective voltage and current
values are such theoretical values which represent voltage and current in an energetically equiva-
lent three-phase balanced system. Consequently, the key issue is to determine the Ue and Ie.
52
The IEEE 1459 standard gives the following formulas. In three-wire systems:
𝐼𝑎 2 + 𝐼𝑏 2 + 𝐼𝑐 2
𝐼𝑒 = √
3
𝑈𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑈𝑏𝑐 2 + 𝑈𝑐𝑎 2

𝑈𝑒 = √
9
In four-wire systems:
𝐼𝑎 2 + 𝐼𝑏 2 + 𝐼𝑐 2 + 𝐼𝑛 2
𝐼𝑒 = √
3
2
3(𝑈𝑎 2 + 𝑈𝑏 2 + 𝑈𝑐 2 ) + 𝑈𝑎𝑏 + 𝑈𝑏𝑐 2 + 𝑈𝑐𝑎 2
𝑈𝑒 = √
18
where Ia, Ib, Ic, are RMS currents for individual phases (line or phase), In is the RMS current in neutral
conductor, Ua, Ub, Uc are RMS phase-to-neutral voltages, and Uab, Ubc, Uca are RMS phase-to-phase
voltages.
Se calculated in this manner includes both the power losses in the neutral conductor (in four-
wire systems) and the effect of unbalance.
6.4.6 Distortion power DB and effective nonfundamental apparent power SeN

During the discussion on reactive power, it was proved that the distortion power according to
Budeanu cannot be used at large voltage and current distortions and three-phase systems unbal-
ance (a paradox of distortion power which is not a measure of actual distortion). Despite this fact,
however, this power is often used by energy quality specialists and manufacturers of systems for
reactive power compensation.
It must be clearly said that this parameter has given relatively good results only in conditions of
slight distortion of voltage and current waveforms.
The IEEE 1459-2000 standard lists this definition of power, however just like in case of Budeanu
reactive power, it has a non-removable defect and it is recommended to discard it entirely. Instead
of DB, another value has been proposed which is a much better characteristics of total distortion
power in a system - nonfundamental apparent power SeN. The SeN power allows a quick estimation
whether a load works in conditions of small or large harmonic distortion; it is also a basis for esti-
mating the static values and active filters or compensators.
2
𝑆𝑒𝑁 = √𝑆𝑒2 − 𝑆𝑒1
where:
𝑆𝑒1 = 3𝐼𝑒1 𝑈𝑒1
Effective current and effective voltage of the fundamental component (Ief and Uef respectively) are
calculated similarly to Ie and Ue, but instead of RMS phase-to-neutral or phase-to-phase voltages,
the effective voltages of fundamental components are substituted:
𝑆𝑁 = √𝑆 2 − (𝑈1 𝐼1 )2
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PQM-700 User Manual
where U1 and I1 are effective values of fundamental components of phase-to-neutral voltage and
current.
6.4.7 Power factor

True Power Factor or Power Factor (TPF or PF) is the value which takes into account also the
presence of higher harmonics. For sinusoidal systems, it is equal to Displacement Power Factor
(DPF), popular cos.
Hence, DPF is a measure of phase shift between the fundamental voltage and current compo-
nents:
𝑃1 𝑈1 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑈1𝐼1
𝐷𝑃𝐹 = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑈1𝐼1
𝑆1 𝑈1 𝐼1
The general formula for True Power Factor is:
𝑃
𝑃𝐹 =
𝑆
In case of a purely resistive load (in a one-phase system), the apparent power is equal to active
power (in terms of value), and reactive power equals zero, so such load fully uses the energy po-
tential of the source and the power factor is 1. Appearance of reactive component inevitably leads
to reduction of energy transmission effectiveness – the active power is then less than apparent
power, and the reactive power is increasing.
In three-phase systems, the power factor reduction is also influenced by receiver unbalance
(see discussion on reactive power). In such systems, correct power factor value is obtained using
the effective apparent power Se that is the value defined, among others, in the IEEE 1459-2000
standard.
6.5 Harmonics
Decomposition of periodic signal into harmonic components is a very popular mathematical
operation based on Fourier’s theorem which says that any periodic signal can be represented as a
sum of sinusoidal components with frequencies equal to multiples of basic frequency of such signal.
Time-domain signal can be subjected to Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to receive amplitudes and
phases of harmonic components in the frequency domain.
In a perfect situation, voltage is generated in a generator which at output gives a pure sinusoidal
50/60 Hz waveform (absence of any higher harmonics). If the receiver is a linear system, then also
current in such situation is a pure sinusoidal waveform. In real systems, voltage and current wave-
forms can be distorted, hence in addition to the fundamental component there must be harmonics
of higher orders.
Why is the presence of higher harmonics in the system not desirable?
One of the reasons is the skin effect which involves pushing out the electrons from the center of
conductor towards the surface as the current frequency is increasing. As a result, the higher the
frequency, the smaller the effective conductor cross section which is available for the electrons,
which means that the conductor resistance is increasing. Consequently, the higher the current har-
monics, the higher effective cabling resistance for this harmonics, and this inevitably leads to more
power losses and heating.
A classic example connected with this effect is related to neutral conductor in three-phase sys-
tems. In a system with little distortion, little unbalance and a balanced (or slightly unbalanced) re-
ceiver, the current in neutral conductor has the tendency of zeroing (it is much smaller that RMS
phase currents). Such observation has tempted many designers to obtains savings by installing the
cabling in such systems with neutral conductor of a smaller cross section than in phase conductors.
And everything went well until the appearance of odd harmonic orders which are multiples of 3
(third, ninth, etc.). Suddenly, the neutral conductor began overheating and the measurement
54
showed very high RMS current. Explanation of this phenomenon is however rather simple. In this
example, the designer did not take into consideration two circumstances: in systems with distorted
waveforms, the higher harmonics might not zero in the neutral conductor, and quite to the contrary,
they may sum up, and secondly, the skin effect and high harmonic currents additionally contributed
to the neutral conductor heating.
Let us try now to answer two basic questions:

What is the cause of harmonic components in voltage?
What is the cause of harmonic components in current?
Seemingly, these two questions are almost identical, but separation of current and voltage is
extremely important to understand the essence of this issue.
The answer to the first question is as follows: harmonics in voltage are a result on a non-zero
impedance of the distribution system, between the generator (assuming that it generates a pure
sinusoid) and the receiver.
Harmonics in current, on the other hand, are a result of non-linear impedance of the receiver.
Of course, it must be noted that a linear receiver to which distorted voltage is supplied will also have
identically distorted current waveform.
For years, in the literature the following statement has been used “receiver generates harmon-
ics”. It should be remembered that in such case, the receiver is not a physical source of energy (as
suggested by the word “generates”). The only source of energy is the distribution system. If the
receiver is a passive device, the energy sent from the receiver to the distribution system comes
from the same distribution system. What we have here is a disadvantageous and useless bidirec-
tional energy flow. As discussed earlier in the section on power factor, such phenomenon leads to
unnecessary energy losses, and the current “generated” in the receiver causes an additional load
on the distribution system.
Let us consider the following example. A typical non-linear receiver, such as widely used
switched-mode power supplies (i.e. for computers) receives power from a perfect generator of si-
nusoidal voltage. For the time being, let us assume that the impedance of connections between the
generator and the receiver is zero. The voltage measured on the receiver terminals will have sinus-
oidal waveform (absence of higher harmonics) – this is imply the generator voltage. The receiver
current waveform will however include harmonic components – a non-linear receiver often takes
current only in specified moments of the total sinusoid period (for example, maximum current can
take place at the voltage sinusoid peaks).
However, the receiver does not generate these current harmonics, it simply takes current in a
variable or discontinuous way. The whole energy is supplied only by the generator.
In the next step, we can modify the circuit by introducing some impedance between the gener-
ator and the receiver. Such impedance represents the resistance of cabling, transformer winding,
etc.
Measurements of voltage and current harmonics will give slightly different results. What will
change? Small voltage harmonics will appear, and in addition current frequency spectrum will
slightly change.
When analyzing the voltage waveform on the receiver, one could notice that original sinusoidal
waveform was slightly distorted. If the receiver took current mainly at voltage peaks, it would have
visibly flattened tops. Large current taken at such moments results in larger voltage drops on the
system impedance. A part of the ideal sinusoidal voltage is now dropped on this impedance. A
change in the current spectrum is a result of slightly different waveform of voltage supplied to the
receiver.
The example described above and “flattened tops” of the sinusoid are very frequent in typical
systems to which switched-mode power supplies are connected.
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PQM-700 User Manual
6.5.1 Harmonics characteristics in three-phase system

In three-phase systems, the harmonics of given orders have a particular feature which is shown
in the table below:
Order 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Frequency [Hz] 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Sequence + – 0 + – 0 + – 0
(+ positive,
– negative,
0 zero)
The row “Sequence” refers to the symmetrical components method which allows the resolution
of any 3 vectors to three sets of vectors: positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence
(more in the part related to unbalance).
Let us use an example. Assuming that a three-phase motor is supplied from a balanced, 4-wire
mains (RMS phase-to-neutral voltage values are equal, and angles between the individual funda-
mental components are 120 each).
Sign “+” in the row specifying the sequence for the 1st harmonics means the normal direction of
the motor shaft rotation. The voltage harmonics, for which the sign is also “+” cause the torque
corresponding with the direction of the fundamental component. The harmonics of the 2 nd, 5th, 8th
and 11th order are the opposite sequence harmonics, meaning that they generate the torque which
counteracts normal motor direction of rotation, which can cause heating, unnecessary energy
losses, and reduced efficiency. The last group are the zero sequence components, such as the 3rd,
6th and 9th, which do not generate torque but flowing through the motor winding cause additional
heating.
Based on the data from the table, it is easy to note that the series +, –, 0 is repeated for all
successive harmonic orders. The formula which links the sequence with order is very simple, and
for k being any integer:
Sequence Harmonic order

“+” positive 3k +1
“–” negative 3k – 1
“0” zero 3k
The even order harmonics do not appear when a given waveform is symmetrical in relation to
its average value, and this is the case in majority of power supply systems. In a typical situation, the
measured even order harmonics have minimum values. If we consider this property, it turns out that
the group of harmonics with the most undesirable properties is the 3rd, 9th, 15th (zero sequence),
and the 5th, 11th, and 17th (negative sequence).
The current harmonics which are multiples of 3 cause additional problems in some systems. In
4-wire systems, they have a very undesirable property of summing up in the neutral conductor. It
turns out that, contrary to other order harmonics, in which the sum of instantaneous current values
is zeroed, the waveforms of these harmonics are in phase with each other which causes adding of
the phase currents in the neutral conductor. This can lead to overheating of such conductor (partic-
ularly in the distribution systems in which this conductor has a smaller cross section than the phase
conductors, and this was widely practiced until recently). Therefore, in systems with non-linear loads
and large current distortions, it is now recommended that the cross section of neutral conductor is
larger than that of the phased conductors. In the delta systems, the harmonics of these orders are
not present in the line currents (provided these are balanced systems), but they circulate in the load
branches, also causing unnecessary power losses.
Character of individual harmonics as shown in the table is fully accurate only in three-phase
balanced systems. Only in such systems, the fundamental component has the exclusively positive
sequence character. In actual systems, with some degree of supply voltage unbalance and the load
56
unbalance, there are non-zero positive and negative sequence components. The measure of such
unbalance is so-called unbalance factors. And this is due to this unbalance of the fundamental
component and additionally the differences in amplitudes and phases of the higher harmonics, that
also these harmonics will have the positive, negative and zero sequence components. The larger
the unbalance, the higher the content of remaining components.
6.5.2 THD
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is the most widely used measure of waveform distortion. Two
versions of this factor are applied in practical use:
 THDF (THD-F or simply THD) – total harmonic distortion referred to the fundamental com-
ponent,
 THDR (THD-R) – total harmonic distortion referred to the RMS value.
In both cases, THD is expressed in percent. The definitions are given below:
√∑𝑛ℎ=2 𝐴2ℎ
𝑇𝐻𝐷𝐹 = × 100%
𝐴1
√∑𝑛ℎ=2 𝐴2ℎ
𝑇𝐻𝐷𝑅 = × 100%
𝐴𝑅𝑀𝑆
where: Ah – RMS of the hth order harmonics,

A1 – RMS of the fundamental component,
ARMS – RMS waveform.
Limitation of the number of harmonics used to calculate THD is conventional and is caused
mainly by measuring limitations of the device. Because the PQM-700 is capable of measuring the
harmonic components up to the 40th order, the harmonics up to the 40th order are used to calculate
THD.
Please note that when the waveforms are very distorted, the two definitions presented above
will give significantly different results. THDR may not exceed 100%, but there is no such limit for
THDF and it may go up to 200% or higher. Such case can be seen when measuring very distorted
current. The voltage harmonic distortion usually does not exceed a few percent (both THD F and
THDR); for example, the limit according to EN 50160 is 8% (THDF).
6.6 Unbalance
Unbalance is term related to three-phase systems and can refer to:
 supply voltage unbalance
 load current unbalance
 receiver unbalance
In three-phase systems, the voltage (current) unbalance occurs when values of three compo-
nent voltages (currents) are different and/or the angles between individual phases are not equal to
120.
The receiver unbalance occurs when impedance values of individual receiver branches are not
equal.
These phenomena are particularly dangerous for three-phase motors, in which even a slight
voltage unbalance can cause current unbalance that is many times larger. In such situation, the
motor torque is reduced, heat losses in windings increase, and mechanical wear is faster. The un-
balance also has an unfavorable effect on power supply transformers.
The most frequent reason of unbalance is uneven load on individual phases. A good example
is connecting to three-phase systems of large one-phase loads, such as railway traction motors.
The PQM-700 is capable of measuring the voltage and current unbalance with a symmetrical
components method. This method is based on the assumption that each set of three unbalanced
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PQM-700 User Manual
vectors can be resolved to three groups of vectors: positive sequence, negative sequence and zero
sequence.
Fig. 18. Example of determination of positive sequence component.
As an example, let us use the calculation of voltage positive sequence component.
1
𝑈 + = (𝑈1𝐴 + 𝑎𝑈1𝐵 + 𝑎2 𝑈1°𝐶 )
3
where: U+ is the vector of positive sequence component ,

U1A, U1B, U1C are vectors of positive sequence components of phase-to-neutral voltages UA,
UB, UC
1 √3
𝑎 = 1𝑒𝑗120° = − + 𝑗
2 2
1 √3
𝑎2 = 1𝑒𝑗240° = − − 𝑗
2 2
Fig. 18 shows a graphical representation of determination of this component. As we can see

from the definition, the vector of positive-sequence component equals one third of the sum of the
summands U1A, aU1B, a2 U1C. Operators a and a2 are unit vectors with angles 120 and 240. The
procedure is as follows: turn the voltage vector U1B by 120 counterclockwise (multiply by a) and
add to the vector U1A. Then, turn the vector U1C by 240 and add to the previous sum of vectors. As
a result, you get the vector 3U+. The vector U+ is the symmetrical positive sequence component.
Let us note that in case of a perfect symmetry (equal voltages and angles), the positive sequence
component is equal in terms of value to the phase-to-neutral voltages.
The positive sequence component is a measure of similarity of the tested set of three-phase
vectors to the symmetrical set of positive sequence vectors.
Analogously, the negative sequence component is a measure of similarity to the symmetrical
set of negative sequence vectors.
The zero sequence component exists in the systems in which the sum of three voltages (or
currents) is not equal to zero.
A measure of the system unbalance which is widely used in the power generation is the negative
sequence and zero sequence unbalance (formulas are for the voltage).
𝑈0
𝑢0 = ∙ 100%
𝑈1
𝑈2
𝑢2 = ∙ 100%
𝑈1
where: u0 – zero sequence unbalance,
u2 – negative sequence unbalance,
58
U0 – zero sequence symmetrical component,

U1 – positive sequence symmetrical component,
U2 – negative sequence symmetrical component.
The most convenient method to calculate the symmetrical components and unbalance is using
the complex number calculus. The vectors parameters are amplitude of the voltage (current) fun-
damental component and its absolute phase shift angle. Both these values are obtained from FFT.
6.7 Detection of voltage dip, swell and interruption

Voltage dips, swells and interruptions are the mains system disturbances during which the RMS
voltage significantly differs from the nominal value. Each of the three states can be detected by the
analyzer when the event detection is activated and when the user defines the threshold values.
Voltage dip is a state during which the RMS voltage is lower than the user-defined voltage dip
threshold. The basis for the dip measurement is URMS(1/2), that is the one period RMS value refreshed
every half period.
Voltage dip definition (according to the IEC 61000-4-30 standard):
The voltage dip starts at the moment when the URMS(1/2) voltage decreases below the dip thresh-
old value, and ends at the moment when the URMS(1/2) voltage is equal to or greater than the dip
threshold value plus the voltage hysteresis.
The dip threshold is specified at 90% of Unom. During the voltage dip, the analyzer remembers
the minimum recorded voltage (this is called the residual voltage Ures and is one of the parameters
characterizing the dip) and the average voltage value.
Fig. 19. Voltage swells, dips and interruptions.
Interruption is a state during which the URMS(1/2) voltage is lower than the specified interruption
level. The interruption threshold is usually set much below the voltage dip level, at about 1..10% of
Unom.
The interruption starts at the moment when the URMS(1/2) voltage decreases below the interrup-
tion threshold value, and ends at the moment when the URMS(1/2) voltage is equal to or greater than
the interruption threshold value plus the voltage hysteresis.
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PQM-700 User Manual
During the interruption, the analyzer remembers the minimum recorded voltage and the average
voltage value.
Swell is a state of increased
voltage. The swell threshold is
usually set at the level close to
110% of Unom.
The swell starts at the mo-
ment when the URMS(1/2) voltage
increases above the swell thresh-
old value, and ends at the mo-
ment when the URMS(1/2) voltage is
equal or less than the swell
threshold value minus the voltage
hysteresis. During the interrup-
tion, the analyzer remem-bers
the maximum recorded voltage
and the average voltage value.
The hysteresis for all three Fig. 20. Determination of the Urms(1/2) value.
states is the same, and it is a
user-defined percent of nominal
voltage Unom (Events detection hysteresis parameter).
The analyzer remembers the event start and end time (with a half a period accuracy).
The minimum voltage dip, interruption and swell duration is half a period.
The URMS(1/2) values are determined during 1 period when the fundamental voltage component
passes the zero and they are refreshed every half-period, independently for each voltage channel.
This means that these values will be obtained at different times for different channels. Fig. 20 shows
the method of the RMS1/2 determination with two voltage phases. Information about the fundamental
component’s passing the zero is obtained by FFT.
6.8 CBEMA and ANSI curves

CBEMA curve was first proposed in the 70's of the last century by the organization that gave
the curve its name - Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (now Infor-
mation Technology Industry), which associated manufacturers of computer and office equipment.
The curve was developed as a guide in the construction of power supply adapters and at the be-
ginning it was a graph showing the tolerance of equipment to the size and duration of the disturb-
ances in the power grid. Later, the curve was used to design equipment sensitive to voltage fluctu-
ations as the reference range in which the equipment must operate properly. Finally the curve began
to be widely used in the analyses of power-supply quality in terms of disturbances such as swell,
dip, interruptions.
The vertical axis of the graph presents voltage in percent of the nominal value, whereas the
horizontal axis presents time (in logarithmic scale). The middle part of the graph (between curves)
represents the area of the correct operation of the device. The area above represents high voltage
conditions that may damage the device or trigger over-voltage protection, while the area under the
curves represents a situation of low voltage in mains, which may disconnect the power supply or
temporary power shortage resulting in incorrect operation of the equipment.
60
Fig. 21. Voltage tolerance curves ANSI (ITIC) and CBEMA.
As shown in the graph on Fig. 21, there is a relationship between the voltage value and the
duration of the disturbance. For example, voltage swell of 200% U nom and with duration of 1 ms, in
typical cases, does not result in failure or malfunctioning (point between curves), but an interference
of such amplitude, which lasts for half-period of the mains may be have very adverse effects (the
point above two curves). Generally it is accepted that in a typical situation, events occurring in the
power grid when it comes to the value of the mains voltage, should fit in the middle area of the graph
(between curves) and then they should not lead to malfunction or damage to the connected equip-
ment. Equipment manufacturers (especially power adaptors) often use this pattern while designing
their products, in order to ensure their reliable operation and maintaining proper output voltage.
Note, however, that the curve represents typical cases and cannot be a guarantee of correct oper-
ation for each device, as tolerance for interferences is very different.
ITIC curve is the successor of the CBEMA curve developed by ITI in 1994, and later modified
to its present form in 2000. This curve has the form of two broken lines and is also known as ANSI
curve, as it was adapted by ANSI (American National Standards Institute). Both curves are pre-
sented in Fig. 21.
Sonel Analysis software provides the ability to modify the characteristic points of the curves
allowing user to adjust them to individual requirements.
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PQM-700 User Manual
6.9 Averaging the measurement results

Mains monitoring over a longer period of time means that a huge amount of data needs to be
collected. If analysis of such data is to be possible at all, it is necessary to introduce the mechanisms
which will reduce the data size to the values acceptable by both, humans and machines.
Lets us take the example of EN 50160 compliant power quality measurements. The basic mains
test period is one week. If all 200-millisecond RMS values were to be remembered, we would get
3.024 million measurements. Processing of such amount of data would be time consuming and
difficult.
Therefore, the averaging concept has been introduced which involves recording one value per
a specified time interval for the analysis purposes. For the EN 50160 standard, such time interval
is 10 minutes. In such case, the analyzer calculates an average 10-minute value on the basis of
about three thousand 200-millisecond values (approximately, because in reality the conventional
200-millisecond value is a 10/12-period value synchronized with the mains frequency). Each aver-
age voltage value is recorded every 10 minutes which gives “only” 1008 measurement results.
Fig. 22 presents the method according to which the PQM-700 analyzer determines the average
values at averaging intervals equal to or greater than 10 seconds with the 10-minute averaging
time. This method meets the requirements specified in IEC 61000-4-30:2009.
Fig. 22. Determining the averaging intervals equal to or longer than 10 seconds (with the
10-minute averaging).
The average values are synchronized with real time clock in the following manner. When the
clock measures a successive full multiple of the averaging period, the instantaneous 10/12-period
measurement is added as the last to the average value (k-th measurement in Fig. 22). Simultane-
ously, the ending averaging period is given a time stamp which relates to its end. The next 10/12-
period measurement is the first in a consecutive averaging period.
Averaging with times less than 10 seconds is somewhat different. Although, they are all ex-
pressed in time units (200 ms, 1 s, 3 s, 5 s), in reality they are measured in multiples of the mains
period. For example, selecting of a 3-second averaging period means averaging in the time equal
to 150/180 mains periods (fifteen 10/12-period measurements).
62
Fig. 23. Determining the averaging intervals shorter than 10 seconds (with the 3-second
averaging).
The method of average values determination for such periods is shown in Fig. 23. Here, we do
not have synchronization with the real time clock. When a defined number of 10/12-period meas-
urement is collected, the instantaneous averaging period is closed and a new one starts. The time
stamp corresponds to the end of the interval.
Averaging of measurement results leads to the loss of extreme values (smoothing of results).
In cases when the information about a limit value of the measured parameter is essential, the user
can take advantage of the option of measuring the minimum, maximum and instantaneous values
in the averaging period. If a given parameter is measured in the 10/12-period time, the minimum
and maximum value is respectively the smallest and the largest 10/12-period value measured in a
given averaging interval. On the other hand, the instantaneous value is the last 10/12-period value
in this averaging interval.
In case of RMS current and voltage, the method of searching for minimum and maximum values
is more flexible and it is controlled by the Min/Max calculation period parameter. The user can
take advantage of the following options: half period, 200 ms, 1 s, 3 s and 5 s. If the half period option
is selected, the minimum and maximum values will be searched for with the highest sensitivity – to
the Urms(1/2). As this time is increasing, additional smoothing is being introduced; for example, with 5
seconds, first a 5-second average value is calculated which is then used to search for the minimum
and maximum values. This gives less sensitivity to instantaneous changes of the measured value.
Note: similarly to the averaging times shorter than 10 seconds, the 200 ms, 1 s, 3 s and 5 s times
are actually the multiples of the mains period - 10/12, 50/60, 150/180 and 250/300 mains periods,
respectively.
Selecting the right averaging period is not easy. To a large extent it depends on the type of
disturbance in the system and the user's expectations for the final data analysis. A frequent situation
is that we know only that there is a problem in the mains, and the measurements with the analyzer
will only help us identify the cause. In this situation it is better to use shorter averaging times (e.g.
10 seconds), and activate the recording of minimum and maximum values (for the voltages and
currents it is advisable in such situation to set the shortest possible time for determining the maxi-
mum and minimum value, i.e. half the period). Short time averaging will give more precise diagrams
of changes of parameters over time, and minimums and maximums will be detected and recorded.
Recording with short averaging times is performed mostly for limited time, primarily due to rapid
growth of data; the air of such recording is identifying the possible cause of a problem, and not a
long-term analysis.
Recording with a short averaging time may be sufficient to evaluate the performance of the
mains and disturbances in it. However, equally detailed information can probably also be obtained
with longer times (in minutes) but with activated recording of minimum and maximum values and
event detection. An important advantage in this situation is that the volume of recorded data is much
smaller which means faster data retrieval and analysis.
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PQM-700 User Manual
On the other hand, the power quality tests are usually made according to the EN 50160. In this
case, the analysis is carried out over a longer period of time (e.g. 7 days), and therefore the chosen
averaging time is also long - 10 minutes.
Please note that there is no single best setting for both the averaging time and other parameters
or event thresholds. Each mains system is different and so are the goals of the mains tests. There-
fore, the optimal configuration of the analyzer may require several approaches and will also depend
on the experience of the operator.
64
7 Technical specifications
 Specifications are subject to change without prior notice. Recent revisions of technical documen-
tation are available at www.sonel.pl.
 Basic uncertainty is the uncertainty of a measurement instrument at reference conditions specified
in Tab. 5.
 Provided uncertainties apply to PQM-700 without additional transformers and clamps.
 Abbreviations:
 m.v. – reference measured value,
 Unom – nominal voltage,
 Inom – nominal current (of clamps),
 RMS – RMS value,
 n – harmonic order,
 ph – additional uncertainty of error in the measurement of the phase between voltage and
current harmonics.
7.1 Inputs
Voltage input terminals
Number of inputs 4 (L1, L2, L3, N - 3 measuring channels)
Maximum input voltage 760 VRMS 40…70 Hz or DC
CAT IV 300 V
Measurement category CAT III 600 V
CAT II 760 V
Peak input voltage 1150 V
Range of measured DC voltages ±1150 V
Analog passband (-3dB) 12 kHz
Transducers defined by user
Impedance of measurement in- 14 M
puts
CMRR 70 dB (50 Hz)
Current input terminals

Number of inputs 4 (3 phases + neutral) not isolated galvanically
Nominal input voltage 1 VRMS
Peak input voltage ±3.6 V
Maximum current probes input
5 VRMS
voltage referred to earth
Analog passband (-3dB) 12 kHz
Input Impedance CT clamps: 100 k
Flexible clamps: 12.4 k
Measurement range (without Flexible clamps F-1(A)/F-2(A)/F-3(A): 1 ...3000 A (±10000 A peak)
transducers) CT clamps C-4(A), C-5(A): 1 ...1000 A (±3600 A peak)
CT clamps C-6(A): 0.01..10 A (±36 A peak)
CT clamps C-7(A): 0..100 A (±360 A peak)
Transformers defined by user
CMRR 60 dB (50 Hz)
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PQM-700 User Manual
7.2 Sampling and RTC

Sampling and RTC
A/D converter 16-bit
Sampling rate 10.24 kHz for 50 Hz and 60 Hz
Simultaneous sampling in all channels
Samples per period 204.8 for 50 Hz; 170.67 for 60 Hz
PLL synchronization 40..70Hz
Reference channel for PLL L1/A
Real-time clock 3.5 ppm max (approx.  9 sec./month)
in the temperature range of -20C…+55C
7.3 Measured parameters - accuracy, resolution and ranges
7.3.1 Reference conditions

Tab. 5. Reference conditions.
Reference conditions
Ambient temperature 23C 2C
Relative Humidity 40…60%
Voltage unbalance ≤ 0.1% for unbalance factor of negative sequence (applies only to 3-phase
systems)
External continuous magnetic field ≤ 40 A / m DC
≤ 3 A / m AC for 50/60 Hz frequency
DC component of voltage and current none
Waveforms sinusoidal
Frequency 50 Hz ±0.2% or 60 Hz ±0.2%
7.3.2 Voltage
Voltage Ranges and conditions Resolution Basic uncertainty
URMS (AC+DC) 20% Unom ≤ URMS ≤ 120% Unom 0.01% Unom 0.5% Unom
for Unom ≥ 100 V
Crest Factor 1..10 (1..1.65 for 690 V voltage) 0.01 5%
for URMS ≥ 10% Unom
7.3.3 Current
Ranges and condi-
Current Resolution Basic uncertainty
tions
IRMS (AC+DC)
Input path without clamps
0..1V (0..3.6Vp-p) 0.01% Inom 1% Inom
Flexible clamps F-1(A)/F-2(A)/F-3(A)

0..3000 A 0.01% Inom Additional uncertainty
(10 kAp-p) 1%
(2% taking into account additional
error due to the position)
CT clamps C-4(A)
(3600 Ap-p) 0.1..10 A:  (3% + 0.1 A)
10 A: 3%
50 A: 1.5%
200 A: 0.75%
1000..1200 A: 0.5%
66
CT clamps C-5(A)
(3600 Ap-p) 0,5..100 A: ≤ (1.5% + 1 A)
100..800 A: ≤ 2.5%
800..1000 A AC: ≤ 4%
800..1400 A DC: ≤ 4%
CT clamps C-6(A)
(36 Ap-p) 0,01..0.1 A:  (3% + 1 mA)
0.1..1 A: 2.5%
1..12 A: 1%
CT clamps C-7(A)
(360 Ap-p) 0..100A:  (0,5% + 0,02A)
(45..65Hz)
0..100A:  (1,0% + 0,04A)
(40..1000Hz)
Crest Factor 1..10 (1..3,6 for Inom) 0.01 5%
for IRMS ≥ 1% Inom
7.3.4 Frequency
Frequency Ranges and conditions Resolution Basic uncertainty
F 40..70 Hz 0.01 Hz 0.05 Hz
10% Unom ≤ URMS ≤ 120% Unom
7.3.5 Harmonics
Ranges and condi-
Harmonics Resolution Basic uncertainty
tions
Harmonic (n) DC, 1..40, grouping: harmonics sub-groups acc. to IEC 61000-4-7
URMS amplitude 0..200% Unom 0.01% Unom 0.15% Unom if m.v. <3% Unom
5% m.v. if m.v. ≥ 3% Unom
(acc. to IEC 61000-4-7 Class I)
IRMS amplitude Depending clamps 0.01% Inom 0.5% Inom if m.v. <10% Inom
used (see specifica- 5% of m.v. if m.v. ≥ 10% Inom
tions for IRMS) (acc. to IEC 61000-4-7 Class I)
Voltage THD-R 0.0…100.0% 0.1% 5%
(n = 2..40) for URMS ≥ 1% Unom
Current THD-R 0.0…100.0% 0.1% 5%
(n = 2..40) for IRMS ≥ 1% Inom
Phase angle (voltage) -180…+180 0.1  (n  1)
Phase angle (current) -180…+180 0.1  (n  1)
7.3.6 Power and energy

Conditions
Power and energy (for power and energy Resolution Basic uncertainty (1)
80% Unom ≤ URMS < 120% Unom)
Active power 2% Inom ≤ IRMS < 5% Inom depending on
Active energy Unom and Inom √2.52 + 𝛥2𝑝ℎ  %
cos = 1
5% Inom ≤ IRMS ≤ Inom
√2.02 + 𝛥2𝑝ℎ  %
cos = 1
5% Inom ≤ IRMS < 10% Inom
√2.52 + 𝛥2𝑝ℎ  %
cos = 0.5
10% Inom ≤ IRMS ≤ Inom
√2.02 + 𝛥2𝑝ℎ  %
cos = 0.5
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PQM-700 User Manual
Reactive power 2% Inom ≤ IRMS < 5% Inom depending on

Reactive energy Unom and Inom √4.02 + 𝛥2𝑝ℎ  %
sin = 1
5% Inom ≤ IRMS < Inom
√3.02 + 𝛥2𝑝ℎ  %
sin = 1
5% Inom ≤ IRMS < 10% Inom
√4.02 + 𝛥2𝑝ℎ  %
sin = 0.5
√3.02 + 𝛥2𝑝ℎ  %
sin = 0.5
√4.02 + 𝛥2𝑝ℎ  %
sin = 0.25
Apparent power 2% Inom ≤ IRMS < 5% Inom depending on 2.5%
Apparent energy 5% Inom ≤ IRMS ≤ Inom Unom and Inom 2.0%
Power factor (PF) 0…1 0.01 0.03
50% Unom ≤ URMS < 150% Unom
Displacement power 0…1 0.01 0.03
factor (cosφ/ DPF) 50% Unom ≤ URMS < 150% Unom
(1) See sec. 7.3.7.
7.3.7 Estimating the uncertainty of power and energy measurements

The total uncertainty of active and reactive power and energy measurements and the harmonics
power is based on the following relationship (additional time measurement uncertainty is omitted in
case of energy as much smaller than other uncertainty types):
𝛥𝑃,𝑄 ≅ √𝛥2𝑈ℎ + 𝛥2𝐼ℎ + 𝛥2𝑝ℎ
where: P,Q – uncertainty of active or reactive power measurement,
Uh – total uncertainty of voltage harmonic amplitude measurement (analyzer, transducers),
Ih – total uncertainty of current amplitude measurement (analyzer, transducers, clamps),
ph – additional uncertainty caused by the error of phase measurement between the voltage
and current harmonics.
The ph uncertainty can be determined if we know the phase shift angle for a given frequency
ranges. Tab. 6 presents the phase difference error between the voltage and current harmonics for
the PQM-700 analyzer (without clamps and transducers).
Tab. 6. Phase error in the PQM-700 analyzer depending on the frequency
Phase difference error
Frequency range 0..200 Hz 200..500 Hz 500 Hz..1 kHz 1..2 kHz 2..2.4 kHz
Error ≤1 ≤2.5 ≤5 ≤10 ≤15
The phase error caused by used transducers and clamps can be usually found in their technical
documentation. Such being the case, we need to estimate the resultant phase error between the
voltage and the current for a given frequency caused by all elements of the measuring circuit: cur-
rent and voltage transducers, clamps, and the analyzer.
The phase uncertainty of the harmonics active power measurements can be calculated according
to the following formula:
cos(φ+Δφ)
Δph = 100 (1- ) [%], cos φ ≠ 0
cosφ
On the other hand, the phase uncertainty of the harmonics reactive power measurements can be
calculated according to the following formula:
68
sin(φ-Δφ)
Δph = 100 (1- ) [%], sin φ ≠ 0
sinφ
In both formulas,  means the actual phase shift angle between the current and voltage com-
ponents, and  means the total phase error for a given frequency. The conclusion which can be
drawn from these relationships is that power measurement uncertainty for the same phase error
very clearly depends on the displacement power factor between current and voltage. It is shown in
Fig. 24.
Example
Calculation of measurement uncertainty of active power fundamental
component.
Conditions:  = 60, URMS  Unom , IRMS = 5% Inom.
Fundamental uncertainty equals ±√1.02 + Δ2ph %.
For the 0..200Hz frequency range, the PQM-700 phase error is < 1. After
substituting to the equation:
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜑+𝛥𝜑) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(61°)
𝛥𝑝ℎ = 100 (1 − ) = 100 (1 − ) = 3,04%
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑐𝑜𝑠(60°)
then, the measurement uncertainty is:
𝛿 = ±√1,02 + 3,042 = ±3,20%
Under the same conditions, but with the phase shift  = 10, we will ob-
tain:
𝑐𝑜𝑠(11°)
𝛥𝑝ℎ = 100 (1 − ) = 0,32%
𝑐𝑜𝑠(10°)
and the measurement uncertainty is:
𝛿 = ±√1,02 + 0,322 = ±1,05%
The above calculations do not take into account additional errors caused
by used clamps and transducers.
Fig. 24. Additional uncertainty from phase error depending on phase shift angle.
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PQM-700 User Manual
7.3.8 Flicker
Flicker Ranges and conditions Resolution Basic uncertainty
Pst (10 min), 0.4 ... 10 0.01 10% within the values presented in
Plt (2 h) for URMS ≥ 80% Unom tables of IEC 61000-4-15 standard
7.3.9 Unbalance
Unbalance
Ranges and conditions Resolution Basic uncertainty
(voltage and current)
Unbalance factor for 0.0% ... 10.0% 0.1% 0.3%
positive, negative and for (absolute uncertainty)
zero sequence 80% Unom ≤ URMS < 150% Unom
7.4 Event detection - voltage and current RMS

URMS voltage
(dips, interruptions and Range Resolution Basic uncertainty
swells)
URMS(1/2) 0.0%...120.0% Unom 0.01% Unom 1% Unom
Detection thresholds Set by the user in percentage or absolute values. Event detection based
on the measurement of URMS(1/2) (1-period RMS refreshed every ½ pe-
riod).
Duration hh:mm:ss.ms ½ period One period
Waveform record Two periods before event + 4 periods after the event (total of 6 cycles)
204.8/170.67 (50 Hz/60 Hz) samples per period
IRMS current
Range Resolution Basic uncertainty
(min, max)
IRMS(1/2) 0.0%...100.0% Inom 0.01% Inom 1% Inom
Detection thresholds Set by the user in percentage or absolute values. Event detection based
on the measurement of IRMS(1/2) (1-period RMS refreshed every ½ period).
Duration hh:mm:ss.ms ½ period One period
Waveform record Two periods before event + 4 periods after the event (total of 6 cycles)
204.8/170.67 (50 Hz/60 Hz) samples per period
7.5 Event detection - other parameters
Parameter Range Detection method

Frequency 40 ... 70 Hz (percent- Detection based on 10-sec. measurement
(min, max) age or absolute value) (acc. to IEC 61000-4-30)
Voltage crest factor 1.0 ... 10.0 Basing on 10/12-period value
(min, max)
Current crest factor 1.0 ... 10.0 Basing on 10/12-period value
(min, max)
Negative sequence unbalance fac- 0.0 ... 20.0% Basing on 10/12-period value
tor for voltage (max)
Negative sequence unbalance fac- 0.0 ... 20.0% Basing on 10/12-period value
tor for current (max)
Short-term flicker Pst (max) 0..20 Basing on 10-minute value
Long-term flicker Plt (max) 0..20 Basing on 2-hour value
Active power P (min, max) Depending on the con- Basing on 10/12-period value
figuration (for consumed and supplied power)
Reactive power Q (min, max) Depending on the con- Basing on 10/12-period value
figuration (for consumed and supplied power)
Apparent power S (min, max) Depending on the con- Basing on 10/12-period value
figuration
70
Distortion power D / Apparent dis- Depending on the con- Basing on 10/12-period value
tortion power SN figuration
(min, max)
Power Factor PF (min, max) 0…1 Basing on 10/12-period value
Displacement power factor cosφ/ 0…1 Basing on 10/12-period value
DPF (min, max)
tanφ (min, max) 0…10 Basing on 10/12-period value
Active energy EP (max) Depending on the con- Exceedance checked every 10/12 periods
figuration (for consumed and supplied energy)
Reactive energy EQ (max) Depending on the con- Exceedance checked every 10/12 periods
figuration (for consumed and supplied energy)
Apparent energy ES (max) Depending on the con- Exceedance checked every 10/12 periods
figuration
Total harmonic distortion for volt- 0…100% Basing on 10/12-period value
age THD-F (max)
Total harmonic distortion for cur- 0…200% Basing on 10/12-period value
rent THD-F (max)
Voltage harmonic amplitudes 0 ... 100% or absolute Basing on 10/12-period value;
(max) values Independent thresholds for all harmonics
in the range of 2 ... 40
Current harmonic amplitudes 0…200% or absolute Basing on 10/12-period value;
(max) values Independent thresholds for all harmonics
in the range of 2 ... 40
7.5.1 Event detection hysteresis

Event detection hysteresis Range Calculation method
Hysteresis 0..10% See section 4.7.
in 0.1% steps
7.6 Inrush current measurement

Range [A,%] Resolution [A, %] Basic uncertainty
0…100% Inom 0.1% ±1% Inom
 voltage and current measurement is carried out every ½ period in all channels (averaging set
to ½ period)
 measurement time up to 60 seconds.
7.7 Recording
Recorder
Averaging time (1) 1 s, 3 s, 10 s, 30 s, 1 min, 10 min, 15 min, 30 min.
Special mode: ½ period (for recording waveforms with a limited recording
time up to 60 sec, e.g. inrush current) (2)
Averaging min / max for URMS ½ period, period, 200 ms, 1 s, 3 s, 5 s (3)
Averaging min / max for IRMS ½ period, period, 200 ms, 1 s, 3 s, 5 s (3)
Waveforms Event waveforms for voltage and current
Recording activation mode manual
starting at the first detected event
scheduled (four defined time periods)
Measurement points 1, single user configuration
Recording time Depending on the configuration
Memory Built-in 2 GB micro-SD memory card
Memory Model Linear
Security Key lock to prevent unauthorized access
(1) Averaging times shorter than 10 seconds are in fact equal to a multiple of the mains period:
200 ms = 10/12 cycles, 1 s = 50/60 periods, 3 s = 150/180 periods, 5 s = 250/300 cycles.
(2) URMS(1/2) and IRMS(1/2) are RMS values for one period, refreshed every half period.
(3) Averaging periods min./max. 200 ms, 1 s, 3 s, 5s are in fact equal to a multiple of the mains period: 200 ms
= 10/12 cycles, 1 s = 50/60 periods, 3 s = 150/180 periods, 5 s = 250/300 cycles
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PQM-700 User Manual
Instanta-
Mean Minimum Maximum
Recorded parameters neous
value value value
value
RMS phase/phase-to-phase (depending on the type    
of system) voltage URMS
RMS phase-to-phase voltage URMS (only 3-phase 
wye with N and split-phase systems)
RMS current IRMS    
Frequency f    
Voltage crest factor CF U    
Current crest factor CF I    
Unbalance factors for negative and positive se-    
quence, symmetrical components: negative, posi-
tive, zero (voltage) U0, U1, U2, u0, u2
Unbalance factors for negative and positive se-    
quence, symmetrical components: negative, posi-
tive, zero (current) I0, I1, I2, i0, i2
Flicker factor Pst and Plt ,    
Active power (consumed and supplied) P+, P-    
Reactive power (consumed and supplied) Q1+, Q1- /    
QB+, QB-
Apparent power S    
Distortion power D / Apparent distortion power SN    
Power factor PF    
Displacement power factor cosφ/DPF    
Tanφ factor    
Active energy (consumed and supplied) EP+, EP- 
Reactive energy (consumed and supplied) EQ+, EQ- 
Apparent energy ES 
Total harmonic distortion for    
Voltage THD-F
Total harmonic distortion for    
current THD-F
Voltage harmonic amplitudes Uh1…Uh40    
Current harmonic amplitudes Ih1…Ih40    
7.8 Power supply,battery and heater

Power supply
100…415 V AC, 40…70 Hz
Input voltage range
140…415 V DC
90…460 V AC, 40…70 Hz
Input voltage range (including fluctuations)
127…460 V DC
CAT IV 300 V
Overvoltage category
CAT III 415 V
Power consumption max. 30 VA
Rechargeable battery
Type Li-Ion 4.4 Ah
Operating time on battery >6h
Battery charging time (fully discharged bat-
<8h
tery)
Charging temperature range -10C …+60C
Current consumption from battery in analyzer
< 1 mA
off mode (mains power disconnected)
72
Heater
Heater temperature threshold (activation) +5C
Heater power supply from internal AC/DC adapter
Heater power max. 5 W
7.9 Supported networks

Types of supported networks (directly and indirectly)
1-phase 1-phase with a neutral conductor (terminals: L1/A, N)
2-phase (split-phase) Split phase with a neutral conductor (terminals: L1/A, L2/B, N)
3-phase wye with N, 3-phase wye with a neutral conductor (terminals: L1/A, L2/B, L3/C, N)
3-phase delta Three-phase delta (terminals: L1/A, L2/B, L3/C, N shorted with L3/C)
3-phase delta (Aron) Three-phase delta (terminals: L1/A, L2/B, L3/C, N shorted with L3/C) with
two current clamps
3-phase wye without N, 3-phase wye without neutral conductor (terminals: L1/A, L2/B, L3/C, N
shorted with L3/C)
3-phase wye without N (Aron), 3-phase wye without neutral conductor (terminals: L1/A, L2/B, L3/C, N
shorted with L3/C) with two current clamps
7.10 Supported current clamps

Types of supported current clamps
F-1(A) Flexible clamps (Rogowski coil), perimeter: 120 cm, measuring range 3000 A RMS
C-4(A) CT, AC clamps, measuring range 1000 ARMS, 1 mV/A
C-5(A) CT, AC/DC clamps with Hall sensor, measuring range 1000 ARMS, 1 mV/A
C-6(A) CT, AC clamps for low currents, measuring range 10 ARMS, 1 mV/10 mA
C-7(A) CT, AC clamps, measuring range 100 ARMS, 5 mV/A
7.11 Communication
Communication
USB Max. bitrate: 921.6 kbit/s,
Compatible with USB 2.0
7.12 Environmental conditions and other technical data

Environmental conditions
Operating temperature range: -20C…+55C
Storage temperature range -30C…+60C
Humidity 10…90% with posible condensation
Ingress protection (according to EN IP 65 (not evaluated by UL)
60529)
Wet location No
Reference conditions Ambient temperature: 23C 2C
Humidity: 40…60%
Dimensions 200 x 180 x 77 mm (without cables)
Weight approx. 1.6 kg
Display 5 LEDs indicating operational status
Data memory removable microSD memory card (2 GB as standard) option of ex-
tending up to 8 GB (optional).
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PQM-700 User Manual
7.13 Safety and electromagnetic compatibility

Safety and EMC
Compliance with IEC 61010-1, 3rd Edition
Measurement Category IV 300 V
(Voltage measurement inputs) III 600 V
II 760 V
pollution class 2
Overvoltage Category IV 300 V
(AC/DC Power adapter) III 415 V
III 460 V (including fluctuations)
pollution class 2
Insulation Double acc. to IEC 61010-1
Electromagnetic compatibility IEC 61326
Immunity to radio frequency interferences IEC 61000-4-3
sinusoidal modulation 80% AM, 1kHz
80…1000MHz, 10V/m
1.4…2.0 GHz, 3 V/m
2.0 ... 2.7 GHz, 1 V/m
Immunity to electrostatic discharge IEC 61000-4-2
Air discharge: 8 kV
Contact discharge: 4kV
Immunity to conducted disturbances, in- IEC 61000-4-6
duced by radio-frequency fields sinusoidal modulation 80% AM, 1kHz
0.15…80MHz, 10V
Immunity to a series of electrical fast tran- IEC 61000-4-4
sients/bursts Amplitude of 2kV, 5kHz
Surge immunity IEC 61000-4-5
Amplitude 2kV (L-L)
Emission of radiated RF disturbances IEC 61000-6-3
30…230MHz, 30dB(V/m) at 10m
230…1000MHz, 37dB(V/m) at 10m
Emissions of conducted interferences IEC 61000-6-3
Levels for a quasi-peak detector:
0.15kHz…0.5MHz: 66dBV…56dBV
0.5MHz…5MHz: 56dBV
5MHz…30MHz: 60dBV
7.14 Standards
Standards
Measurement methods IEC 61000-4-30 Class S
Measurement accuracy IEC 61000-4-30 Class S
Power Quality EN 50160
Flicker IEC 61000-4-15
Harmonics IEC 61000-4-7
Safety IEC 61010
EMC IEC 61326
Quality standard design, construction and manufacturing are ISO 9001 compliant
74
8 Equipment
8 Equipment
8.1 Standard equipment (non-US model version)
The standard set of equipment supplied by the manufacturer includes:
 permanently fixed cables (2.2 m) with banana plugs (6 pcs),
 crocodile clip, black (3 pcs) – WAKROBL20K01,
 crocodile clip, blue – WAKROBU20K02,
 crocodile clip, yellow – WAKROYE20K02,
 crocodile clip, red (2 pcs) – WAKRORE20K02,
 mains plug with banana inputs (L1/A and N) for connecting the analyzer to socket in order to
charge the battery – WAADAAZ1,
 software for data reading and analysing "Sonel Analysis",
 USB cable – WAPRZUSB,
 2 GB microSD card,
 meter case L-5 – WAFUTL5,
 band for mounting the device on a pole (2 pcs) – WAPOZOPAKPL,
 bracket for mounting the analyzer on DIN (ISO) rail with stabilizing connectors – WAPOZUCH3,
 connectors for bands used for mounting the device on a pole (2 pcs) – WAPOZUCH4,
 a set of magnetic voltage adapters – 3 pcs black and 1 pc blue - WAADAUMAGKPL,
 built-in rechargeable battery,
 user manual,
 guarantee card,
 calibration certificate.
8.2 Standard equipment (US model version)

The standard set of equipment supplied by the manufacturer includes:
 permanently fixed cables (0.1 m) with banana sockets for voltage and power inputs (6 pcs),
 2.2m cable with banana plugs for power supply (red, 2 pcs) - WAPRZ2X2REBB,
 2.2m cable with banana plugs (red) - WAPRZ2X2REBBUSA,
 2.2m cable with banana plugs (blue) - WAPRZ2X2BUBBUSA,
 2.2m cable with banana plugs (black) - WAPRZ2X2BLBBUSA,
 2.2m cable with banana plugs (white) - WAPRZ2X2WHBBUSA,
 crocodile clip, black – WAKROBL20K01,
 crocodile clip, blue – WAKROBU20K02,
 crocodile clip, white – WAKROWH20K02,
 crocodile clip, red (3 pcs) – WAKRORE20K02,
 mains plug with banana inputs (L1/A and N) for connecting the analyzer to socket in order to
charge the battery – WAADAAUS1A,
 software for data reading and analysing "Sonel Analysis",
 USB cable – WAPRZUSB,
 2 GB microSD card,
 meter case L-5 – WAFUTL5,
 band for mounting the device on a pole (2 pcs) – WAPOZOPAKPL,
 bracket for mounting the analyzer on DIN (ISO) rail with stabilizing connectors – WAPOZUCH3,
 connectors for bands used for mounting the device on a pole (2 pcs) – WAPOZUCH4,
 built-in rechargeable battery,
 user manual,
 guarantee card,
 calibration certificate.
75
PQM-700 User Manual
8.3 Optional accessories

Additionally, the following items that are not included in the scope of standard equipment can
be purchased from the manufacturer or the distributors:
 CT clamps C-4A 1000 A AC – WACEGC4AOKR,
 CT clamps C-5A 1000 A AC/DC – WACEGC5AOKR,
 CT clamps C-6A for low currents in 10 A AC transformers – WACEGC6AOKR,
 CT clamps C-7A 100 A AC – WACEGC7AOKR ,
 flexible clamps F-1A for current up to 3 kA AC (length: 120 cm) – WACEGF1AOKR,
 flexible clamps F-2A for current up to 3 kA AC (length: 80 cm) – WACEGF2AOKR,
 flexible clamps F-3A for current up to 3 kA AC (length:45 cm) – WACEGF3AOKR,
 battery (replaceable by SONEL after-sale services) – WAAKU11,
 phase splitter AC-16 – WAADAAC16,
 a set of voltage adapters (threaded) – 3 pcs black, 1 pc blue and 1 pc yellow - WAADAM4M6,
 a case for the analyzer and standard accessories – WAWALXL4,
 hard case for clamps – WAWALL2.
8.3.1 C-4(A) current probe

The C-4(A) probe is used to measure the alternating current
in medium and high power electrical installations. The output sig-
nal is voltage proportional to the measured current. The output
signal is supplied by a 1.5-meter lead with a pin adapted for the
socket in the meter.
The arrow located on one of the jaws indicates the current
flow direction. It is assumed that the current is flowing in the pos-
itive direction if it is flowing from the source to the receiver. Such
probe orientation is required for a correct power measurement.
Clamps with letter 'A' at the end of marking (e.g. C-4A) are
clamps with automatic type detection in compatible devices.
Other parameters are the same as in the case of clamps without Fig. 1. C-4(A) probe.
automatic clamp type detection.
Note
Currents above 1200 A must not be measured. The measurement time for currents above
1000 A shall be limited as follows:
Current range I  1000 A 1000 A  I  1200 A
Operation mode continuous 1 15-minute measurement,
then 30-minute break
1)
For frequency f  1 kHz. Limitation of maximum current for continuous operation for frequen-
cies above 1 kHz according to the relationship Icont = 1000 A/f [kHz]
76
8 Equipment
Warning
Do not use the device on non-insulated conductors with a potential of more than 600 V
in relation to the earth and a measurement category greater than III.
 Reference conditions
 Temperature +20…+26°C
 Humidity 20…75% RH
 Conductor position conductor centered in jaws
 Sinusoidal current frequency 48…65 Hz
 Harmonics content <1%
 Current DC component none
 Continuous magnetic field earth field (<40 A/m)
 Alternating magnetic field none
 Conductors in direct vicinity no flowing current
 Technical parameters
 accuracy:
Basic uncer-
Current range Phase error
tainty 1)
0,1…10 A  3% + 0.1 A not specified
10…50 A  3%  3
50…200 A  1.5%  1.5
200…1000 A  0.75%  0.75
1000…1200 A  0.5%  0.5
1)
as % of measured value
 input signal for max. current 1 V AC

 ratio 1 mV AC/1 A AC
 frequency range 30 Hz...10 kHz
 insulation type double, according to IEC 61010-1
 measuring category acc. to IEC 61010-1 III 600 V,
 protection rating acc. to IEC 60529 IP 40, with open jaws: IP30
 dimensions 216 × 111 × 45 mm
 weight about 640 g
 jaws opening 53 mm
 open jaws height 139 mm
 maximum measured conductor diameter 52 mm
 probe lead length 1.5 m
 operating temperature –10C…+55C
 relative humidity 85%
 height  2000 m
 electromagnetic compatibility IEC 61000-6-3:2008
IEC 61000-6-2:2008
77
PQM-700 User Manual

The C-5(A) probe is used to measure the alternating and
direct current without interrupting the circuit with the flowing
current. The measuring range is 1400 A for DC and 1000 A
AC. The output signal is voltage proportional to the meas-
ured current. The probe has one 1000 A measuring range,
with the 1 mV/A sensitivity, DC zero adjustment knob, and
LED power supply indicator.
The output signal is supplied by a 1.5-meter lead with a pin
adapted for the socket in the meter.
The arrow located on one of the jaws indicates the current

flow direction. It is assumed that the current is flowing in the
positive direction if it is flowing from the source to the re-
ceiver. Such probe orientation is required for a correct
power measurement.
Fig. 2. C-5(A) probe.
Clamps with letter 'A' at the end of marking (e.g. C-5A)
are clamps with automatic type detection in compatible devices. Other parameters are the same
as in the case of clamps without automatic clamp type detection.
 Overload:
 Direct current (DC): up to 3000 A (continuous mode),
 Alternating current (AC): up to 1000 A in continuous mode up to
the 1 kHz frequency
 Limitation of maximum current for continuous operation for frequencies above 1 kHz ac-
cording to the relationship: Icont = 1000 A/f [kHz]
 Switching on
To switch on the probe, put the switch in the 1 mV/A position. Green LED indicates the
correct operation. If after switching the LED is not lit or goes off, replace the battery.
 DC zero indication correction

Make sure the jaws are closed and there is no conductor inside them. Then, connect the
probe to the analyzer and launch the Sonel Analysis software in the instantaneous values
viewing mode (check if the measurement point is correctly configured for measurement
with the C-5(A) probe). Press the knob and turn until the DC current indication is zero.
 Temperature: +18…+28°C
 Humidity: 20…75% RH
 Battery voltage: 9 V ± 0.1 V
 Conductor position: conductor centered in jaws
 Current: direct (DC) or sinusoidal (AC) f ≤ 65 Hz
 Continuous magnetic field: earth field (<40 A/m)
 Alternating magnetic field: none
 Conductors in direct vicinity: no flowing current
78
8 Equipment
 Technical specification
 Accuracy:
800…1000 A (AC)
Current range 0,5…100 A 100…800 A
800…1400 A (DC)
Basic uncertainty 1)
 1.5% + 1 A  2.5%  4%
1)
 Phase error (45...65 Hz):
Current
10…200 A 200…1000 A
range
Phase error  2.5  2
 ratio: 1 mV/1 A
 frequency range: DC...5 kHz
 output impedance: 100 Ω
 DC zero adjustment range: ±10 A
 noise: DC up to 1 kHz: 1mVp-p (or 1 Ap-p)
DC up to 5 kHz: 1.5mVp-p (or 1.5 Ap-p)
1 Hz up to 5 kHz: 0.5mVp-p (or 0.5 Ap-p)
 Additional errors:
 caused by current frequency: 65..440 Hz: -2%
440..1000 Hz: -5%
1..5 kHz: -4 dB
 caused by battery voltage: ≤1 A/V
 caused by temperature:  300 ppm/C or 0.3%/10C
 caused by relative humidity in the10…85% range:
≤0.5%
 caused by position of 20 mm conductor:
DC up to 440 Hz: 0,5%
DC up to 1 kHz: <1%
DC up to 2 kHz: <3%
DC up to 5 kHz: <10%
 caused by a parallel conductor with the 50…60 Hz AC, at 23 mm from the probe:
<10 mA/A
 caused by the 400 A/m (50 Hz) external magnetic field on the centered conductor
<1.3 A
 common mode rejection ratio 65 dB A/V (50…400 Hz)
 Other data
 insulation type: double, according to IEC 61010-1
 measuring category acc. to IEC 61010-1: III 600 V,
 protection rating acc. to IEC 60529:
IP 30
 power supply: 9 V battery (6LR61, 6LF22, NEDA 1604)
 operating time with alkaline battery: about 120 h
 dimensions: 237 × 97 × 44 mm
 weight: about 520 g
79
PQM-700 User Manual
 maximum measured conductor diameter:

39 mm
 probe lead length: 1.5 m
 operating temperature: –10C…+55C
 humidity: 85% RH
 height:  2000 m
 electromagnetic compatibility: IEC 61000-6-3:2008
IEC 61000-6-2:2008

The C-6(A) is used to measure the alternating
current with frequencies up to 10 kHz in the
10 mA…10 A range.
The output signal is voltage proportional to the
measured current with the 100 mV/A sensitivity.
The output signal is supplied by a 1.5-meter lead
with a pin adapted for the socket in the meter.
The arrow located on one of the jaws indicates
the current flow direction. It is assumed that the cur-
rent is flowing in the positive direction if it is flowing
from the source to the receiver. Such probe orien- Fig. 3. C-6(A) probe.
tation is required for a correct power measurement.
Clamps with letter 'A' at the end of marking (e.g. C-6A) are clamps with automatic type detection
in compatible devices. Other parameters are the same as in the case of clamps without automatic
clamp type detection.
Warning
Do not use the device on non-insulated conductors with a potential of
more than 600 V in relation to the earth and a measurement category
greater than III.
 Relative humidity: 20…75%
 Conductor position: conductor centered in jaws
 Sinusoidal current frequency: 48…65 Hz
 Harmonics content: <1%
 Current DC component: none
 Conductors in direct vicinity: no flowing current
 Accuracy
Basic uncer-
Current range Phase error
tainty 1)
0.01…0.1 A  3% + 1 mA not specified
0.1…1 A  2.5%  5
1…12 A  1%  3
1)
80
8 Equipment
 ratio: 100 mV AC/1 A AC

 frequency range: 40 Hz...10 kHz
 measuring category acc. to IEC 61010-1: III 600 V,
 protection rating acc. to IEC 60529: IP 40, with open jaws: IP 30
 weight: about 240 g
 jaws opening: 21 mm
 open jaws height: 69 mm
 maximum measured conductor diameter: 20 mm
 operating temperature: –10C…+55C
 humidity: 85% RH
 height:  2000 m
 electromagnetic compatibility: IEC 61000-6-3:2008
IEC 61000-6-2:2008
C-7(A) Probes are used to measure alternating currents in net-

works of low and medium power within the range up to 100 A.
The output signal is a voltage proportional to the measured current
at the sensitivity of 5 mV/A. It is introduced via a cable (length: 1.5
m) ended with a plug suitable for a socket in the meter.
The arrow marked on one of the probes indicates the direction

of current flow. It is assumed that the current flows in the positive
direction if it flows from the source to the receiver. This orientation of
probes is required for the correct power measurement.
Clamps with letter 'A' at the end of marking (e.g. C-7A) are
clamps with automatic type detection in compatible devices. Other
parameters are the same as in the case of clamps without automatic
Fig. 4. C-7(A) probe.
Warning
Do not use non-insulated probes for conductors with a
potential exceeding 300 V with respect to the ground and
in systems with the measurement category higher than III.
 temperature: +18…+28°C
 relative humidity: <85% (non-condensing)
 Technical data
 test range 0…100 A AC
 frequency range 40 Hz..3 kHz
 maximum allowable continuous current 100 A AC (50/60 Hz)
 accuracy (sine wave)
81
PQM-700 User Manual
Basic
Frequency Phase error
uncertainty
45…65 Hz ±0,5% ±0.1 mV  2
40 Hz…1 kHz ±1.0% ±0.2mV unspecified
 ratio: 5mV AC/1 A AC

 output impedance 11 
 type of insulation: double, according to IEC 61010-1
 measurement category according to IEC 61010-1: III 300 V,
 weight: approx. 160 g
 maximum diameter of tested cable: 24 mm
 length of probe cables: 1.5 m
 operating temperature: 0C…+50C
 relative humidity: 85% (non-condensing)
 electromagnetic compatibility: IEC 61326
8.3.5 F-1(A), F-2(A), F-3(A) current probes

F-1(A), F-2(A) and F-3 flexible probes (Rogowski coil) are used to measure the alternating cur-
rent of frequencies up to 10 kHz in the 1 A…3000 A range.
The only difference between the F-1(A), F-2(A) and F-3(A) flexible probes is the coil size. The
electrical parameters are identical.
The output signal if voltage proportional to the derivative of the measured current, with the sen-
sitivity equal to 38.83 mV/1000 A for 50 Hz and 46.6 mV/1000 A for 60 Hz.
Fig. 5. F-1(A) probe Fig. 7. F-3(A) probe

Fig. 6. F-2(A) probe
The output signal is supplied by a 2.2-meter lead with a pin adapted for the socket in the meter.
The arrow located on the closing unit indicates the current flow direction. It is assumed that the
current is flowing in the positive direction if it is flowing from the source to the receiver. Such probe
orientation is required for a correct power measurement.
Clamps with letter 'A' at the end of marking (e.g. F-3A) are clamps with automatic type detection
in compatible devices. Other parameters are the same as in the case of clamps without automatic
Warning
Do not use the device on non-insulated conductors with a poten-
tial of more than 1000 V CAT III and 600 V CAT IV in relation to
earth.
82
8 Equipment
 Conductor position: centered in relation to the probe loop
 External electric field: none
 Rated measuring range: 1 A…3000 A (±10000A peak for 50 Hz)
 Input/output ratio: 38.83 mV/1000 A (50 Hz)
46.6 mV/1000 A (60 Hz)
 Basic uncertainty: ±1% in the 1 A…3000 A range
 Linearity: ±0.2%
 Additional error caused by conductor position: ±1% max.
 Additional error caused by external magnetic field:
±0.5% max.
 Frequency range: 40 Hz…20 kHz
 Remaining data:
 measuring category acc. to IEC 61010-1: IV 600V / III 1000 V, pollution degree 2
 test voltage: 7400 VRMS / 1 min
 protection rating acc. to IEC 60529: IP 67
 coil diameter: 8.3 ±0.2 mm
 required opening diameter (minimum): 18 mm
 coil circumference: F-1: 120 cm
F-2: 80 cm
F-3: 45 cm
 internal coil diameter (closed probe): F-1: 360 mm
F-2: 235 mm
F-3: 120 mm
 weight: F-1: about 200 g
F-2: about 170 g
F-3: about 140 g
 operating temperature: -30C…+80C
 storage temperature: -40C…+80C
83
PQM-700 User Manual
9 Other information
9.1 Cleaning and maintenance
Note
Use only the maintenance methods presented by the manufacturer in this
manual.
Clean the analyzer casing with a wet cloth, using generally available detergents. Do not use
any solvents and cleaning media which could scratch the casing (powder, paste, etc.).
Clean the leads can with water and detergents, then wipe dry.
The analyzer electronic system is maintenance free.
9.2 Storage
When storing the device, observe the following recommendations:
 disconnect all leads from the analyzer,
 thoroughly clean the analyzer and all accessories,
 recharge the battery from time to time to prevent total discharging.
9.3 Dismantling and disposal

Used electric and electronic equipment should be collected selectively, i.e. not placed with other
types of waste.
Used electronic equipment shall be sent to the collection point according to the Used Electric
and Electronic Equipment Act.
Before sending the instrument to the collection point, do not dismantle any parts by yourself.
Observe local regulations on disposal of packages and used batteries.
9.4 Manufacturer
The manufacturer of the device and provider of guarantee and post-guarantee services:
SONEL S.A.
Wokulskiego 11
58-100 Świdnica
Poland
tel. +48 74 858 38 60
fax +48 74 858 38 09
E-mail: [email protected]
Web page: www.sonel.pl
Note
Service repairs must be performed only by the manufacturer.
84
10 Laboratory services
10 Laboratory services
SONEL Testing and Calibration Laboratory has been accredited by the Polish Center of Accredita-
tion for the calibration of measuring instruments AP 173 in the following field - electrical properties in
DC and LF circuits: voltage and current (DC), voltage and current (AC), resistance (DC), electrical
power.
SONEL Testing and Calibration Laboratory offers validation and
calibration services for the following instruments used for measuring
electrical and non-electrical parameters. The following instrument
types are calibrated:
 meters for measurements of electrical properties and parame-
ters of power networks:
o voltage meters,
o current meters (including clamp meters),
o resistance meters,
o insulation resistance meters,
o earthing resistance meters,
o short-circuit loop impedance meters,
o RCD meters,
o power quality analyzers,
o electrical equipment safety testers,
o active and passive electrical power meters for alternating current,
o multimeters,
o multifunction meters covering the functions of the above-mentioned instruments,
 standards of electrical properties:
o calibrators,
o resistance standards,
 instruments for the measurements of non-electrical:
o pyrometers,
o thermo-imaging cameras.
o lux meters.
The Calibration Certificate is a document specifying the relationship between the standard and the
instrument's indication with indication of measurement uncertainty.
According to ILAC-G24:2007 „Guidelines for the determination of calibration intervals of measuring in-
struments”, SONEL S.A. recommends periodical metrological inspection of the instruments it manufac-
tures no less frequently than once every 13 months.
For new instruments provided with the Calibration Certificate or Validation Certificate at the factory, re-
calibration should be performed within 13 months from the date of purchase, however, no later than
25 months from the date of purchase.
ATTENTION !
The person performing the measurements should be absolutely sure about the efficiency of
the device being used. Measurements made with an inefficient meter can contribute to an
incorrect assessment of the effectiveness of health protection and even human life.
Measurements carried out in an accredited calibration laboratory (with competences con-
firmed by PCA), it is certain that they were made in accordance with applicable standards,
procedures, including the best reliability.
85
PQM-700 User Manual
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USER MANUAL

POWER QUALITY ANALYZER

Version 1.07.1 12.10.2018

3 "Sonel Analysis" software ................................................................... 26

9 Other information ................................................................................. 84

UL/cUL Safety Certification Mark

It is UL/cUL listed under the UL File: E490376.

1.2 General characteristics

Fig. 1. Power Quality Analyser PQM-700. General view.

Fig. 2. The rear wall of PQM-700 analyzer.

1.3 Power supply of the analyzer

1.4 Tightness and outdoor operation

Fig. 3. Fasteners for bands (for mounting the analyzer on a pole)

1.5 Mounting on DIN rail

1.6 Measured parameters

Tab. 1 presents a summary of parameters measured by PQM-700, depending on the mains

Tab. 1. Measured parameters for different network configurations.

1.7 Compliance with standards

Standards for electromagnetic compatibility:

2 Operation of the analyzer

2.2 Signalling LEDs

Additional statuses indicated by LEDs:

2.3 Switching the analyzer ON/OFF

2.5 PC connection and data transmission

2.6 Indication of connection error

2.7 Warning about too high voltage or current

2.8 Taking measurements

2.8.1 Start / stop of recording

Stopping the recording process:

2.8.2 Inrush current measurement

2.8.3 Approximate recording times

Tab. 3. Approximate recording times for a few typical configurations.

all possible pa- 3-phase

2.9 Measuring arrangements

Fig. 5. Wiring diagram – single phase.

Fig. 6. Wiring diagram – 2-phase.

Fig. 7. Wiring diagram – 3-phase wye with a neutral conductor.

Fig. 8. Wiring diagram – 3-phase wye without neutral conductor.

Fig. 9. Wiring diagram – 3-phase delta.

2.10 Key Lock

2.11 Sleep mode

In addition to the above cases:

2.12 Firmware update

2.12.1 Automatic update

2.12.2 Manual update

3 "Sonel Analysis" software

4 Design and measurement methods

4.2 Current inputs

measurement error can be described with the following relationship1:

Power measurement error ≈ phase error (in radians) × tan(φ) × 100 %

4.3 Signal sampling

4.4 PLL synchronization

4.5 Frequency measurement

4.6 Harmonic components measuring method

Fig. 15. Determination of harmonic subgroups (50 Hz system).

4.7 Event detection

Tab. 4. Event threshold types for individual parameters

 no event end time,

where Ui is a subsequent sample of voltage UA-N