MEAT

SCIENCE
Meat Science 72 (2006) 387–397
www.elsevier.com/locate/meatsci

Optimizing palm oil and palm stearin utilization for sensory

and textural properties of chicken frankfurters
a,b
S.S. Tan , A. Aminah a, X.G. Zhang c,*
, S.B. Abdul a

a
Food Science Programme, School of Chemical Sciences and Food Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
b
College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, PR China
c
China Meat Research Center, No. 70 Yang Qiao, Fengtai District, Beijing 100068, PR China

Received 23 August 2004; received in revised form 14 July 2005; accepted 14 July 2005

Abstract

This study was designed to explore the potential of refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil (PO) and palm stearin (POs)
utilization in chicken frankfurters. A 10 points augmented simplex-centroid design was used to study the effect of chicken fat (CF),
PO and POs as well as the interaction of these fats on the emulsion, textural and sensory properties of chicken frankfurters. All
frankfurters were formulated to contain approx 25% fat, 52% moisture and 10% protein. No significant difference was found in
end chopping temperatures of all meat batters even though the temperature of PO and POs upon incorporation into meat batters
was 50
C higher than CF. Strong emulsions were formed as no fluid losses were observed in all the meat batters tested after heating.
Texture profiles of the frankfurters containing PO and/or CF were quite similar, but increment of POs raised hardness, chewiness,
and shear hardness of the frankfurters. Acceptability of the frankfurters was evaluated using hedonic test. Panelists found no dif-
ference in hardness preference between frankfurters made from totally CF and PO, while frankfurters made from POs were rated as
hard and brittle. CF was important in determining acceptability of the frankfurters, as reduction of CF in formulation resulted in
lower scores in chicken flavor, juiciness, oiliness and overall acceptance of the frankfurters. Frankfurters with sensory acceptability
comparable to a commercial one were found to comprise of more than 17% CF, and less than 67% PO and 17% POs of the fat blend.
 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Frankfurter; Palm oil; Palm stearin; Emulsion; Texture; Sensory

1. Introduction ucts resulted in reduced cooked yields, soft and mushy

interiors, rubbery skin, purging, shortened shelf life,
Animal fats, the major ingredient in processed meat and changes in mouth-feel (Keeton, 1994). Besides
formulations, are perceived as a major risk factor for maintaining sensory characteristics, the incorporation
various diet-related diseases and need to be reduced or of vegetable oils instead of animal fats improves the
eliminated from daily consumption. Reduction in ani- nutritional composition of meat products. Hence, re-
mal fats and trans-fatty acids intakes, together with search to substitute animal fats with vegetable oils in
polyunsaturated fatty acids intake of approximately various types of meat products has gained much atten-
7% of total energy is recommended (Grundy, 1997). tion in meat manufacturing industry.
However, excessive reduction of fats from meat prod- Up to this date, a variety of vegetable fats has been
incorporated into different types of meat products, such
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 10 6724 1732; fax: +86 10 8729
as frankfurters (Ambrosiadis, Vareltzis, & Georgakis,
3157. 1996; Bishop, Olson, & Knipe, 1993; Hammer, 1992;
E-mail address: [email protected] (X.G. Zhang). Lurueňa-Martı́nez, Vivar-Quintana, & Revilla, 2004;

0309-1740/$ - see front matter  2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2005.07.012
388 S.S. Tan et al. / Meat Science 72 (2006) 387–397

Marquez, Ahmed, West, & Johnson, 1989; Paneras & experiment is a good method to achieve the purpose
Bloukas, 1994; Pappa, Bloukas, & Arvanitoyannis, by allowing one to study the pure and combined effect
2000; Park, Rhee, Keeton, & Rhee, 1989; Shiota et al., of the test components on the responses of interest. It
1995; Tan, Aminah, Mohd Suria Affandi, & Babji, has been performed in many product-development and
2002; Vural, Javidipour, & Ozbas, 2004; Ziprin, Rhee, formulation optimization activities (Arteaga, Li-Chan,
Bravo-Gutierrez, & Osburn, 1994); hamburgers (Babji Nakai, Confrades, & Jimenez-Colmenero, 1993; Prin-
et al., 1998; Liu, Huffman, & Egbert, 1991; Shiota yawiwatkul, McWatters, Beuchat, & Phillips, 1997).
et al., 1995), fermented sausages (Bloukas, Paneras, & Thus, a three-component mixture design was adopted
Fournitzis, 1997; Muguerza, Gimeno, Ansorena, Blo- in this experiment to study the pure and combined ef-
ukas, & Astiasarán, 2001), and emulsified meat balls fects of chicken fat (CF), palm oil (PO) and palm stearin
(Hsu & Yu, 2002; Hsu & Yu, 2003). The vegetable fats (POs) on various qualities of frankfurter. Since the ease
incorporated into meat products can generally be di- of a fat to disperse in meat batters have been considered
vided into liquid oils and plastic fats. In previous studies as the major requirement for the production of stable
(Tan et al., 2002), the incorporation of palm shortenings meat emulsiona, PO and POs were melted in this exper-
resulted in not only severe fat- and water separation of iment to achieve the desired low viscosity that would
meat batters but also product failures. However, such facilitate their mixing into meat batters. In short, this
problems were not found in the meat batter prepared experiment was initiated to study the effect of CF,
with liquid palm olein. Compared to vegetable plastic melted PO and POs on the emulsion properties, texture
fats (Lee, Hampson, & Abdollahi, 1981; Septon, Honi- profiles as well as the sensory acceptability of the frank-
kel, & Clegg, 1993), the introduction of vegetable oils furters. Also, this experiment was aimed to establish the
(Ambrosiadis et al., 1996; Bishop et al., 1993; Hammer, allowable limits of PO and POs utilization in chicken
1992; Marquez et al., 1989; Paneras & Bloukas, 1994; frankfurter formulation from the sensory point of view.
Park et al., 1989; Ziprin et al., 1994) into emulsion type
meat products posed significantly fewer problems in
forming stable meat emulsion. The differences might 2. Materials and methods
be due to the variation in the physical characteristics be-
tween the fats and oils. Unlike liquid oils, clear flow of 2.1. Materials
plastic fats (such as butters and shortenings) is only no-
ticed above stresses of certain threshold values, the so- Chicken breast trimming (CBT) (pH 6.3,
18
C),
called yield stress (Van Vliet, 1999). Thus, when plastic chicken trimming mix (CTM) (pH 6.4,
18
C) and
fats are incorporated into meat batters during chopping, CF were purchased from the Dinding Poultry Sdn.
higher energy input is needed to sufficiently disperse the Bhd., Setiawan Perak. Refined bleached and deodorized
fats, and the heat generated might lead to the emulsion (RBD) PO and POs were provided by the Malaysian
breakdown as observed (Tan et al., 2002). Palm Oil Board (MPOB), Bangi Selangor.
The melting of fats before incorporation into meat
batters can be a solution to overcome the emulsion 2.2. Experimental design
breakdown problem, as melted fats are in the form of
free flowing like those vegetable oils. However, investi- A 10-point augmented simplex-centroid design (Cor-
gation to study the effect of melted fats as well as fats nell, 1990) was used to formulate the three-component
temperatures on the emulsion stability of meat batters mixture systems comprised of CF, POs and PO. The
is limited. The effect of sheep tail oil at three different 10 points consisted of three single component systems,
temperatures (5, 11 and 21
C) on the emulsion capacity three binary mixtures and four ternary mixtures (Table
(EC) of chilled meat samples was reported by Zorba, 1). Each fat blend consisted of one or more components
Gokalp, Yetim, and Ockerman (1993). The oil at made up exactly 20% of the total formulation while the
11
C produced meat emulsion with optimal EC (Zorba remaining 80% being comprised of other constituents
et al., 1993). On the other hand, melted sheep and goat that were held fixed in all trials. Two replication of each
fats at 80
C formed very unstable emulsions in the pres- treatment were formulated and evaluated.
ence of their respective meat slurries (Chattoraj, Bose,
Sen, & Chatterjee, 1979). 2.3. Formulation
Effect of substituting animal fats with palm oils in
meat products have been carried out by Babji et al. Proximate analysis on CF showed that it contained
(1998), Hsu and Yu (2002, 2003), Liu et al. (1991) and approximately 76.6% fat and 21.5% moisture. In order
Shiota et al. (1995). However, most of the studies were to produce frankfurters of same composition, water,
conducted on a total substitution basis. Hence, influence CF, POs and PO were combined in appropriate propor-
of the interaction between animal fats and palm oils on tions to meet target 25% fat and 50% moisture contents
the quality of meat products remains unclear. Mixture in final products. The variation of fat blends as well
 S.S. Tan et al. / Meat Science 72 (2006) 387–397 389

Table 1
The coordinate setting for fat proportion based on the 10-point augmented simplex-centroid design and formulationa of the chicken frankfurters
Formulation (g/kg)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Chicken fat (CF)b 261 (1) 131 (0.5) 0 (0) – (0) – (0) 131 (0.5) 87 (0.3) 174 (0.67) 44 (0.17) 44 (0.17)
Palm stearin (POs)b 0 (0) 100 (0.5) 200 (1) 100 (0.5) – (0) (0) 67 (0.3) 34 (0.17) 133 (0.67) 33 (0.17)
Palm oil (PO)b 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 100 (0.5) 200 (1) 100 (0.5) 67 (0.3) 34 (0.16) 34 (0.16) 133 (0.66)
Ice + water 190 219 247 247 247 219 228 209 238 238
CBT 210
CTM 210
Potato starch 50.0
Isolated soy protein 30.0
Seasoning (MC100) 17.8
Golden syrup 12.0
Dextrose 10.0
Refined salt 4.9
Polyphosphate 4.9
Pepper 3.3
Sodim erythrobate 0.2
Curing salt 0.1
a
Amounts of potato starch, isolated soy protein, seasoning, golden syrup, dextrose, refined salt, polyphosphate, pepper, sodium erythrobate, and
curing salt were constant for all formulation.
b
Numbers in parentheses represent the coordinate setting of fats proportion based on the 10-point augmented simplex-centroid design. Tem-
perature of CF, POs and PO upon incorporation into meat batters was 7, 55 and 55
C, respectively.

amounts of other ingredients used in frankfurter formu- hot-air steamer (all-o-steam, Juno, Germany) with a
lation are shown in Table 1. cooking schedule of 55, 65 and 75
C for 1 h at each
temperature setting. Weights of the frankfurters were re-
2.4. Processing corded prior and after cooking. The final products were
chilled, peeled, packed and held at 5–7
C. All measure-
CBT, CTM and CF were ground separately through ments were carried out within seven days.
a 4 mm plate using a grinder (Gigant, Beem, Germany).
The ground CBT, CTM and CF were packed and held 2.5. Proximate composition
at
18
C. CF was kept at 5–7
C overnight before
using. PO and POs were melted separately in a water Moisture, protein and fat contents of frankfurters
bath (100
C) before blending. The melted PO and were determined according to the standard AOAC
POs were mixed in glass containers based on the propor- (1990) procedures.
tions designated in the augmented mixture design (Table
1). All palm oil blends were mixed thoroughly before 2.6. Slip melting points
tempered in an oven (55
C) until used.
Prior to the preparation of each meat batter, addi- Slip melting points (SMPs) of the fats blends were
tives (chicken flavor, dextrose, salt, polyphosphate, pep- determined as described in PORIM Test Method No.
per, natrium erythrobate and curing salt) were p4.2 (Siew, Tang, & Tan, 1995). Three capillary tubes
solubilized in cold water. The frozen minced CTB and (1.1 mm diameter and 50 mm length) per sample were
CTM were chopped with salt and part of the additives dipped into melted fat sample so that columns of fat
mixture in a commercial food processer (Model 55, Ho- of approximately with 10 mm high each are obtained
bart Ditosama, France) for 3 min. Isolated soy protein in the tubes. The fat columns were chilled at once by
was mixed to the batter, followed by the additives mix- pressing, holding and rolling the ends of the tubes con-
ture, and chopping were continued for 30 s. Potato taining the sample against a piece of ice until the fats
starch and the additives mixture were then added and solidified. The capillary tubes were wiped with tissue pa-
the batter was chopped for another 30 s. After the addi- per and placed in a test-tube held in a beaker of water
tion of fat/fats, chopping was further carried out for that had been equilibrated at 10 ± 1
C in a water-bath.
2 min. Temperature of each meat batter at the end of The test tubes were then transferred to a thermostated
chopping was measured by a thermocouple (Type K, water-bath at 10 ± 1
C and hold for 16 h. The capillary
Cooper) at 5 points of the batter. The prepared meat tubes were removed from the test-tube and attached to a
batter was kept in a chiller (5–7
C). Meat batters was thermometer with a rubber band and the thermometer
stuffed into 26 mm cellulose casings using a 9 L manual was suspended in a beaker containing 100 ml distilled
stuffer (FDIC, Germany). After stuffing, the frankfurt- water. Water in the beaker was agitated with a magnetic
ers were linked into 12 cm long and cooked in a stirrer and heated as to increase the temperature at a
390 S.S. Tan et al. / Meat Science 72 (2006) 387–397

rate of 1
C/min, slowing down to 0.5
C/min as the slip laboratory consists of six isolated sensory booths.
point reached. Heating continued until the fat column Frankfurters were grilled (core temperature = 75
C),
rose to the mark in each tube. Temperature of water cut into 30 mm cylinders and kept in plastic containers
was recorded and the SMP was computed as the average until served. All frankfurters were served at room tem-
of three tubes. perature and distilled water was also provided. Hedonic
ratings using 7-point scales were adopted. Frankfurters
2.7. Emulsion stability were presented in three-digit coded glass containers,
and the order of serving was determined by random per-
The emulsion stability of the meat batters was deter- mutation. Attributes evaluated including aroma, hard-
mined using the method of Seri Chempaka and Babji ness, hardness rating, chicken flavor, juiciness, oiliness
(1996). A 10 g sample from each frankfurter batter and overall acceptance. The higher rating indicated good
was placed on a coiled wire attached half way to a grad- quality attribute (1, dislike very much and 7, like very
uated glass cylinder (2 cm · 11.5 cm) and covered with much) except for hardness rating, where 1 stood for hard
aluminum foil. The samples were cooked at 75
C in a and brittle and 7, soft and juicy.
closed water bath for 60 min at a water level of 3/4 of
the tubes. The coils and samples were removed and 2.11. Statistical analysis
the weight of the released fluid was recorded. Emulsion
stability was calculated as The canonical special quadratic polynomial of Scheffé
(1961) was used to evaluate the effects of the three types
Emulsion stability ð% fluid lossÞ of fat
¼ Weight of fluid released=10  100: Y ¼ b1 x1 þ b2 x2 þ b3 x3 þ b12 x1 x2 þ b13 x1 x3
þ b23 x1 x3 þ b123 x1 x2 x3 : ð1Þ
2.8. Cooking loss Significance of the regression equations was assessed as
described by Cornell (1990) at a confidence limit of
Cooking loss was equal to percent weight loss when a = 0.05. The following specific analyses were per-
the frankfurters were grilled on a hot-plate for 7– formed: (1) F test for significance of regression models;
10 min until core temperature of the frankfurters (2) t test of partial regression coefficients for each term
reached 75
C in the fitted regression models; (3) computation of the
Cooking loss ð%Þ adjusted coefficient of determination ðR2A Þ. R2A was calcu-
lated as 1
{[SSE/(N
p)]/[SST/(N
1)]}, where SSE
¼ ðRaw weight
Cooked weightÞ=Raw weight  100:
was the residual sum of squares, SST was the total
sum of squares, N was the total number of observations
2.9. Texture profile analysis and p was the number of terms in the regression models.
The treatment data were analyzed using the general lin-
Texture profile analysis of the frankfurters were per- ear model (GLM) procedure of SAS Institute, Inc. re-
formed using a texturemeter (QTS25 Texture Analyser, lease 6.12 (1989) as described by Cornell (1990).
Steven Farnell, Hertfordshire, UK). The cooked frank- Analyses of variance (ANOVA) were also performed
furters that had been subjected to cooking loss determi- using PROC ANOVA procedure (SAS Institute Inc.,
nation were cooled prior to being cut into 30 mm 1989) to determined differences within the treatments
cylinders. Eight 30 mm-long frankfurter sections were for each independent variable assessed. DuncanÕs multi-
tested per replication. Hardness, cohesiveness, chewiness ple range test were carried out when F value was signif-
and springiness of the frankfurter sections were obtained icant (P < 0.05) (Prinyawiwatkul et al., 1997). Pearson
by compressing the sample at a speed of 50 mm/min to correlation was also executed by running PROC CORR
25% of their original height through a two cycle com- PEARSON procedure (SAS Institute Inc., 1989) to
pression with a 13 mm clear plastic cylinder probe show the strength of relationship between slip melting
(TA5, CNS Farnell, England). Shear hardness of the point and sensory attributes.
frankfurters was measured by shearing the frankfurter
with an aluminum shear blade (CNS Farnell, England) 2.12. Deriving the optimum formulation
at a speed of 50 mm/min.
The sensory acceptability of a commercial frankfurter
2.10. Sensory evaluation was determined by hedonic test prior to this experiment.
It was observed that the sensory mean scores for hard-
Sensory evaluation was carried out by 40 panelists/ ness, chicken flavor, juiciness, oiliness and overall accep-
session consisting of students and staff of the Depart- tance of the commercial product were approximately
ment of Food Science and Nutrition, UKM. The sensory 4.5. Based on this, the acceptable areas of frankfurters
 S.S. Tan et al. / Meat Science 72 (2006) 387–397 391

were predicted to result in consumer ratings >4.5 for all rating, chicken flavor, juiciness and overall acceptance)
sensory attributes in current study. and are considered accurate enough for prediction pur-
To derive a formulation that is comparable to the poses. Gracula and Singh (1984) noted that, quadratic
tested market product, contour plots were first gener- and interaction terms should be included in a model
ated for all sensory attributes using predictive models for better quality description. Furthermore, Cornell
obtained (illustration not shown). After that, the con- (1990) also expressed that the usefulness of a prediction
tour plots were superimposed to produced an acceptable model decreases when terms are deleted from the equa-
areas represented all combinations of mixture that tion. Therefore, it is not advisable to sacrifice the higher
would meet the pre-set criteria (Prinyawiwatkul et al., precision of a complete model just for simplicity of
1997). usage of the reduced model (Cornell, 1990). Hence, the
nature of relationships between the independent and
dependent variables were represented by the full special
3. Results and discussion quadratic models. The predictive models with R2A > 0:75
were then used to generate contours plots for all sensory
3.1. Prediction model and analysis of variance attributes (illustrations not shown) and an optimum fat
blend formulation for producing acceptable frankfurters
Eq. (1) was fitted to the experimental data obtained were derived from the plots (Fig. 2).
and Table 2 shows the regression equations expressing
the frankfurters characteristics in terms of fats propor- 3.2. Slip melting points of fat blends
tion. ANOVA indicated that the models were highly sig-
nificant for most of the instrumental textural parameters The SMP of pure CF, POs and PO was 28.1, 34.7 and
(hardness, cohesiveness, and chewiness) and sensory 54.9
C, respectively. The blending altered the SMP of
attributes (hardness, hardness rating, chicken flavor, fats. It is clearly shown in Fig. 1 that inclusion of POs
juiciness and overall acceptance) (P < 0.001). Influence significantly elevated the SMP of the fat blends. The re-
of fats on the instrumental hardness was profound as sults obtained was in agreement with Noor Lida, Ali,
F values for this parameter was as high as 74.2 (Table and Muhadhir (1996), whereby to produce a fat blend
2). ANOVA results also showed that the model for with SMP < 40
C, addition of POs was required to be
cooking loss was significant at P < 0.05 while the models less than 16% (Formulations 8 and 10). Melting points
for slip melting point and sensory oiliness were signifi- is defined as a point at which a material changes from
cant at P < 0.01. solid to liquid (OÕBrien, 1998). However, melting range
The estimated partial regression coefficients for the or melting interval is a more correct measurement of fats
prediction models and the results of significance test instead of melting point due to the complication derived
on the coefficients are listed in Table 2. CF, PO and from fats composition and crystallization (OÕBrien,
POs exerted significant positive linear effects for all re- 1998). In present study, the SMP of the fat blends is
sponses (P < 0.001) measured. A significant interaction shown to give a general idea on the melting behavior
term between CF and POs (b12) was observed in the pre- of the fats studied
diction model of slip melting point of fat blends
(p < 0.05). A significant cubic interaction term (b123) 3.3. Fat, moisture and protein contents
was found in the prediction model of cooking loss
(P < 0.05). The positive interaction coefficients of POs Mean total and standard deviation values for mois-
and PO (b23) indicated that there were significant posi- ture, fat and protein contents of the cooked frankfurters
tive effect between POs and PO to increase the values was 51.9 ± 1.4%, 24.6 ± 1.0% and 9.8 ± 0.7%, respec-
of shear hardness (P < 0.01), juiciness (P < 0.001) and tively, and were closed to the targeted fat and moisture
overall acceptance (p < 0.05) of the frankfurters. levels (data not shown). No significant differences were
Coefficient of determination (R2) and adjusted coeffi- found in both the moisture and fat contents of the
cient of determination ðR2A Þ measure the portion of var- frankfurters. The protein content of Formulations 2, 3,
iation in a response that is attributed to the model rather and 4 were significantly lower than Formulation 7.
than to random error. Henika (1982) stated that R2 va- However, the small difference between these formula-
lue of more than 0.75 is relatively adequate for predic- tions (<2%) was anticipated to exert no practical effect
tion purposes. Thus, the R2 and R2A were not in on the frankfurters qualities under studied.
satisfactory for cooking loss, springiness, shear hardness
and oiliness of the frankfurters as the R2 and R2A for 3.4. End chopping temperature and emulsion stability
these responses were less than 0.75 (Table 2). However,
the R2 and R2A were more than 0.75 for other instrumen- No significant difference was observed in the end
tal textural parameters (hardness, cohesiveness and chopping temperature among the formulations and the
chewiness) and sensory attributes (hardness, hardness highest end chopping temperature recorded was
 392
Table 2
Regression coefficients and analysis of variance of the special quadratic model for all dependent variables
Variable dependent Coefficienta F value Pr > F SEEb R2 R2A
b1 b2 b3 b12 b13 b23 b123

S.S. Tan et al. / Meat Science 72 (2006) 387–397

Slip melting point 28.7*** 54.3*** 34.4*** 33.0* 4.46 24.3 33.4 34.2 0.0075 3.71 0.986 0.954
*** *** *** *
Cooking loss 2.43 3.47 4.54 0.04 1.44 1.34 46.4 4.50 0.0111 0.781 0.675 0.525
Instrumental Textural Parameters
Hardness 611*** 1379*** 636*** 108 8.24
54.2
2425 74.2 0.0001 51.0 0.971 0.959
Cohesiveness 0.785*** 0.674*** 0.781***
0.005 0.019
0.042 0.061 15.7 0.0001 0.017 0.879 0.823
Chewiness 3138*** 5629*** 3285*** 1742 59.9 445
10962 18.2 0.0001 347 0.894 0.845
Springiness 6.55*** 6.29*** 6.62*** 0.13
0.05
0.35 1.81 2.84 0.054 0.110 0.567 0.367
Shear hardness 1811*** 2478*** 1875*** 837
467 1618**
5522 10.2 0.0003 166 0.825 0.745
Sensory Attributes
Hardness 5.0*** 2.9*** 5.0*** 1.7 0.8 1.0
4.6 28.1 0.0001 0.23 0.929 0.896
Hardness rating 4.9*** 2.9*** 4.5*** 1.1 0.9 0.9
5.0 20.6 0.0001 0.23 0.905 0.861
Chicken flavor 4.8*** 3.4*** 3.9*** 1.2 1.7 1.8 2.2 10.6 0.0002 0.24 0.830 0.752
Juiciness 4.9*** 2.6*** 4.2*** 0.8 0.9 2.3***
0.2 29.0 0.0001 0.22 0.930 0.898
Oiliness 4.6*** 3.4*** 4.3*** 0.4 1.1 0.9 2.8 6.36 0.0026 0.28 0.746 0.605
Overall acceptance 4.9*** 3.0*** 4.3*** 1.4 1.2 2.3* 0.3 14.0 0.0001 0.27 0.867 0.805
a
b1 = chicken fat (CF); b2 = palm stearin (POs) and b3 = palm oil (PO).
b
SEE or standard error of estimate of the regression model was calculated as the square root of the residual mean square.
*
Significant at P < 0.05.
**
Significant at P < 0.01.
***
Significant at P < 0.001.
 S.S. Tan et al. / Meat Science 72 (2006) 387–397 393

saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in both sheep and goat fats,

which made up approximately 36–39% from the total
fatty acids. However, the incorporation of POs that con-
tain approximately 57% of SFA (Busfield & Proschogo,
1990) did not induce emulsion breakdown in this study.
End chopping temperature is crucial in determining
the emulsion stability of meat batters and the ideal
end-chopping temperature should be less than 16
C to
ensure a stable emulsion formation (Brown & Toledo,
1975; Deng, Toledo, & Lillard, 1981; Hoogenkamp,
1994; Whiting, 1987). In addition, the ideal chopping
temperature is highly dependent on the degree of com-
minution and percentage of fats present in the formula-
tion. Palm shortenings needed to be chopped for a
period of 7 min to be evenly dispersed in the pre-emul-
Fig. 1. Contour plot for slip melting points (
C) of fat blends
containing CF, PO and POs.
sions compared to only 2 min for liquid palm olein
(Tan et al., 2002). Whiting (1987) attributed the poor
emulsion stability of meat batters containing fats with
18.3
C for Formulation 4 (P > 0.05) (Table 3). Even
high melting points to the limited ability of chopping
though the temperature of POs and PO during incorpo-
equipment to disperse fats sufficiently into small
ration into the meat batters was 50
C higher than CF,
particles.
they did not significantly elevate the end temperature
The utilization of melted fats eases the chopping pro-
of the meat batters (P > 0.05).
cess. High melting fats, such as POs, can be used in com-
In emulsion stability determination, no fluid loss were
minuted meat products without chopping difficulties if it
observed in all the meat batters containing different fats
is incorporated into meat batters in liquid form. On the
after 1 h of heating at 75
C, suggesting the formation of
other hand, a variety of fats can be blended and incor-
strong emulsions. The addition of melted POs and PO
porated to produce functional meat products with de-
or mixtures of both at high temperature were not detri-
sired fatty acids profiles without causing emulsion
mental to the emulsifying capacity of meat batters as
breakdown of meat batters. This further diversifies the
strong emulsions were formed for all treatments. Con-
choices of fats that can be used by blending a wide range
tradictory result was reported on the effect of hot melted
of palm oil products available. Physical blending has
fat to the emulsion capacity of meat batters (Chattoraj
long been adopted by the oil manufacturing industry
et al., 1979). Chattoraj et al. (1979) found that meat
to modify various palm oil products in order to achieve
emulsions prepared with melted sheep or goat fats at
desired product characteristics, such as designed phys-
80
C became unstable within a short period of time
ico-chemical characteristics (Noor Lida et al., 1996;
and were inferior than those mixed with peanut oil
Noor Lida & Ali, 1998) as well as improved oxidative
and melted pork fat. Chattoraj et al. (1979) then related
stability (Frankel & Huang, 1994).
this phenomenon to the presence of higher amount of
3.5. Cooking loss
Table 3
Experimental points and mean values for end chopping temperatures The cooking loss of the frankfurters is shown in Ta-
and cooking losses of the chicken frankfurtersA
ble 3. Compared to the cooking loss of frankfurters pre-
Blend Fat proportionB End chopping Cooking pared with palm shortenings (Tan et al., 2002), the
no. (x1, x2, x3) temperature (
C) loss (%)
utilization of melted PO and POs reduced the cooking
1 (1, 0, 0) 13.8a 2.36b loss of frankfurters. Wilson, Dyett, Hughes, and Jones
2 (1/2, 1/2, 0) 17.4a 3.00b
(1981) stated that a meat product of good cooking qual-
3 (0, 1, 0) 16.1a 3.54ab
4 (0, 1/2, 1/2) 18.3a 4.38ab ity should not lose more than 10% of its weight during
5 (0, 0, 1) 14.0a 4.51ab cooking. All frankfurters exhibited good cooking qual-
6 (1/2, 0, 1/2) 12.9a 3.74ab ity as cooking loss for all frankfurters were lower than
7 (1/3, 1/3, 1/3) 13.9a 5.42a the 10% specified by Wilson et al. (1981).
8 (2/3, 1/6, 1/6) 13.9a 4.32ab
9 (1/6, 2/3, 1/6) 15.8a 4.39ab
10 (1/6, 1/6, 2/3) 14.9a 5.32a 3.6. Texture profile analysis
Means within the same column bearing different letters (a and b) are
significantly different (P < 0.05). Texture profiles of the cooked frankfurters are shown
A
Means collected from two replications. in Table 4. The changing trends of all instrumental tex-
B
x1 = CF, x2 = POs and x3 = PO. tural parameters as affected by the blending of CF, PO
394 S.S. Tan et al. / Meat Science 72 (2006) 387–397

Table 4
Experimental points and mean values for various instrumental textural parameters of the chicken frankfurtersA
Blend no. Fat proportionB (x1, x2, x3) Textural properties
Hardness (kg) Cohesiveness (g mm) Chewiness (mm) Springiness (mm) Shear hardness (kg)
1 (1, 0, 0) 0.614e 0.784a 3151c 6.54ab 1.824d
2 (1/2, 1/2, 0) 1.040b 0.730cd 4894ab 6.43ab 2.373abc
3 (0, 1, 0) 1.393a 0.677f 5688a 6.28b 2.485ab
4 (0, 1/2, 1/2) 0.998b 0.723ed 4607d 6.37ab 2.581a
5 (0, 0, 1) 0.626de 0.785a 3265c 6.64a 1.869d
6 (1/2, 0, 1/2) 0.618de 0.790a 3219c 6.58a 1.733d
7 (1/3, 1/3, 1/3) 0.813c 0.762abc 4016bc 6.49ab 2.108bcd
8 (2/3, 1/6, 1/6) 0.693de 0.765ab 3499c 6.61a 1.869d
9 (1/6, 2/3, 1/6) 1.031b 0.696ef 4612b 6.45ab 2.373abc
10 (1/6, 1/6, 2/3) 0.735cd 0.746bcd 3564c 6.51ab 2.021cd
Means within the same column bearing different letters (a–f) are significantly different (P < 0.05).
A
Means collected from two replications.
B
x1 = CF, x2 = POs and x3 = PO.

and POs were similar to that of the slip melting point teristics of fats are important in determining the textural
(Table 4) (illustrations not shown). PO exhibited a great properties of frankfurters as they form fat networks/
potential to substitute CF in frankfurters as the frank- agglomerates within the protein matrix of the frankfurt-
furters containing only CF and/or PO yielded texture ers (Lee et al., 1981; Tan, 2002).
profiles that were quite identical to each other (Table
4). There was a similarity in hardness, cohesiveness, 3.7. Sensory evaluation
chewiness, and shear hardness values of Formulations
1, 5, 6 and 8 which were formulated using totally or a Mean scores for various sensory attributes are shown
large portion of CF and/or PO. Systematic increases in Table 5. Shiota et al. (1995) found that sensory score
were observed in hardness and chewiness of the frank- for aroma decreased with increasing level of PO and
furters along with the increment of POs in formulation palm mid-fraction in beef sausage. However, the result
(Table 4). The direction in hardness increment was in of this study showed no significant difference in aroma
agreement with Ambrosiadis et al. (1996). The morphol- among the treatments (P > 0.05) (Table 5).
ogy of POs is strongly dependent on the thermal history In studying the consumer hardness preference of
of the fat and is directly associated with its melting point, frankfurters, panelists perceived no difference between
plasticity and brittleness. Results of Busfield and Prosc- frankfurters formulated with only CF or/with PO (For-
hogo (1990) showed that POs crystallized and rearranged mulations 1, 5 and 6) (P > 0.05) as shown in Table 5. A
into b upon the tempering process. The b form, although limited volume of POs at approximately 1/6 from the
the most stable, is not desirable in large amounts because total fat blends can also be incorporated into frankfurt-
the large crystals of this arrangement resulted in coarse ers, as it exerted no significant effect on the hardness
and grainy texture (Noor Lida & Ali, 1998). The charac- acceptability of the frankfurters (Formulations 8 and

Table 5
Experimental points and mean scores for various sensory attributes of the chicken frankfurtersA
Blend no. Fat proportionB Mean sensory scoresA
(x1, x2, x3)
Aroma Hardness Hardness RatingC Chicken Flavor Juiciness Oiliness Overall Acceptance
1 (1, 0, 0) 4.9 ± 0.3a 5.0 ± 0.0a 4.9 ± 0.2a 4.8 ± 0.1a 5.0 ± 0.1a 4.6 ± 0.2abc 4.9 ± 0.2a
2 (1/2, 1/2, 0) 4.7 ± 0.1a 4.3 ± 0.0bc 4.2 ± 0.1bcd 4.4 ± 0.1ab 4.0 ± 0.2cd 4.0 ± 0.0bcd 4.4 ± 0.1ab
3 (0, 1, 0) 4.3 ± 0.5a 2.8 ± 0.2d 2.9 ± 0.4e 3.4 ± 0.4c 2.6 ± 0.0e 3.4 ± 0.3d 3.0 ± 0.4c
4 (0, 1/2, 1/2) 4.4 ± 0.5a 4.0 ± 0.1c 3.9 ± 0.3cd 4.1 ± 0.1b 4.0 ± 0.3cd 4.0 ± 0.6abcd 4.2 ± 0.4ab
5 (0, 0, 1) 4.4 ± 0.3a 4.9 ± 0.5ab 4.5 ± 0.2abc 4.0 ± 0.2bc 4.2 ± 0.4bcd 4.3 ± 0.5abc 4.3 ± 0.5ab
6 (1/2, 0, 1/2) 4.7 ± 0.1a 5.2 ± 0.2a 4.9 ± 0.1a 4.8 ± 0.2a 4.8 ± 0.1ab 4.7 ± 0.3ab 4.9 ± 0.1a
7 (1/3, 1/3, 1/3) 4.9 ± 0.1a 4.3 ± 0.1bc 4.2 ± 0.3bcd 4.6 ± 0.3ab 4.3 ± 0.0bc 4.4 ± 0.1abc 4.7 ± 0.2a
8 (2/3, 1/6, 1/6) 4.7 ± 0.4a 4.8 ± 0.1ab 4.6 ± 0.0ab 4.8 ± 0.3a 4.7 ± 0.2ab 4.8 ± 0.1a 4.8 ± 0.1a
9 (1/6, 2/3, 1/6) 4.5 ± 0.4a 3.9 ± 0.4c 3.7 ± 0.1d 4.2 ± 0.2ab 3.7 ± 0.1d 3.9 ± 0.1cd 3.9 ± 0.1b
10 (1/6, 1/6, 2/3) 4.8 ± 0.4a 4.8 ± 0.4ab 4.5 ± 0.4abc 4.4 ± 0.5ab 4.6 ± 0.5ab 4.5 ± 0.4abc 4.7 ± 0.4a
Means within the same column bearing different letters (a–f) are significantly different (P < 0.05).
A
Means collected from two replications with 1 = disliked very much and 7 = liked very much.
B
x1 = CF, x2 = POs and x3 = PO.
C
1 = hard and brittle; 7 = soft and juicy.
 S.S. Tan et al. / Meat Science 72 (2006) 387–397 395

10) compared to CF and/or PO (Formulations 1, 5 and hydes like octanal, nonanal, and decanal along with
6). Casutt, Scheeder, Escher, Dufey, and Kreuzer (1999) decadienal and c-dodecalactone are related to both
investigated the relationship between fatty acids compo- chicken-specific aroma and flavor (Ramarathnam, Ru-
sition of adipose tissues, mechanical and sensory tex- bin, & Diosady, 1993).
tural variables of pure fats. They found that even A reduction of CF in formulation decreased the juic-
though melting behaviors and solid fat contents of pure iness, oiliness and overall acceptance from the panelists
fats were altered by the changes in fatty acids composi- (Table 5). Even though there was no significant differ-
tion, the mechanical and sensory textural variables of ence in hardness between the frankfurters formulated
pure fats were only weakly affected. Thus, a slight differ- with entirely CF (Formulation 1) and PO (Formulation
ence in melting behaviors among fats exert insignificant 5), juiciness, oiliness and overall acceptance ratings were
effect to consumer texture perception and total simula- observed to be significantly different (P < 0.05) for these
tion of fatty acids composition might not be an essential two formulations. This difference might be due to the
criterion for vegetable oils to replace animal fats in meat different melting behaviors between CF and PO. Com-
products. On the other hand, Shiota et al. (1995) ob- pared to PO, the low-melting CF could melt more com-
served that the impact of palmitic acid (which is abun- pletely at body temperature and thus exerted a better
dant in POs and PO) on the palatability of meat sensory perception than PO. Drastic declines in hard-
products could be mouth-feel or texture derived. ness, chicken flavor, juiciness, oiliness and overall accep-
In rating the hardness of the frankfurters (value 1 for tance ratings were observed when the proportion of POs
hard and brittle and value 7 for soft and juicy), panelists increased in the formulations (Formulations 2, 3, 4 and
rated a 2.9 for frankfurters formulated with entirely POs 9). Thus, in order to produce frankfurters as good as
(Formulation 3). However, this value quickly improved those containing CF, the restriction of POs to 1/6 of to-
when CF and/or PO present together in the frankfurters tal fat blend must be followed. Moreover, excessive
(Formulations 2, 4, 7, 8, 9 and 10) (Table 5). inclusion of POs to meat products is not recommended
The mean score for chicken flavor preference (Table as this palm oil fraction contains a high degree of satu-
5) clearly show the importance of CF on the flavor rated fatty acids and is deleterious to health when con-
acceptability of the frankfurters. The frankfurters for- sumed in excess.
mulated without CF (Formulations 3, 4 and 5) were sig-
nificantly inferior in the chicken flavor preference rating 3.8. Correlation
(P < 0.0001). Table 5 shows that a certain amount of CF
is needed to generate the specific chicken flavor percep- Lipid plays a dominant and multifunctional role in
tion from panelists. CF should comprise 1/6 of the total perceived flavor. According to De Roos (1997), the
fat blends to engender the same sensory acceptability as physical states of lipid (liquid vs. solid, emulsified vs.
those prepared with totally CF (Table 5). In contrast to free fat and temperature of fat) are among factors that
the notion by Shiota et al. (1995) who stated palmitic influence the lipid-flavor interaction of fat products.
acid was bland in flavor, the total substitution of CF Correlations between the SMP of the fat blends and sen-
with PO produced frankfurters with foreign flavor in sory hardness, hardness rating, chicken flavor, juiciness,
this study. This flavor was roughly described by some oiliness and overall acceptance of the frankfurters were
panelists as ÔmetallicÕ and was not acceptable to them. evaluated using Pearson correlation coefficients. SMP
The impacts of fat sources on the flavor desirability of was found to be negatively correlated with the hardness
meat products are frequently reported. In some studies, (P < 0.01), hardness rating (P < 0.001), juiciness
there were obvious differences in the flavor properties (P < 0.001), oiliness (P < 0.01) and overall acceptance
between meat products prepared with animal and vege- (P < 0.05) of the frankfurters. This result showed that
table fats (Ambrosiadis et al., 1996; Park et al., 1989; the higher the SMP the lower the acceptance of frank-
Scheeder et al., 2001). Bishop et al. (1993), however, furters in most of the sensory attributes tested. How-
noted no difference in flavor desirability between bolo- ever, there was only a weak correlation between SMP
gnas produced from pork fat and corn oil. A totally dif- and the chicken flavor preference and this correlation
ferent result was obtained by Park et al. (1989) who used was not significant (P > 0.05). Hence, the chemical com-
fish oil to substitute pork fat in frankfurters. Park et al. position of fat might be more important than melting
(1989) indicated that frankfurters prepared with fish oil behavior in determining the flavor of frankfurters and
were less desirable due to the offensive flavor and aroma the presence of certain amount of CF in formulation
derived from the incorporated fish oil. Species-specific to yield the desired chicken flavor in frankfurters.
notes are generally lipid-derived. Differences in fatty
acids profile and the resulting carbonyls between species 3.9. Formulation optimization
may be the factors responsible for the lipid influence.
Specifically, 2-alkenals including hexenal, heptenal, oct- The shaded area in Fig. 2 represents a combination of
enal, nonenal, undecenal, and dodecenal as well as alde- fat blends that produce hardness, chicken flavor and
396 S.S. Tan et al. / Meat Science 72 (2006) 387–397

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the Malaysian Palm Oil Board for

granting research funds that support this type of re-
search works.

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