Food Chemistry 123 (2010) 513–520

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Analytical Methods

Determination of some water-soluble aroma precursors in goat meat

and their enrolment on flavour profile of goat meat
M.S. Madruga a,*, J.S. Elmore b, M.J. Oruna-Concha b, D. Balagiannis b, D.S. Mottram b
a
Department of Technology Chemistry and Food, Federal University of Paraiba, Joao Pessoa, Paraiba, CEP 58.059-900, Brazil
b
Department of Food Biosciences, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading RG6 6AP, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Selected water-soluble precursors, including sugars, free amino acids and nucleotides, were quantified in
Received 7 September 2009 raw and cooked goat meat, as a part of a study which the main aim was to better understand the aroma
Received in revised form 28 January 2010 formation in goat meat. When compared with the same precursors in beef, lamb and chicken, levels in
Accepted 12 April 2010
goat meat were generally similar, except for fructose and glycine, which were present at higher concen-
trations in goat meat. Fructose, glucose, IMP, and cysteine suffered the greatest losses during the cooking
process and seem to be most involved in aroma formation in goat meat. The effects of these precursor
Keywords:
changes on the volatile compound composition and formation process of them on cooked goat meat
Goat meat
Volatiles
are discussed.
Flavour precursors Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Sugars
Amino acids
Nucleotides

1. Introduction & Mottram, 1998). Other amino compounds, such as creatine, carno-
sine, creatinine and nucleotides, have also been implicated in the
Meat aroma develops from the interactions of non-volatile pre- formation of meat flavour (Macy et al., 1964b). Ribonucleotides,
cursors, including free amino acids, peptides, reducing sugars, vita- such as inosine 50 -monophosphate, break down upon heating to
mins, nucleotides and unsaturated fatty acids, during cooking. yield ribose and ribose phosphates (Madruga, 1994). The addition
These interactions include the Maillard reaction between an amino of ribose and ribose 5-phosphate increased the intensity of roasted
compound and a carbonyl compound, the oxidation of lipids, the and meaty aromas in cooked beef, pork and chicken, as a result
thermal degradation of thiamine, and the interactions between of increases in furanthiols and disulphide compounds (Aliani &
these pathways (Mottram, 1998). Farmer, 2005b).
Macy, Naumann, and Bailey (1964a, 1964b) were the first to Goat meat is increasing in popularity in western countries be-
analyse water-soluble flavour precursors in beef, pork and lamb, cause of its nutritional and flavour qualities. It is clear that oppor-
albeit goat were not included. They suggested that the components tunities exist for the expansion of the goat meat market; goat
contributing to the development of the characteristic species-spe- meat is leaner than meat from other domestic red meat species
cific flavours and aromas are located in the lipid fraction, while the (Banskalieva, Sahlu, & Goetsch, 2000), as well as being comparable
water-soluble fraction contains components, which contribute to in terms of its nutritional constituents (Webb, Casey, & Simela,
the development of ‘meaty’ aroma. Macy, Naumann, and Bailey 2005). Low molecular weight water-soluble compounds have been
(1964a) verified the presence of glucose, fructose, mannose and ri- measured in beef (Koutsidis et al., 2008), chicken (Aliani & Farmer,
bose in meat, and determined the ribose, glucose and fructose con- 2005a, 2005b), pork (Macy, Naumann, & Bailey, 1970a, 1970b;
tent of beef, lamb and pork muscle, before and after heat treatment Meinert, Andersen, Bredie, Bjergegaard, & Aaslyng, 2007; Meinert,
(Macy, Naumann, & Bailey, 1964b). They concluded that ribose was Schafer, Bjergegaard, Aaslyng, & Bredie, 2009), and lamb (Macy
the most heat-labile sugar, while fructose was the most stable. et al., 1970a, 1970b), but data on goat meat aroma precursors are
The reaction between free amino acids and sugars during cook- limited. Arya and Parihar (1979) investigated the effect of thermal
ing is essential for the development of desirable meaty aromas. processing on free nucleotides, nucleosides and bases of goat meat,
For example, addition of cysteine to raw muscle favoured the forma- and discovered that inosine levels increased during heat treatment.
tion of aroma-potent thiophenes in a cooked meat system (Madruga They did not discuss the effect of these precursors on goat meat fla-
vour formation. In addition, very little is known about the volatiles
of goat meat, in fact, only two papers have so far been published on
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 83 3216 7357; fax: +55 83 3216 7179. the volatile compounds of cooked goat meat (Madruga, Arruda,
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.S. Madruga).

0308-8146/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.04.004
514 M.S. Madruga et al. / Food Chemistry 123 (2010) 513–520

Narain, & Souza, 2000; Madruga, Elmore, Dodson, & Mottram, retained on the trap was removed by purging the trap with nitrogen
2009). at 40 ml/min for 10 min. All volatile analyses were performed on a
The purpose of this study was to determine the concentrations Perkin–Elmer Clarus 500 GC–MS system (Perkin–Elmer, Beacons-
of some water-soluble precursors of goat aroma, i.e., sugars, nucle- field, United Kingdom) equipped with an automated thermal
otides, nucleosides, and free amino acids, and their enrolment on desorber (Turbomatrix ATD). The Tenax tubes were desorbed at
the volatile aroma profile of goat meat. 300 °C (heating rate 40 °C/s) and cryofocused onto a packed cold
trap at 30 °C. The Tenax TA extracts were analysed in a DB-5 non-
polar column (60 m  0.32 mm I.D., 1 lm film thickness, J&W Sci-
2. Material and methods
entific). The temperature program employed was 2 min at 40 °C, a
ramp of 4 °C/min to 280 °C, and held for 10 min. Helium was used
2.1. Goat meat
as the carrier gas.
The Perkin–Elmer mass spectrometer was operated in electron
Three castrated British Saanen male goats were provided for
impact mode with a source temperature of 200 °C, an ionising volt-
this study by the Department of Agriculture, University of Reading.
age of 70 eV, and a scan range from m/z 29 to m/z 350 at 3.33 scans/s.
The goats were reared indoors on a maize silage-based diet, with
The Tenax TA extract data were acquired and analysed using Turbo-
free access to hay and straw. Saanen is a widespread goat breed,
Mass software (Version 4.5, Perkin–Elmer). Compounds were iden-
originating from the Saanen valley in Switzerland; it is used for
tified by first comparing their mass spectra with those contained in
milk production (Madruga et al., 2009).
the NIST/EPA/NIH Mass Spectral Database or in previously pub-
The goats were slaughtered at six months of age, according to
lished literature. Wherever possible identities were confirmed by
European Union regulations, after fasting for 18 h; water was avail-
comparison of linear retention index (LRI) values, with either those
able during the fasting period. The carcasses were dressed, and
of authentic standards, or published values. Quantities of the vola-
stored at 4 °C for 7 days. Subsequently, rump steaks were prepared,
tile compounds were approximated by comparison of their peak
vacuum packed and stored at – 18 °C, for a period no longer than
areas with that of the 1,2-dichlorobenzene internal standard, ob-
30 days before analysis. Steaks were defrosted overnight at 4 °C,
tained from the total ion chromatograms, using a response factor
before being weighed and grilled. Samples ranged in weight from
of 1.
150 to 250 g, and thickness from 25 to 32 mm.
Goat meat samples were grilled on a two-plate griddle
2.4. Preparation of sample extracts for analysis of free amino acids,
(Cuisinart Griddle & Grill, Cuisinart, Wigan, UK) until the centre
peptides, ribonucleotides and sugars
temperature of the steak, measured using a thermocouple, reached
80 °C; the total cooking time ranging from 5 to 9 min. Samples
Sample extracts were prepared according to procedures de-
were weighed directly before and immediately after cooking to
scribed by Koutsidis et al. (2008). Raw and cooked goat steaks of
measure moisture losses during the grilling process, so that
each animal were each extracted in triplicate for analysis of non-
changes in the concentrations of non-volatile components during
volatile components.
grilling could be measured independently of changes due to mois-
For amino acid and nucleotide analysis raw or cooked goat meat
ture content. Three samples from each of three animals were ana-
samples were minced in an electric bowl chopper, and portions of
lysed, before and after cooking.
2.5 g were weighed into polypropylene copolymer NalgeneÒ Oak
Ridge centrifuge tubes (Nalge Nunc International, Rochester, NY).
2.2. Chemicals Cold water (10 ml) was added to the tubes; 300 ll of an aqueous
solution of norvaline (1 mg/ml) and 500 ll of a purine solution
For volatiles and capillary electrophoresis (CE), all reference (1 mg/ml) were added as internal standards, for measuring free
compounds (methanol, 1,2-dichlorobenzene, n-alkanes (C6–C25), amino acids and ribonucleotides, respectively. Samples were emul-
amino acids, nucleotides, creatine, creatinine, anserine, and carno- sified by vortexing for 1 min prior to centrifuged at 10,000g for
sine) were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich, and were 99% pure. Re- 20 min at 4 °C, in an Sorvall RC-5C Plus centrifuge. The supernatant
agent-grade phosphoric acid, disodium hydrogen phosphate, was filtered under vacuum through Whatman No. 1 qualitative fil-
anhydrous sodium acetate and sodium tetraborate were also ob- ter paper. Finally, 10 ml of the filtrate were transferred to a Centri-
tained from Sigma–Aldrich. The EZ-Faast amino acid analysis kit plusÒ YM-3 ultrafiltration tube with 3000 MWCO regenerated
(Phenomenex, Macclesfield, UK) was used for the analysis of amino cellulose membrane (Millipore Corp., Bedford, MA), and centri-
acids by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). For su- fuged at 5000g for 4 h at 4 °C. The filtrate was stored at 18 °C
gar analysis, electrochemical-grade sodium hydroxide solution and for no more than 48 h, until analysis of free amino acids and
HPLC-grade water were purchased from Fisher Scientific UK ribonucleotides.
(Loughborough, UK). For analysis of sugars, portions (0.5 g) of raw or cooked minced
goat meat were weighed, and transferred to a 14-ml glass bottle, to
2.3. Analysis of volatiles which were added 10 ml of trehalose internal standard in water
(0.5 mg/ml). The contents of the bottle were stirred for 15 min
After cooking, the steaks were chopped in an electric bowl chop- and then stood for 15 min. Supernatant (1.5 ml) was centrifuged
per. The aroma volatiles were extracted from the cooked goat meat, at 7200g for 15 min and then passed through Sep-Pak PlusÒ C18
using headspace concentration on Tenax and were analysed using cartridges (Waters Corp., Milford, MA). The supernatant was di-
gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The minced lean muscle luted (1:20) with HPLC-grade water before analysis by anion ex-
(20 ± 0.1 g) was placed in a screw top conical flask (250 ml). A change chromatography.
Dreschel head was attached to the flask, using an SVL fitting (Bibby,
Stone, UK). The flask was held in a water bath at 60 °C for 1 h while 2.5. Determination of monosaccharides and disaccharides by anion
nitrogen, at 40 ml/min, swept the volatiles onto a preconditioned exchange chromatography (HPIC-PAD)
glass trap (4 mm i.d., 1=4 00 o.d.  3.5 mm long), packed with Tenax
TA (Supelco, Poole, United Kingdom). A standard of 1,2-dichloro- Analysis was performed using an 8220i Dionex high-perfor-
benzene in methanol (1 ll containing 130.6 ng) was added to the mance anion exchange chromatography system with pulsed
trap at the end of the collection and excess solvent and any water amperometric detection (Dionex Corp., Sunnyvale, CA). The ion
 M.S. Madruga et al. / Food Chemistry 123 (2010) 513–520 515

chromatography system consisted of an AS50 autosampler, an 2.9. Statistical analysis

LC25 column oven, GS50 pumps, and an ED50 pulsed amperomet-
ric detector, running in internal amperometric mode (Elmore, The data were analysed by two-way analysis of variance
Koutsidis, Dodson, Mottram, & Wedzicha, 2005). (ANOVA) using Statgraphics Plus 4.1 (Herndon, VA). Means were
Twenty microlitres of sample were injected onto a Carbopac compared using Fisher’s least significant difference (LSD) test at
PA1 column (Dionex) at room temperature using an autosampler. p < 0.05.
Four different solvents were used – A: H2O, B: 50 mM NaOH, C:
200 mM NaOH, and D: 125 mM NaOH mixed with 500 mM sodium
3. Results and discussion
acetate. An isocratic program was employed for 25 min using 68%
of solvent A and 32% of solvent B. Then, the program was changed
3.1. Volatile compounds
to 100% eluent C, and kept under those conditions for another
10 min. Finally the column was washed with 100% D for 10 min,
One hundred and thirty-six compounds were quantified in the
and was re-equilibrated for another 10 min with 68% A and 32% B.
cooked goat meat (Table 1). Almost all of these compounds (98)
A pulsed amperometric detector was used with the following
were formed from lipid oxidation (27 aldehydes, 25 hydrocarbons,
settings: 420 ms at 0.05 V, 180 ms at 0.75 V, and 420 ms at
19 ketones, 16 alcohols, 5 carboxylic acids, and 6 furans). Volatile
0.15 V, while the sensitivity was set at 3 K. Chromatographic
compounds formed via the Maillard reaction (38), included hetero-
analysis of peaks was performed using Chromeleon (Dionex Corp.).
cyclic oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur-containing compounds, such as
Standards of glucose, maltose, ribose, fructose, and sucrose were
pyrazines (11), thiophenes (4), thiazoles (3), pyrroles (3), pyridine
used for quantification.
(1), as well as non-heterocyclic compounds, such as Strecker alde-
hydes (3), alkanediones (2), hydroxyketone (1), and aliphatic sulp-
2.6. Analysis of nucleotides by capillary electrophoresis hides (10). The major aroma compounds identified in the headspace
of the cooked goat meat were aldehydes (Strecker and lipid-de-
A modification of the method described by Uhrova, Deyl, and rived), alcohols, ketones, pyrazines, and sulphides. One hundred
Suchanek (1996) was used for the determination of nucleotides and six of these compounds (78%) were present at a level higher
in goat meat. Aqueous goat meat extracts were analysed by capil- than 1 ng per 100 g of sample in the headspace extract of goat meat.
lary electrophoresis (CE), using an HP3D CE, with diode array detec- The cooked goat meat volatile profile was in accordance with
tion and an HP3D Chemstation for instrument control (Agilent, published data related to the lipid degradation and Maillard reac-
Santa Clara, CA). Electrophoretic separation was performed at con- tion products, and all compounds have been previously reported
stant pressure (50 mbar), with a 5-s injection of the sample onto an (Madruga et al., 2009).
extended light path capillary of 64.5 cm total length (56 cm to
detector)  75 lm i.d.  2.7 bubble factor, maintained at 25 °C. A 3.2. Sugars
0.02 M phosphate–borate buffer adjusted to pH 9.2 was used for
the separation; the buffer was changed after every analysis. Pre- The concentrations of sugars (ribose, glucose, mannose,
conditioning consisted of a 5-min elution with 0.1 M NaOH, fol- fructose, and maltose) in raw and cooked goat meat are listed in
lowed by 5 min with buffer. A constant voltage of 20 kV was Table 2. These four monosaccharides and one disaccharide are usu-
applied, with a positive to negative polarity. Detection was at ally found in meat and are generated by glucolysis or nucleotide
254 nm for 30 min and full spectra were collected between 195 degradation (Koutsidis et al., 2008). The considerable variation in
and 600 nm. the concentrations of sugars between individual goats is illustrated
by the highly significant effect of animal in the ANOVA and the
2.7. Analysis of peptides and other amino compounds by capillary large standard deviations. Meat from each animal was analysed
electrophoresis in triplicate and the replicates showed very good reproducibility,
with coefficient of variance values ranging from 1.5% to 9.2%, with
The method used for the determination of peptides, arginine most values below 5%. As all animals were of the same breed, han-
and other amino compounds was a modification of the one de- dled and slaughtered under very similar conditions, variation be-
scribed by Elmore et al. (2005). The samples were analysed by CE tween individual animals is probably due to natural genetic
using the same instrument as for nucleotide analysis. Electropho- variation. High coefficients of variation have been reported by
retic separation was performed at constant pressure (50 mbar) Aliani and Farmer (2002), and Koutsidis et al. (2008) for sugar con-
with a 5-s injection of the sample onto an extended light path cap- centrations in chicken and beef, respectively.
illary of 48.5 cm total length (40 cm to detector)  50 lm i.d.  3 Glucose, fructose and mannose were found to be the major car-
bubble factor, maintained at 25 °C. A 100 mM phosphate (Na2H- bohydrates in raw goat meat; glucose was at the highest concen-
PO4) buffer adjusted to pH 2.5 was used for the separation. The tration (values for the three animals ranged from 135 to 272 mg/
buffer was changed before every run. Preconditioning consisted 100 g wet weight), while ribose was at the lowest concentration
of 3 min with 0.1 M sodium hydroxide followed by 3 min with buf- (9–13 mg/100 g wet weight). Our results are similar to those ob-
fer. A constant voltage of 15 kV was applied with a positive to neg- tained for sugars in beef, pork, lamb, and chicken meat, which have
ative polarity. Detection was at 200 nm, and full spectra were always shown glucose at the highest concentration, followed by
collected between 195 and 600 nm. fructose, with ribose at the lowest concentration. Koutsidis et al.
(2008) found similar concentrations of these sugars in beef, except
for fructose, which was about twice as high in goat meat, compared
2.8. Analysis of free amino acids by GC–MS to beef. Macy et al. (1964b) reported that concentrations of glucose
were much higher compared to fructose and ribose in lamb meat;
An aliquot of the centrifuged supernatant (100 ll) was deriva- however, the concentrations of these three sugars, reported by
tised using the EZ-Faast amino acid derivatisation technique, as de- Macy et al. (1964b), were lower in lamb, compared with our data
scribed by Elmore et al. (2005). GC–MS of the derivatised samples in goat meat.
was carried out using an Agilent 5975 instrument. Arginine could All sugars decreased on cooking; fructose had the highest per-
not be analysed using this technique. centage loss (66%). The decreased sugar contents must be due to
516 M.S. Madruga et al. / Food Chemistry 123 (2010) 513–520

Table 1
Volatile compounds in the headspace of the cooked goat meat.

Compound m/z (relative intensity) LRIa Meanb %CV Method of identificationc Class of volatiled Flavour descriptione
Hydrogen sulphide <600 1.6 50 ms [12] Rotten eggs
Sulphur dioxide <600 0.2 9 ms [12] Rotten eggs
Methanethiol <600 0.7 11 ms [12] Rotten eggs
Carbon disulphide <600 0.3 99 ms [12] Sulphury/fruity/burnt/cabbage
2-Methyl-propanal <600 58.4 23 ms [13] Malty/pungent/sharp/green
2.3-Butanedione 600 4.0 81 MS + LRI [14] Caramel/buttery/cream
2-Butanol 603 0.01 0 MS + LRI [4] Sweet/fruity/alcohol
2-Methyl-1-propanol 625 0.4 58 MS + LRI [4]
3-Methylbutanal 654 88.6 82 MS + LRI [13] Malty/dark chocolate/toffee
Benzene 659 0.9 87 MS + LRI [1] Gassy
1-Butanol 660 6.5 45 MS + LRI [4] Chemical/medicinal/sweet/fruity
2-Methylbutanal 664 143.1 11 MS + LRI [13] Almond/burnt/cocoa/fermented/malt/sickly
Thiophene 669 1.9 6 MS + LRI [10] Sickly/pungent
1-Penten-3-ol 681 30.6 31 MS + LRI [4] Butter/green/pungent
2-Pentanone 685 4.2 32 MS + LRI [3] Sweet/fruity
1-Heptene 690 2.3 63 ms + lri* [1]
2,3-Pentanedione 696 1.0 30 MS + LRI [14] Buttery/creamy/oily
Pentanal 697 374.3 35 MS + LRI [2] Pungent/almond
2-Ethylfuran 700 2.5 54 MS + LRI [6]
3-Hydroxy-2-butanone (acetoin) 709 0.2 65 MS + LRI [15] Buttery/fatty/sweaty/sour
3-Methyl-3-buten-1-ol 730 2.2 32 MS + LRI [4] Buttery/fatty/sweaty/sour
3-Methylbutan-1-ol 733 5.1 32 MS + LRI [4] Malty/fruity/alcohol
N-Methylpyrrole 738 2.1 12 MS + LRI [7]
(E) 2-Methyl-2-butenal 742 0.5 21 MS + LRI [2] Green
Dimethyl disulphide 746 5.1 8 MS + LRI [12] Onion/cabbage/putrid
Pyrrole 748 3.2 2 MS + LRI [7] Caramel
Pyridine 750 0.01 34 MS + LRI [8]
1-Pentanol 765 370.9 5 MS + LRI [4] Alcoholic/balsamic/sharp
Toluene 769 11.5 63 MS + LRI [1] Frity/sweet
2-Methylthiophene 773 1.7 10 MS + LRI [10] Sulphury
3-Methylthiophene 782 0.5 7 MS + LRI [10] Sour/plastic water bottles/fatty/wine
3-Hexanone 783 1.5 47 MS + LRI [3] Grape/etheral
2-Hexanone 787 2.4 54 MS + LRI [3] Blue cheese/ethereal/fruity
3-Hepten-2-one 789 11.3 33 ms [3]
1-Octene 790 0.4 107 MS + LRI [1]
Cyclopentanone 794 0.6 20 MS + LRI [3]
Octane 800 65.0 71 MS + LRI [1] Fatty/solvent
Hexanal 802 3905.8 75 MS + LRI [2] Green/grass
(Z) 2-Octene 805 42.8 6 MS + LRI [1]
(E) 2-Octene 813 27.3 5 MS + LRI [1]
5-Methylthiazole 821 0.4 17 MS + LRI [11] Green/nutty
a 1,3-Octadiene 825 2.1 45 ms [1]
2-Methylpyrazine 829 10.7 17 MS + LRI [9] Popcorn/roasted/nutty
2-Furfural 834 0.3 67 MS + LRI [2] Bread/almond/sweet
2-Methyl-1-H-pyrrole 835 0.5 77 MS + LRI [7]
2-Methylcyclopentanone 845 1.2 5 MS + LRI [3]
3-Mercapto-2-butanone 847 0.1 29 ms + lri* [12] Burnt bread/burnt vegetables
(E) 2-Hexenal 854 8.8 11 MS + LRI [2] Fresh cut grass
Ethylbenzene 865 3.6 11 MS + LRI [1]
1-Hexanol 867 349.4 40 MS + LRI [4] Floral/fatty/green
m-Xylene (1,3-Dimethylbenzene) 874 11.4 11 MS + LRI [1]
p-Xylene (1,4-Dimethylbenzene) 875 1.1 1 MS + LRI [1]
2-Ethyl-thiophene 875 2.2 87 MS + LRI [10]
(E or Z) 1,3,5-Octatriene 880 0.4 19 ms + lri** [1]
(E or Z) 1,3,5-Octatriene 882 1.1 8 ms + lri** [1]
3-Heptanone 885 3.6 24 MS + LRI [3] Sweet/ethereal
2-Heptanone 889 93.0 16 MS + LRI [3] Soapy/fruity/blue cheese
2-Butylfuran 892 1.9 48 MS + LRI [6]
Styrene or Ethenylbenzene 897 2.6 11 MS + LRI [1] Balsamic/gasoline
(Z) 4-Heptenal 899 2.2 59 MS + LRI [2] Cream like/fatty/rancid/crabby
Nonane 900 7.9 58 MS + LRI [1]
Heptanal 903 583.7 68 MS + LRI [2] Fatty/oily/citrus/fruit/green
Methional 910 0.5 31 MS + LRI [12] Boiled potatoes/onion
2-Acetylfuran 912 0.6 46 MS + LRI [6] Balsamic
2-Furanmethanethiol 914 0.1 25 MS + LRI [12] Coffee/sulphurous/toasted/roast
2,5(6)-Dimethylpyrazine 915 43.9 25 MS + LRI [9] Cocoa/roasted nut/roast beef/medicine
2-Ethylpyrazine 916 1.2 13 MS + LRI [9] Woody/nutty
2,3-Dimethylpyrazine 921 2.6 56 MS + LRI [9]
Butylcyclopentane 938 1.7 81 MS + LRI [1]
6-Methyl-2-heptanone 954 6.4 40 MS + LRI [3]
(E) 2-Heptenal 959 30.2 34 MS + LRI [2] Soapy/almond/grassy
Hexanoic acid 963 4.4 71 MS + LRI [5] Goat-like/pungent
3-Ethylcyclopentanone 965 7.5 61 MS + LRI [3]
 M.S. Madruga et al. / Food Chemistry 123 (2010) 513–520 517

Table 1 (continued)

Compound m/z (relative intensity) LRIa Meanb %CV Method of identificationc Class of volatiled Flavour descriptione
Benzaldehyde 968 93.7 37 MS + LRI [1] Roasted pepper/nutty
1-Heptanol 969 68.3 40 MS + LRI [4] Fragrant/woody/heavy oily
1-Octen-3-one 978 0.01 27 MS + LRI [3] Mushroom
Dimetyl trisulphide 979 6.3 54 MS + LRI [12] Fishy/sulphur/cabbage
1-Octen-3-ol 980 754.2 23 MS + LRI [4] Mushroom
2,3-Octanedione 982 112.5 39 ms + lri* [3]
3-Octanone 985 28.4 34 MS + LRI [3]
2-Octanone 989 5.8 17 MS + LRI [3] Floral/soapy
2-Pentylfuran 991 98.9 31 MS + LRI [6] Fruity/green/sweet/pungent
3-Octanol 996 2.9 60 ms + lri* [4] Nutty/sulphury
Decane 1000 7.4 29 MS + LRI [1] Solvent
2-Ethyl-6-methylpyrazine 1001 8.9 73 MS + LRI [9] Nutty/grassy
Octanal 1004 711.7 58 MS + LRI [2] Fatty/soap/lemon/green
Trimethylpyrazine 1006 27.3 57 MS + LRI [9]
2-Ethyl-5-methylpyrazine 1007 38.1 22 MS + LRI [9] Fruity
2-Acetylthiazole 1025 0.1 35 MS + LRI [11] Roasty/nutty/popcorn/meaty
2-Ethyl-1-hexanol 1028 11.7 21 MS + LRI [4] Mushroom/cucumber/cooked vegetable
Limonene 1037 3.9 46 MS + LRI [1] Lemon/orange
5-Ethyl-1-formylcyclopentene 1039 14.8 28 ms + lri** [2]
Benzeneacetaldehyde 1052 2.6 54 MS + LRI [2] Green/floral/honey
(E)- 2-Octenal 1061 27.5 79 MS + LRI [2] Marine/green/solvent
2-Octen-1-ol (E and /or Z) 1067 110.0 43 MS + LRI [4]
1-Octanol 1069 98.3 53 MS + LRI [4] Lemon/fatty/toasted
Acetophenone 1075 5.3 38 MS + LRI [3] Sweet/floral
3,6-Dimethyl-2-ethylpyrazine 1080 7.0 43 MS + LRI [9]
3,5-Dimethyl-2-ethylpyrazine 1087 2.5 25 MS + LRI [9]
2,3-Dimethyl-5-ethylpyrazine 1089 1.7 37 MS + LRI [9]
2-Nonanone 1091 9.2 67 MS + LRI Fatty/fruity/musty/Blue cheese
2-Hexylfuran 1103 4.2 4 MS + LRI [6]
Nonanal 1106 52.5 47 MS + LRI [2] Fatty/floral/citrus/green
3,5-Diethyl-2-methylpyrazine 1159 1.3 24 MS + LRI [9]
Octanoic acid 1161 0.2 61 MS + LRI [5] Waxy/cheese/fatty
(E)- 2-Nonenal 1164 38.2 23 MS + LRI [2] Fatty/cucumber/paper
1-Nonanol 1171 6.3 25 MS + LRI [4] Citrus/rose
2-Ethylbenzaldehyde 1174 1.3 76 ms + lri** [2]
(3E, 5Z) -1,3,5-Undecatriene 1178 2.5 21 MS [1]
3-Decanone 1181 3.0 56 MS + LRI* [3]
(3E, 5Z) -1,3,5-Undecatriene 1188 3.4 10 ms [1]
2-Decanone 1193 14.6 24 MS + LRI [3] Fatty
(E) - 4-Decenal 1197 1.4 12 MS + LRI [2]
Dodecane 1200 4.2 15 MS + LRI [1]
Decanal 1209 24.7 31 MS + LRI [2] Soap/orange peel/tallow
(E,E) 2,4-Nonadienal 1222 0.8 22 MS + LRI [2] Oily/cucumber
Dimethyl tetrasulphide 1242 0.4 46 ms [12] Cabbage
Benzothiazole 1250 0.2 24 MS + LRI [11] Rubbery
Nonanoic acid 1263 0.04 50 MS + LRI [5] Cheese/fatty/waxy
(E) 2-Decenal 1267 21.6 7 MS + LRI [2] Chicken fat/fried notes
1-Nonen-3-ol 1283 3.9 51 ms + lri* [4]
2-Undecanone 1294 1.3 2 MS + LRI [3] Cucumber/fruity
2-Octylfuran 1297 1.4 33 MS + LRI [6]
Tridecane 1300 37.7 3 MS + LRI [1]
Undecanal 1311 3.3 58 MS + LRI [2] Pungent
(E,E)-2,4-Decadienal 1326 11.7 35 MS + LRI [2] Fatty/nutty
(E)-2-Undecenal 1370 28.2 15 MS + LRI [2] Geranium/green/waxy
Tetradecane 1400 8.7 17 MS + LRI [1]
2-Dodecanal 1413 1.3 30 MS + LRI [2] Fatty
Pentadecane 1500 7.1 13 MS + LRI [1]
Dodecanoic acid 1566 0.8 31 MS + LRI [5]
Tetradecanal 1617 1.1 19 MS + LRI [2]
Pentadecanal 1720 0.7 17 MS + LRI [2]
Hexadecanal 1822 1.4 27 MS + LRI [2]
Hexadecanoic acid 1957 0.3 9 MS + LRI [5]
Eicosane 2000 1.9 24 MS + LRI [1]
a
Linear retention index on a CP-Sil 8 CB low bleed/MS column.
b
Means are from three replicate samples (ng in the headspace of 100 g of cooked goat meat).
c
MS + LRI, mass spectrum and LRI agree with those of authentic compound; ms + lri, mass spectrum identified using NIST/EPA/NIH mass spectral database and LRI agrees
with literature value; ms, mass spectrum agrees with spectrum in NIST/EPA/NIH mass spectral database.
d
Class of volatile compound: [1], hydrocarbons; [2], aldehydes; [3], ketones; [4], alcohols; [5], acids; [6], furans; [7], pyrroles; [8], pyridines; [9], pyrazines; [10],
thiophenes; [11], thiazoles; [12], aliphatic sulphides; [13], streacker aldehydes; [14], alkanediones; [15], hydroxyketones.
e
Aroma description obtained from database available on the web at http://www.odour.org.uk/.
*
LRI value from Kondjoyan and Berdagué (1996).
**
LRI value from Elmore et al. (2005).
518 M.S. Madruga et al. / Food Chemistry 123 (2010) 513–520

Table 2
Concentrations (mg/100 g wet weight) of sugars, nucleotides, creatine, creatinine, carnosine and anserine in raw and cooked goat meat.

Compound Raw meat Cooked meat Percent remaining after cooking Effect of cookingc Variability among animalsd
a b
Mean %CV Mean %CV
Sugars
*** ***
Glucose 186 40.2 67 20.1 36
*** ***
Mannose 29.6 18.3 10.9 16.2 37
*** ***
Fructose 73.1 20.4 24.7 12.1 34
*** ***
Ribose 11.1 20.2 4.8 4.0 44
*** ***
Maltose 12.1 52.8 4.8 15.4 40
Nucleotides and breakdown products
***
Hypoxanthine 4 7.1 4.1 26.5 102 ns
*** ***
Inosine 152 2.9 113 14.6 75
0 *** *
5 -IMP 104.7 18.3 69.3 6.9 66
0 ***
5 -AMP 0.5 28.7 8.7 4.6 1856 ns
*** **
50 -GMP 2.5 8.9 1.6 17.7 63
Peptides and related compounds
*** **
Creatine 454 9.1 319 7.8 70
*** ***
Creatinine 7.3 6.2 40.8 42.6 561
*** ***
Carnosine 200 9.7 132 23.9 66
*** ***
Anserine 279 18.1 160 24.7 57
a
Values are mean data from three animals.
b
Percentage coefficient of variation of data from three animals.
cd
Probability that there is a significant effect of (c) cooking or (d) animal on concentration; ns, No significant difference between means (p > 0.05).
*
Significant at the 5% level.
**
Significant at the 1% level.
***
Significant at the 0.1% level.

their involvement in the Maillard reaction (Madruga, 1994). The concentrations of nucleotides between the animals, except for
Maillard reaction between reducing sugars and amino compounds AMP.
is one of the most important routes to flavour compounds in Generally, data presented here are similar to those reported in the
cooked meat, as it produces a number of pentose and hexose deg- literature for goat meat (Arya & Parihar, 1979), beef (Koutsidis et al.,
radation products containing carbonyls groups, which were the 2008; Rhodes, 1965; Watanabe, Tsuneishi, & Takimoto, 1989), beef
main reactants for the formation of some important heterocyclic extract (Cambero, Pereira-Lima, Ordonez, & Fernando, 2000), lamb
compounds, pyrazines, thiazoles and pyridines, found in the (Rhodes, 1965), and chicken (Aliani & Farmer, 2005a), although there
cooked goat meat volatiles (Table 1). are some differences. Inosine was the most abundant of the six quan-
It was a surprise that 44% of the initial amount of ribose re- tified compounds, present from 147 to 157 mg/100 g wet weight,
mained after heating, since it has been widely reported that among being approximately four and five times higher, respectively, than
the reducing sugars, ribose is the most reactive in the Maillard the average values reported in beef by Koutsidis et al. (2008), and
reaction (Mottram, 1998). Losses in individual sugars when heat- in chicken by Aliani and Farmer (2005a). In contrast, the concentra-
ing aqueous beef, lamb, and pork extracts were studied by Macy tion of hypoxanthine was extremely low at 3.8–4.3 mg/100 g, being
et al. (1964b), who showed that ribose was the most labile sugar, six times higher in beef (Koutsidis et al., 2008), and four and a half
while fructose was the most stable. On the other hand, data are times higher in chicken (Aliani & Farmer, 2005a).
in agreement with Meinert et al. (2009), who reported that glucose Inosine, hypoxanthine, and ribose (or ribose 5-phosphate) are
generated the highest amounts of volatile in cooked pork, followed formed in meat from IMP by nucleoside phosphorylase or ribose
by glucose 6-phosphate, and that the addition of ribose did not in- dehydrolase, following the cleavage of IMP by 5-nucleotidase or
crease the concentration of volatiles compared with pork without non-specific phosphomonoesterases (Lee & Newbold, 1963).
the added monosaccharide. Rhodes (1965) suggested that the marked difference in the rate
2-Furfural and 2-furanmethanethiol (furfuryl mercaptan), de- of nucleotide hydrolysis in beef and lamb, which was much slower
tected in cooked goat meat were reported as being formed from in lamb, may be due to a species effect or may reflect the physio-
the breakdown of ribose via the Maillard reaction (Mottram & Nob- logical age of the animals. Mottram and Nobrega (2002) pointed
rega, 2002). Furfuryl mercaptan has been shown to be an impor- out that the relative amounts of IMP, ribose, and ribose 5-phos-
tant contributor to cooked beef and pork aroma, as it possesses phate in meat may well be a determining factor in meat flavour
roast, nutty, burnt and meaty notes (Elmore & Mottram, 2009; quality.
Madruga, 1994; Mottram, 1998). As shown in Table 2, the contents of IMP, inosine and GMP de-
creased by about one third during cooking, while the content of
AMP increased by 17-fold. The decrease of IMP probably reflects
3.3. Nucleotides and their breakdown products the fact that IMP, ribose and ribose 5-phosphate, are important
meat flavour precursors. Mottram (1998) highlighted that the
Hypoxanthine, inosine, inosine 50 -monophosphate (IMP), aden- Strecker degradation of cysteine produces hydrogen sulphide and
osine 50 -monophosphate (AMP), and guanosine 50 -monophosphate ammonia, which will react with IMP and ribose degradation prod-
(GMP) were quantified in aqueous extracts of raw and cooked goat ucts, to form sulphur-containing heterocyclic volatiles in cooked
meat. Their concentrations also are shown in Table 2. Quantita- meat. These routes must be used in the formation of thiophenes
tively, the most important nucleotides were IMP and its corre- and thiazoles volatiles detected in the goat meat headspace.
sponding nucleoside, inosine, representing together 97% of the Macy et al. (1970a, 1970b) reported that during roasting of beef
total; hypoxanthine, GMP, and AMP were detected at lower con- and pork all nucleotides decreased, except for AMP. Several
centrations. There were significant differences (p < 0.05) in the authors have reported an increase in ATP metabolites, associated
 M.S. Madruga et al. / Food Chemistry 123 (2010) 513–520 519

with heating treatments. For instance, Arya and Parihar (1979), and alkylpyrazine profile when it was heated. The relatively high
Mattoba, Kuchiba, Kimura, and Hasegawa (1988) reported signifi- amount of glycine in goat meat compared to beef could result in
cant increases in hypoxanthine and inosine during the heat treat- subtle differences between the ‘‘roasted” aromas of the two meats
ment of goat and sheep meat, respectively. when cooked under the same conditions, due to differences in their
alkylpyrazine composition.
3.4. Peptides, creatine and creatinine The concentrations of free cysteine (range of values for individ-
ual animals 0.02–0.06 mg/100 g) and free methionine (1.3–2.1 mg/
The concentrations of other amino compounds, creatine, cre- 100 g) were lower than values recorded in the literature for most
atinine, and two dipeptides, carnosine (alanine–histidine) and meat types, since the concentration of free methionine found in
anserine (alanine–methylhistidine) are also presented in Table meat is typically 2–6 mg/100 g, while cysteine ranges from 0.03
2. The amount of creatine detected in raw goat meat was to 2.1 mg/100 g. In fact, there were very few literature measure-
454 mg/100 g wet weight, and after heating 319 mg/100 g. As ments of cysteine in meat; the early papers reported an absence
expected, creatine was transformed to creatinine during the or the presence of only a trace amount (Jarboe & Mabrouk, 1974;
cooking procedure, as shown by a dramatic increase in creati- Macy et al., 1964a, 1964b), as its concentrations are very low in
nine in the cooked goat, from 7 to 41 mg/100 g, and a 30% de- meat.
crease in creatine. This has been found in previous studies Changes in free amino acids on cooking were smaller that
(Cambero et al., 2000; Macy et al., 1970b). The creatinine con- those observed for sugars and nucleotides. This is not unexpected
centration in raw goat was close to that reported in beef by Kou- since hydrolysis of proteins and peptide is likely to occur during
tsidis et al. (2008), although the concentrations of creatine and cooking. The overall effect of cooking was greatest on cysteine,
carnosine differed markedly. which exhibited a decrease of 70% in concentration, while methi-
onine was reduced by 29%. The sulphur-containing amino acids
3.5. Free amino acids are of particular interest for aroma formation, since they act as
precursors of volatile sulphur-containing compounds formed dur-
The concentrations of free amino acids in goat meat have not ing cooking (Madruga & Mottram, 1998). A high reduction in cys-
been reported previously. The total free amino acid content of teine during cooking has been reported in meat and model
raw goat meat was 220 mg/100 g (Table 3) and the most abundant systems (Mottram, 1998). Strecker degradation of cysteine can
amino acids were glycine, alanine, glutamine, arginine, and glu- lead to the production of hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and acetal-
tamic acid. There were highly significant differences (p < 0.01) in dehyde, these compounds provide the main reactants for the for-
the concentrations of all the free amino acids between the animals, mation of the large number of different heterocyclic compounds
suggesting that genetic factors may be important. Koutsidis et al. which are found in meat volatiles, among them sulphur-
(2008), and Aliani and Farmer (2005a) reached similar conclusions compounds, derived from ribose and cysteine, seem to be partic-
for beef and chicken, respectively. ularly important for the characteristic aroma of meat (Elmore &
The concentrations for most of the free amino acids were simi- Mottram, 2009).
lar to the values reported for beef (Koutsidis et al., 2008) and chick- Heating also reduced the quantities of leucine, isoleucine, ser-
en meat (Aliani & Farmer, 2005a), except for glycine which is ine, threonine, valine, and phenylalanine, by 30–50%. These amino
present at about ten times higher concentration in goat meat than acids are important in aroma formation, providing Strecker alde-
beef and chicken. Low et al. (2006) showed that the addition of gly- hydes, and other aroma compounds, such as pyrazines (Mottram,
cine to a potato-based model system led to a large change in its 1998).

Table 3
Concentrations (mg/100 g wet weight) of free amino acids in raw and cooked goat meat.

Amino acid Raw meat Cooked meat Per cent remaining after cooking Effect of cookingc Variability among animalsd
Meana %CVb Mean %CV
*** ***
Cysteine 0.04 46.4 0.01 18.1 30
*** ***
Methionine 1.7 22.2 1.2 48.8 71
*** ***
Leucine 7.9 31.4 5.1 15.8 64
*** ***
Isoleucine 4.8 19.4 3.2 14.2 67
*** ***
Serine 8.9 35.3 5.1 21.4 57
*** ***
Threonine 6.4 28.8 3.8 13 59
*** ***
Valine 7.6 18.8 5.1 11.8 68
*** ***
Phenylalanine 3.9 28.7 2.5 12.8 63
***
Aspartic acid 1.2 67.7 1.2 26.7 101 ns
*** ***
Glutamic acid 11 45.6 6.3 15.1 57
*** ***
Glycine 56.7 57 38 43.5 67
*** ***
Alanine 38.7 9.9 30.4 29 78
***
Proline 4.2 10.5 3 12.3 72 ns
*** ***
Asparagine 2.8 23.4 1.5 14.4 53
*** ***
Glutamine 35.5 38.4 23.9 24.5 67
*** ***
Lysine 5.6 24 3.7 29.9 66
***
Histidine 4.7 17.4 3.4 11.4 73 ns
*** ***
Tyrosine 3.7 30.9 2.3 14.2 62
*** ***
Tryptophan 0.4 20 0.3 9.6 78
*** ***
Arginine 12.2 16 9.3 26.2 76
*** ***
b-Alanine 2.3 27.4 1.6 31 71
*** ***
Total 220.2 150.9 69
a
Values are mean data from three animals.
b
Percentage coefficient of variation of data from three animals.
cd
Probability that there is a significant effect of (c) cooking or (d) animal on concentration; ns, no significant difference between means (p > 0.05).
***
Significant at the 0.1% level.
520 M.S. Madruga et al. / Food Chemistry 123 (2010) 513–520

4. Conclusions Koutsidis, G., Elmore, S. J., Oruna-Concha, M. J., Campo, M. M., Wood, J. D., &
Mottram, D. S. (2008). Water-soluble precursors of beef flavour: I. Effect of diet
and breed. Meat Science, 79(2), 124–130.
This investigation has provided quantitative data regarding the Lee, C. A., & Newbold, R. P. (1963). The pathway of degradation of inosinic acid in
water-soluble precursors present in raw and cooked goat meat. bovine skeletal muscle. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 72, 349–352.
Low, M. Y., Koutsidis, G., Parker, J. K., Elmore, J. S., Dodson, A. T., & Mottram, D. S.
Fructose, glucose, IMP, and cysteine suffered the highest losses
(2006). Effect of citric acid and glycine addition on Acrylamide and flavor in a
during the cooking process and seem to be involved in goat aroma potato model system. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 54, 5976–5983.
formation. Contents of inosine were higher than IMP, which sug- Macy, R. L., Naumann, H. D., & Bailey, M. E. (1964a). Water-soluble flavour and
odour precursors of meat. (I) Qualitative study of certain amino acids,
gested intensive phosphomonoesterase activity and subsequently
carbohydrates, non amino-acid nitrogen compounds and phosphoric acid
formation of ribose instead of ribose 5-phosphate. The concentra- esters of beef, pork and lamb. Journal of Food Science, 29, 136–141.
tions of sugars, ribonucleotides, creatinine and free amino acids Macy, R. L., Naumann, H. D., & Bailey, M. E. (1964b). Water-soluble flavour and
were similar to those reported previously in beef, lamb and chicken odour precursors of meat. (II) Effects heating on amino nitrogen constituents
and carbohydrates in lyophilized diffusates from aqueous extracts of beef, pork
meat, except for fructose and glycine, which were present at higher and lamb. Journal of Food Science, 29, 142–148.
concentrations in goat meat. Macy, R. L., Naumann, H. D., & Bailey, M. E. (1970a). Water-soluble flavor and odor
precursors of meat. 3. Changes in nucleotides, total nucleosides and bases of
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