Water intoxication- also known as water poisoning, can lead to hyponatremia.

This is a condition that happens when

sodium in your blood is abnormally low.

All cells have plasma or cell membrane.

Within the cells are organelles with different functions that requires nutrients (raw materials) to operate.

These includes food particles, minerals, ions, and water that need to undergo several processes associated to the cell
membrane before it gets inside the cell.

The products of the cell such as proteins, and their waste materials and other unwanted substances take their exit from
the cells similar to how some substances get in.

Plasma membrane- All prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have plasma membrane or cell membrane that separates them
from outside. The presence of other structures along the cell membrane allows the cell to maintain an interior
environment that differs from the outside environment, keeping some substances out and letting others in. Thus, the
cell membrane is said to be semipermeable membrane because it tends to regulate only certain substances that goes
into and out of a cell. Controls what enters and exits the cell to maintain an internal balance called homeostasis.
Provides protection and support for the cell. Initiate transport of nutrients, wastes and other important and
unimportant molecules across the membrane. is described as fluid mosaic. it exhibits properties that resemble a fluid in
which lipids and proteins can move relative to each other within the membrane. its diverse protein, cholesterol, and
carbohydrate molecules embedded in its structure. A tremendous variety of molecules and other substances move
constantly across the cell membrane. In addition, accumulated wastes through various chemical reactions must be
eliminated.

Active transport- – the molecules move against the concentration gradient that is from low to high. It is like swimming
against the water current. It requires energy to initiate the movement against the high concentration gradient.

Passive transport- a movement of ions and other atomic or molecular substances across cell membranes without a need
of energy input. It’s like swimming with the current.
Passive transport- SIMPLE DIFFUSION FACILITATED DIFFUSION OSMOSIS

Diffusion- The natural process where molecules from the air move from a point of greater concentration to a point of
lesser concentration to attain equilibrium. It also takes place in a cell in the process called Passive transport. It occurs
because molecules are in constant motion. Molecules bump one another. The more molecules there are, the higher the
probability of collision that causes them to be pushed away from one another. Over time, molecules will begin to spread
and will spread evenly through the given area or space. Though the particles will continue to move randomly, there is no
change in the concentration anymore.

Dynamic equilibrium- continuous movement where there is no overall change in concentration

Factors affecting diffusion- temperature, pressure, solvent density, concentration gradient, solute solubility

Temperature- higher temperature results in a faster movement of molecules, thus faster rate of diffusion.

Pressure- – adding pressure like stirring results in faster rate of diffusion.

Solvent density- The higher the density the solvent, the slower the diffusion.

Concentration gradient- the higher the concentration gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion

Solute solubility- the more similar the substances are with each other, such as polar solute in polar solvents or nonpolar
solute in nonpolar solvent, the faster the diffusion rate.

Osmosis- Is a specific type of diffusion where molecules (generally water) move across a semipermeable membrane
from a greater point concentration to a lesser point of concentration. Semi-permeability means not every form of
molecules can pass through a membrane because the holes of the membrane are designed to allow the passage of
micro molecules, not macromolecules.

Water potentiality- Average of 75% of any living organism’s body is made up of water. Water solution is found inside and
outside of the cell. If the levels of concentration gradient (which water is the solvent) varies separately by a
semipermeable membrane, osmotic pressure will initiate the movement of molecules from different concentration
gradients. Osmotic pressure is the force that moves water molecules through a semipermeable membrane.

Tonicity- It refers to the strength of solution in relation to osmosis. When comparing two (2) different solutions, such as
that of a solution in the cytoplasm and that outside of the cell, the terms isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions
are used – these terms are used only in relation to a pair of solutions.

Isotonic solution- When the cell is placed in a solution with the same concentration of water and other solutes, such as
ions, phosphates, sugars, and other substances, as its cytoplasm, the cell is in an isotonic condition.

Hypotonic solution- Plants uses this mechanism to exert turgor pressure to maintain its turgidity particularly in
herbaceous and non-woody plants. Hypotonic solution will take place if a cell placed in a solution with more water
outside than inside its cytoplasm. In this case, the cell submerged in a hypotonic solution will surely swell. People such as
marathon runners taking excess hydration by drinking large quantities of water in a short period of time makes their
brain cells to swell abnormally as water is not removed fast enough, thereby leading to loss of consciousness and even
death.

Hypertonic solution- is a solution that causes cells to shrink and lose their shape as a result of water loss. this contains
less water concentration as compared to that in the cytoplasm. in the case of submerging the RBC’s in a hypertonic
solution, cells will undergo crenation.

Facilitated diffusion- These molecules are allowed to enter the cell membrane via membrane transport proteins which
serves as vehicles in transporting molecules across the cell membrane. Aside from essential gases and water molecules,
cells need supply of certain ions, sugar, and other small molecules to perform cellular functions. Some molecules cannot
pass through the cell membrane via simple diffusion or osmosis alone. Many of the materials needed by the body are
electrically charged such as Sodium (Na) ions (+) and chloride (Cl) ions (-).

Properties of facilitated diffusion-

1. Concentration gradient is required because it cannot transport molecules from low to high concentration.

2. Energy is not needed

3. Transport proteins are specific to the type of molecules they can transport across the membrane

4. The rate of transport reaches a maximum when all membrane transport proteins are used up (saturation).

5. Membrane transport proteins are sensitive to inhibitors that can cause them not to function.

Channel proteins- contain tunnels or openings that serve as passageways of molecules.

Carrier proteins- undergo temporary binding to the molecules, resulting in a confrontational change that moves the
molecule through the membrane.

Aquaporin- a specified transport protein that functions as passageway of water molecules via plasma membrane.

Active transport- Energy is needed in the form of ATP. Transport proteins are highly specific to the type of molecules
they can transport across the plasma membrane. The rate of transport reaches a maximum when all membrane
transport proteins are being used (saturation). Membrane transport proteins are sensitive to inhibitors that can cause
them not to function.

Primary Active Transport- directly uses a source of chemical energy (e.g., ATP) to move molecules across a membrane
against their gradient. One of the most important pumps in animal cells is the sodium-potassium pump, which moves Na
out of cells, and K into them. Because the transport process uses ATP as an energy source, it is considered an example of
primary active transport. Not only does the sodium-potassium pump maintain correct concentrations of Na and K in
living cells, but it also plays a major role in generating the voltage across the cell membrane in animal cells. Pumps like
this, which are involved in the establishment and maintenance of membrane voltages, are known as electrogenic
pumps. The primary electrogenic pump in plants is one that pumps hydrogen ions (H) rather than sodium and
potassium.

Secondary Transport- uses an electrochemical gradient – generated by active transport – as an energy source to move
molecules against their gradient, and thus does not directly require a chemical source of energy such as ATP. The
electrochemical gradients set up by primary active transport store energy, which can be released as the ions move back
down their gradients. Secondary active transport uses the energy stored in these gradients to move other substances
against their own gradients. In secondary active transport, the two molecules being transported may move either in the
same direction (i.e., both into the cell), or in opposite directions (i.e., one into and one out of the cell). When they move
in the same direction, the protein that transports them is called a symporter, while if they move in opposite directions,
the protein is called an antiporter.

Bulk or vesicular transport- Transport vesicles play a central role in the traffic of molecules between different
membrane-enclosed compartments of the secretory pathways. A vesicular transport protein, or vesicular transporter, is
a membrane protein that regulates or facilitates the movement of specific molecules across a vesicle's membrane. As a
result, vesicular transporters govern the concentration of molecules within a vesicle.

Endocytosis- The process of letting molecules enter the cell wherein the cell membrane bends inward or invaginates,
forming a vesicle containing the macromolecule to be transported. Ex: Phagocytosis, Receptor-mediated endocytosis,
and Pinocytosis.

Phagocytosis- is a process by which cells take in large particles or solids through infolding of the cell membrane to form
endocytic vesicles. the process starts with the formation and extension of the membrane as pseudopodia, which
surrounds and engulfs the macromolecule packaging them in a membrane-bound vacuole. it is exhibited by white blood
cells to capture bacteria and kill invading bacteria. when the endocytic vesicle fuses with lysosomes, digestion occurs.

Pinocytosis- Is a process of taking in fluids into the cell by invagination of the cell membrane. Any solute or small
particles in the fluid will be moved into the cell. Cells lining the intestines as well as plant root cells use pinocytosis to
ingest liquid substances.

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis- Is a very specific type of endocytosis. The plasma membrane becomes indented and
forms a pit. The pit lined with receptor proteins picks specific molecules from the surroundings. The pit then closes and
pinches off to form a vesicle, which eventually carries the molecules inside the cytoplasm. Metabolites, hormones, and
other proteins enter through this process.

Exocytosis- Materials for export, like proteins produced in the ribosomes and packaged in the Golgi apparatus and
wastes from the vacuole, are secreted out of the cell. Is the opposite of endocytosis. Macromolecules to be transported
are carried by the vesicles of the cell membrane. The membrane surrounding the vesicle then fuses with the cell
membrane and breaks off. Therefore, the macromolecule is released out of the cell. Ex: insulin-secreting cells release
insulin by exocytosis

Overall, cells maintain internal balance by transporting essential substances into and out of the cell through various
transport mechanisms that may or may not require energy.

Additional: The substances become larger

Passive– no effort, the substances that are being transported are smaller nature

Active transport- requires energy, these are charged ions sugar and amino acids

Bulk or vesicular- transporting larger molecules (bulk tiningob)

Examples of macromolecules, carbohydrates polymer structure large structure composed of several monomer units
composed of sugars, proteins that is composed of amino acids, nucleic acids composed of nucleotides, lipids composed
of fatty acids.

Macro molecules are made up of simple substances (larger substances in nature).

Active and bulk transport are the same that uses energy.

Biological Molecules

The chemical basis of life- Living organisms are made up of chemicals and depend on them for important chemical
reactions essential for life.

Why are free radicals harmful- It can come from normal physiological processes or from exposure to the environment.
Free radicals are atoms or molecules with odd or unpaired valence electrons formed in the presence of oxygen. With
these dangling electrons, they are very reactive and can snatch electrons from other atoms, causing a chain reaction or
domino effect. The danger is when they are reacting to important cellular processes on the DNA.Different pathways of
free radicals: diet, smoking, stress, drugs, exercise, air pollutants, and radiation.

How is the study of biology linked with the study of chemistry- biology is not just about life but it is also about chemistry.
All living things and all the things in the physical environment are made up of matter. All living things and all things in the
physical environment are made up of matter. Despite the complexity of living systems, their biochemistry can be
simplified by examining the basic composition of every chemical substance that makes up a living cell. The periodic
assigns each element a chemical symbol such as O for oxygen, C for carbon, and H for hydrogen. There are about 118
elements discovered to be present on Earth, 91 of these elements occur naturally on the planet while the rest were
created synthetically in the lab. There are certain elements found in large quantities in living things, while some occur in
trace amounts. Specifically, there are seven major elements making up 98 to 99 percent of the weight of all living
systems such as, carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S) and calcium (Ca).

Matter- is anything that occupies space and has mass.

Matter- is presented on Earth in four physical states, solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.

Biological systems can be traced back to the level of atoms and molecules.

Carbon- (C) The main composition of organic compounds. 18.5%

Hydrogen- (H) The major source of fuel in the production of energy. 9.5%

Oxygen- (O) Essential part of water molecule and organic compounds. 66%

Nitrogen- (N) key element in proteins. 3.2%

Phosphorus- (P) Major component of nucleic acids and energy-rich compounds. 1%

Sulfur- (S) Part of some amino acids and vitamins. 0.3%

Calcium- (Ca) Major component of bones and acts as biological signals in the body. 1.5%

Sodium- (Na) essential for nerve function. 0.2%

Potassium- (K) essential for nerve function. 0.4%

Iodine- (I) Acts as a thermostat to regulate body temperature

Molybdenum- (Md) Needed by plants to incorporate nitrogen into a biologically useful substance

Magnesium- (Mg) Important component of bones, teeth, and chlorophyll. 0.1%

Iron- (Fe) Carrier of oxygen in the blood

Chlorine- (Cl) 0.2%

Atoms- are the smallest unit or particle of matter. Chemists, such as John Dalton, concluded that each element is
composed of identical particles called atoms, Greek word Atomos meaning “indivisible”. An element is a pure substance
made up of only one type of atom. Atoms are made up of subatomic particles: Proton Positively charged, Neutron
uncharged, Electron negatively charged. When atoms join, they would form molecules via chemical bonds by being able
to attain an octet state among these elements, except hydrogen.

A chemical bond- is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the formation of chemical
compounds. The bond may result from the electrostatic force of attraction between opposingly charged ions as in ionic
bonds or through the sharing of electrons as in covalent bonds.

Ionic bonding- is a type of chemical bonding that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds.

Covalent bonding- also called molecular bond, is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between
atoms, usually a bond between non-metallic atoms.

Hydrogen bonding- a special type of covalent bond and is a form of a weak covalent bonding between a hydrogen atom
and another atom.

Atoms are usually at a constant tug of war for the sharing of these electrons during covalent bonding. This attraction
between shared electrons is called electronegativity. The higher the electronegativity of an atom, the stronger is the
atom’s pull to the shared electrons toward its nucleus. Non-polar molecules are are bonds of atoms with an equal
sharing of electrons among them.

Polar molecules- are bond where electrons spend more time near an atom with the highest number of electrons such as
oxygen with 6 electrons vs. Hydrogen with 1 electron resulting to a molecule of water as a polar covalent molecule.

Organic compounds- are compounds with hydrocarbon (bonding of carbon and hydrogen such as ethanol (C2H5OH),
methane (CH4), glucose (C6H12O6) and acetic acid (CH3COOH).

Inorganic compounds- are typically a chemical compound that lack C-H bonds, such as Sulfuric acid (H2SO4), Carbon
dioxide (CO2), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), and water (H2O).

Water- water is the most abundant inorganic compound inside the cell’s cytoplasm, making up 75 to 85 percent. In the
aqueous cell environment, water participates directly in many chemical reactions, and it is the medium in which biology
reactions take place. Water exhibits unique properties that make it highly important in any biological system and plays
vital functions in the maintenance of life. The tendency of water molecules to form hydrogen bonds and its polarity gives
water its unique characteristics and functions in living systems.

Properties and characteristics of water- water is a biological solvent, water molecules stick to each other and to
surfaces, water has high surface tension, water has high heat capacity, water has high heat vaporization, water has high
heat of fusion, water is a medium where chemical and physical processes take place, water serves as moisturizer of
surfaces, water is a lubricant, water is good cushion.

Other inorganic compounds- some covalent bonds of compounds break spontaneously into ions when dissolved in
water. When this happens, hydrogen ion disassociates from the water molecule. This produces a positively charged
particle called hydrogen ion and a negatively charged particle called a hydroxide ion.

Potential of Hydrogen gas- This can be measured to hydrogen ion concentration on a pH (potential of hydrogen ions)
scale, which ranges from 1 – 14 and describes the acidity of basicity of a substance. A pH scale measures with neutral
value of 7 while pH values below 7 are acidic and pH values above 7 are basic.
Acids- are compounds that release hydrogen ions in solutions. Acids have sour taste and they turn litmus paper to red.
Ex. Ascorbic acid, acetic acid in vinegar citric acid in fruits, arbonic acid in soft drinks, and hydrochloric acid in stomach.

Bases- are substances that accept hydrogen ions or releases hydrogen ions. Bases generally have bitter taste and are
slippery. They turn litmus paper into blue. Ex. NaOH in soap and shampoo, NH4OH in ammonia, and Mg(OH)2 in
laxatives and antacids, bile from the gallbladder and sodium bicarbonate produced by pancreas are known as basic in
nature

Biological buffers- the control of pH in living organisms is made possible by the presence of biological buffers.

Buffer- is a mixture of weak acid and its corresponding base that controls the pH of a given substance.

Electrolytes- are compounds that can be acid, base, or salt. They are important for cells and normal functioning of
chemical processes. They can either be cations that move to positively charged electrodes or anions that move to
negatively charged electrodes.

Bicarbonate- Regulates heart function. Maintains body's pH balance

Calcium- Component of bones and teeth. Plays important role in nerve impulses and muscle-movement.

Chloride- Maintains water balance.

Magnesium- Aids in production of DNA and RNA. Contributes to normal nerve and muscle function. Maintains normal
heart rhythm. Enhances immune system. Regulates blood glucose levels.

Phosphate- Strengthens bones and teeth

Potassium- Helps cells produce energy needed for tissue growth and repair. Aids in generating electrical impulses in the
body for normal brain and muscle functioning

Sodium- Helps with electrical signals in the body. Part of water regulation

What is trans-fat- Trans-fat, also called trans-unsaturated fatty acids, is a type of unsaturated fat that occurs in small
amounts in meat and milk fat.

Life's biological molecules- organic molecules are also known as macromolecules due to its relative large size as
compared to inorganic compounds. The ability of forming molecules lies in carbon’ versality to form up to four covalent
bonds with other atoms, permitting the assembly of diverse chemical combinations and branching configurations. A
chain of carbon skeleton and this can bond with carbon rings to form even larger or more complex molecules. Carbon-
based molecules are often the result ofsmaller molecules called subunits, linked together in a chain.

Monomer- each subunit of a complex molecule

Polymer- when monomers link together, they form complex molecules. A macromolecule consisting of a series of
monomers.

Dehydration reaction- Connecting monomers to form polymers happens through a process, which removes water.

Hydrolysis reaction- polymers disassembled or broken down by the addition of water.

Proteins- proteins are most abundant organic compounds in living organisms that is responsible for as much as 15% of
the body’s dry weight. Proteins are polymers made up of a chain of the basic building blocks called amino acids.

Amino acids- are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.

Essential Amino Acids and their Abbreviations- amino acids are linked to one another by peptide bonds, formed
between the amino groups of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of the next. A peptide or polypeptide is a chain of
amino acids linked by peptide bonds. A protein is made up of one or more peptides. Different combinations of the 20
amino acids are responsible for the variety of proteins in living organisms.

Keratin- makes up about 90 percent of your hair.

Collagen-is a fibrous protein found in connective tissues that support the skin, tendons, and ligaments. It is the most
abundant protein among vertebrates.

Enzymatic proteins- enzymes are special types or proteins that speed up biochemical reactions without themselves
being chemically changed at the end of the process they catalyze. Food digestion involves different enzymes, like
amylase for starch. Protease for protein, and lipase for lipids.

Characteristics of enzymes- enzymes are highly specific, enzymes are required in minute amounts, enzyme reactions are
affected by temperature. Enzyme reactions are affected by pH.

Transport proteins- Aid the cell’s plasma membrane to be selective in moving substances into and out of the cell. Can be
in the form of a carrier or channel transport proteins. It is also present among red blood cells in a form of hemoglobin
that helps in oxygen transport.

Defense proteins- defense proteins exist in the form of antibodies in our immune system. Antibodies are produced by a
specific type of WBC called B Lymphocytes in response to the presence of a foreign substance in the body which is
referred to as antigen. The reaction between an antibody and an antigen is highly specific, in which a particular antibody
can only recognize a specific antigen.

Regulatory proteins- are signal proteins that regulate body functions. Growth factors are proteins that influence the
growth and development of an organism. Ex: The hormone insulin regulates glucose concentration in the blood.

Contractile protein- contractile proteins in a form of actin and myosin are found in cells to allow movement and cause
muscle contraction. Animals are capable of locomotory movement and substance movement inside the body due to the
action of contractile proteins. I addition, these proteins also help regulate body temperature.
Storage proteins- storage proteins serve as reserves of amino acids, which can be used later on to nourish the growth
and development of organisms. These proteins are found in egg whites (albumin), seeds and milk.

Carbohydrates- are organic compounds that serve as the main source of energy in all organisms. Together with proteins,
carbohydrates also function as structural components of living cells. Carbohydrates are made up of Carbon, Hydrogen,
and Oxygen molecules. The proportion of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen atoms is 1:2:1.

Monosaccharides- are simple sugars. They are identified based on the number of carbon atoms they are made up.

Triose- such as glyceraldehyde (C3H6O3)

Pentose- such as ribose (C5H10O5)

Hexoses (the most common)- such as Fructose, Galactose, Mannose, and Glucose (C6H12O6)

Disaccharides- are complex sugars made up of two molecules of monosaccharides chemically joined together. The
chemical formula of disaccharides is C12H22O11. The chemical processes where two monosaccharides are joined
together to form a disaccharide with the loss of water molecules is called condensation or dehydration sythesis.

Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose

Glucose + Galactose = Lactose

Glucose + Glucose = Maltose

The chemical reaction where water molecule is added to split a disaccharide into its component units is called hydrolysis
or hydrolytic reaction. When sucrose in water solution is heated in diluted HCI or treated with enzyme sucrase, it is
broken down into its components – glucose and fructose molecules. Similarly, maltose and lactose can be hydrolyzed
into their monosaccharide's components using the enzymes maltase and lactase, respectively.

Polysaccharide- are complex sugars made up of chains or branches of monosaccharides formed by condensation
reactions. The basic formula for Polysaccharide is (C6H10O5) n, where n refers to the number of monosaccharides
present. Polysaccharides are capable of acting as energy storage or structural molecules as part of the cell structures.
Starch and Glycogen are examples of storage polysaccharides, while cellulose and chitin are examples of structural
polysaccharides.

Starch- starch is a storage carbohydrate in planmts composed entirely of glucose molecules. A starch molecule may
contain as many as 200 glucose molecules. It is commonly found in potato tubers, cassava, carrots, corn and cereals. It
is easily digested by animals because animals have enzymes called amylase needed to hydrolyze the compound.
Glycogen- glycogen is a storage carbohydrate in animals, which accumulates in the liver and muscle cellsof vertebrates
and is entirely made up of glucose units. It also contains more glucose units than starch. These extra glucose not
synthesized completely in the blood for energy is stored as glycogen in the liver for future use.

Glycogen and starch- are ideal storage polysaccharides for the following reasons: both can be easily broken down into
glucose molecules when needed. Both are insoluble in water, thus, do not affect osmotic pressure in the cell. Both have
compact shapes, thus, occupy less space. Both can diffuse into cell membranes because of their relatively large size.

Cellulose- the most abundant organic compound on earth and is a structural polysaccharide found in plant cell walls. It Is
a highly insoluble carbohydrate that functions as support and protection for plant cells. It is made up long chains of
glucose molecules, but cannot be digested by animals due to the absence of enzyme cellulase, and will only depend on
gut bacteria the digestion of cellulose. It also serves as fiber source which helps in reducing cholesterol in the body and
helps produce soft fecal material, reducing constipation, hemorrhoids, and even rectal cancer.

Chitin- it is a structural polysaccharide in the outer coverings of crustaceans and insects. It has protective and supportive
functions and is very rigid and inflexible due to its chemical structure. It is not soluble to water, making animals with
chitin survive in water.

Lipids- are organic substances that include fats and fat-like substances, such as phospholipid, wax, steroid and
sphingolipid. These are generaly hydrophobic substances and are insoluble to water but soluble to organic substances
such as benzene, ether and chloroform. Like carbohydrates, lipids are also made up of C, H, and O, but less oxygen in
proportion to hydrogen. Tristearin, the primary fat in beef, has the formula C57H110O6.

Solvent for fat soluble vitamins and hormones, prevents water loss from skin surface, essential parts of the cell
structures such as cell membrane. Ex. Phospholipids. Insulating material to prevent heat loss and protection against
extreme cold. Source of storage of energy providing twice as much energy per pound as carbohydrates

Fats- are lipids composed of one molecule of glycerol (an alcohol containing 3 carbon) and three fatty acid molecules. An
ester connects the glycerol and the fatty acids. Fats can be broken down into simpler compounds by the addition of
water compounds or hydrolysis. Three molecules of water are needed to break the molecule of fat into its component
glycerol and three fatty acids with the aid of an enzyme called lipase.

Saturated fatty acids- solid at room temperature. These are mostly found in animals. Ex. Lard margarine and butter

Unsaturated fatty acids- occur at liquid state at room temperature. These are found in plants. Ex. Vegetable oil and corn
oil.

Unsaturated fats are found to be healthier sources of fats compared to saturated forms.
phospholipids- are important components of the cell membrane, made up of two fatty acid molecules and 1 phosphate
group. The non-polar fatty acid is hydrophobic the polar phosphate group is hydrophilic.

Waxes- are lipids which are important components for many organisms, such as cutcle covering the surface of the leaves
and stem of plants, and protective coverings on the skin and fur of some of some animals.
Steroids- are lipids with a carbon skeleton of four fused rings. Cholesterol (found in tissues of animals but not in blinds),
bile salts, sex hormones, and vitamin D are examples of steroids. Cholesterol adds strength to the plasma membrane of
animal cells and serves as a precursor to the formation of steroids.

Triglycerides- (also known as blood fats)- circulate in the bloodstream along with cholesterol. It can be synthesized by
the body or can be obtained from meat and plants oils.

Sphingolipids- are specifically found in the brain, lungs, and nerve cells. They serve as surfactants that help reduce
tension on the lungs to maintain its right shape.

Nucleic acids- are organic compounds that function for the storage of genetic information, which is transmitted from
one generation to the next in all living organisms. it is the physical carrier of inheritance that is passed from parents to
offspring. It also functions in protein synthesis, as they carry the code needed in the information of specific proteins. 2
types : DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid and RNA (ribonucleic acid). Stores and transports information. Nucleic acids are
biopolymers, or large biomolecules, essential for all known forms of life. Diamonds in nucleic acids are hydrogen,
nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, Phosphorus. Nucleic acids are all in foods.

DNA vs. RNA- Both nucleic acids have monomers called nucleotides. The nucleotide is made-up of A 5 carbon sugar,
phosphate group, and nitrogenous base. The nitrogenous bases are either double ringed purines, such as guanine and
adenine, or single pyrimidines, such as cytosine, thymine and uracil.
The nucleic acid structure- the structure of DNA is a double stranded Helix molecule was first described by James
Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. the two strands that make up a day in a molecule winds around each other, forming a
double spiral molecule that resembles a twisted ladder. the backbone of the helix consists of alternating sugars and
phosphates comma while the steps of the ladder are made up of nitrogenous base pairs. According to Chargaff’s rule,
the different nitrogenous bases form specific pairs, such that A pairs with T, while C pairs with G. hydrogen bonds
connect nitrogenous base pairs together, making the double Helix highly stable. There are three and two hydrogen
bonds between C-G and A-T pairs, respectively. Because of the base pairing rule, the two strands of the double Helix are
said to be complementary bases. The same basic pairing rules exist in RNA, except that U is paired with A instead of T.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Introduction:
All living things need energy, which is defined as the ability to do work. You can often see energy at
work in living things — a bird flies through the air, a firefly glows in the dark, a dog wags its tail. These
are obvious ways that living things use energy, but living things constantly use energy in less obvious
ways as well.
Why Living Things Need Energy?
Inside every cell of all living things, energy is needed to carry out life processes. Energy is required
to break down and build up molecules and to transport molecules across plasma membranes. All
life’s work needs energy. A lot of energy is also simply lost to the environment as heat. The story of
life is a story of energy flow — its capture, its change of form, its use for work, and its loss as heat.
Energy, unlike matter, cannot be recycled, so organisms require a constant input of energy. Life runs
on chemical energy. Where do living organisms get this chemical energy?
How Organisms Get Energy:
Autotrophs and Heterotrophs The chemical energy that organisms need comes from food. Food
consists of organic molecules that store energy in their chemical bonds. In terms of obtaining food for
energy, there are two types of organisms: autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Autotrophs
Autotrophs are organisms that make their own food. Most autotrophs use the energy in sunlight to
make food in a process called photosynthesis. Only three types of organisms — plants, algae, and
some bacteria — can make food through photosynthesis. Autotrophs are also called producers. They
produce food not only for themselves but for all other living things as well (which are known as
consumers). This is why autotrophs form the basis of food chains.
Heterotrophs
Heterotrophs are living things that cannot make their own food. Instead, they get their food by
consuming other organisms, which is why they are also called consumers. They may consume
autotrophs or other heterotrophs. Heterotrophs include all animals and fungi and many single-celled
organisms. What do you think would happen to consumers if all producers were to vanish from Earth?

The Chloroplast and Photosynthesis

The Chloroplast
Chloroplast, structure within the cells of plants and green algae that is the site of photosynthesis, the
process by which light energy is converted to chemical energy, resulting in the production of oxygen
and energy-rich oganic compounds. Photosynthetic cyanobacteria are free-living close relatives of
chloroplasts; endosymbiotic theory posits that chloroplasts and mitochondria (energy-producing
organelles in eukaryotic cells) are descended from such organisms.

PARTS OF THE CHLOROPLAST

Characteristics of Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are a type of plastid—a round, oval, or disk-shaped body that is involved in the synthesis
and storage of foodstuffs. Chloroplasts are distinguished from other types of plastids by their green
colour, which results from the presence of two pigments, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. A function of
those pigments is to absorb light energy. In plants, chloroplasts occur in all green tissues, though they
are concentrated particularly in the parenchyma cells of the leaf mesophyll.

Chloroplasts are roughly 1–2 μm (1 μm = 0.001 mm) thick and 5–7 μm in diameter. They are
enclosed in a chloroplast envelope, which consists of a double membrane with outer and inner layers,
between which is a gap called the intermembrane space. A third, internal membrane, extensively
folded and characterized by the presence of closed disks (or thylakoids), is known as the thylakoid
membrane. In most higher plants, the thylakoids are arranged in tight stacks called grana (singular
granum). Grana are connected by stromal lamellae, extensions that run from one granum, through
the stroma, into a neighbouring granum. The thylakoid membrane envelops a central aqueous region
known as the thylakoid lumen. The space between the inner membrane and the thylakoid membrane
is filled with stroma, a matrix containing dissolved enzymes, starch granules, and copies of the
chloroplast genome.
The Photosynthetic Machinery

The thylakoid membrane houses chlorophylls and different protein complexes, including photosystem
I, photosystem II, and ATP (adenosine triphosphate) synthase, which are specialized for light-
dependent photosynthesis. When sunlight strikes the thylakoids, the light energy excites chlorophyll
pigments, causing them to give up electrons. The electrons then enter the electron transport chain, a
series of reactions that ultimately drives the phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to the
energy-rich storage compound ATP. Electron transport also results in the production of the reducing
agent nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH).

ATP and NADPH are used in the light-independent reactions (dark reactions) of photosynthesis, in
which carbon dioxide and water are assimilated into organic compounds. The light-independent
reactions of photosynthesis are carried out in the chloroplast stroma, which contains the enzyme
ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (rubisco). Rubisco catalyzes the first step of
carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle (also called Calvin-Benson cycle), the primary pathway of carbon
transport in plants. Among so-called C4 plants, the initial carbon fixation step and the Calvin cycle are
separated spatially—carbon fixation occurs via phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylation in
chloroplasts located in the mesophyll, while malate, the four-carbon product of that process, is
transported to chloroplasts in bundle-sheath cells, where the Calvin cycle is carried out. C 4
photosynthesis attempts to minimize the loss of carbon dioxide to photorespiration. In plants that use
crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), PEP carboxylation and the Calvin cycle are separated
temporally in chloroplasts, the former taking place at night and the latter during the day. The CAM
pathway allows plants to carry out photosynthesis with minimal water loss.
1. https://www.britannica.com/video/152175/Chloroplasts-photosynthesis-role-process
2. https://www.britannica.com/video/22037/Chloroplasts-plant-cells-coloration-chlorophyll-
grana-chloroplasts
Photosynthesis
Stage I: The Light Reactions
The first stage of photosynthesis is called the light reactions. During this stage, light is absorbed and
transformed to chemical energy in the bonds of NADPH and ATP. You can read about this process
below. Steps of the Light Reactions The light reactions occur in several steps, all of which take place
in the thylakoid membrane. •
• Step 1: Units of sunlight, called photons, strike a molecule of chlorophyll in photosystem II of
the thylakoid membrane. The light energy is absorbed by two electrons (2 e- ) in the
chlorophyll molecule, giving them enough energy to leave the molecule.
• Step 2: At the same time, enzymes in the thylakoid membrane use light energy to split apart a
water molecule. This produces: – two electrons (2e- ). These electrons replace the two
electrons that were lost from the chlorophyll molecule in Step 1. – an atom of oxygen (O). This
atom combines with another oxygen atom to produce a molecule of oxygen gas (O2), which is
 released as a waste product. – two hydrogen ions (2H+). The hydrogen ions, which are
positively charged, are released inside the membrane in the thylakoid interior space.
• Step 3: The two excited electrons from Step 1 contain a great deal of energy, so, like hot
potatoes, they need something to carry them. They are carried by a series of electron-transport
molecules, which make up an electron transport chain. The two electrons are passed from
molecule to molecule down the chain. As this happens, their energy is captured and used to
pump more hydrogen ions into the thylakoid interior space.
• Step 4: When the two electrons reach photosystem I, they are no longer excited. Their energy
has been captured and used, and they need more energy. They get energy from light, which is
absorbed by chlorophyll in photosystem I. Then, the two re-energized electrons pass down
another electron transport chain.
• Step 5: Enzymes in the thylakoid membrane transfer the newly re-energized electrons to a
compound called NADP+. Along with a hydrogen ion, this produces the energy-carrying
molecule NADPH. This molecule is needed to make glucose in the Calvin cycle.
• Step 6: By now, there is a greater concentration of hydrogen ions — and positive charge — in
the thylakoid interior space. This difference in concentration and charge creates what is called
a chemiosmotic gradient. It causes hydrogen ions to flow back across the thylakoid membrane
to the stroma, where their concentration is lower. Like water flowing through a hole in a dam,
the hydrogen ions have energy as they flow down the chemiosmotic gradient. The enzyme
ATP synthase acts as a channel protein and helps the ions cross the membrane. ATP
synthase also uses their energy to add a phosphate group (Pi) to a molecule of ADP,
producing a molecule of ATP. The energy in ATP is needed for the Calvin cycle.
The Calvin Cycle (Light independent reaction)
In plants, carbon dioxide (CO2) enters the interior of a leaf via pores called stomata and diffuses into
the stroma of the chloroplast—the site of the Calvin cycle reactions, where sugar is synthesized.

These reactions are also called the light-independent reactions because they are not directly driven
by light.

In the Calvin cycle, carbon atoms from CO2 are fixed (incorporated into organic molecules) and
used to build three-carbon sugars. This process is fueled by, and dependent on, ATP and NADPH
from the light reactions. Unlike the light reactions, which take place in the thylakoid membrane, the
reactions of the Calvin cycle take place in the stroma (the inner space of chloroplasts).

Reactions on the Calvin Cycle:

The Calvin cycle reactions can be divided into three main stages:
carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration of the starting
molecule.
Here is a general diagram of the cycle:

3. Carbon fixation. A CO2 molecule combines with a five-carbon acceptor molecule, ribulose-
1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP). This step makes a six-carbon compound that splits into two
molecules of a three-carbon compound, 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA). This reaction is
catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase/oxygenase, or rubisco.

4. Reduction. In the second stage, ATP and NADPH are used to convert the 3-PGA molecules
into molecules of a three-carbon sugar, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). This stage gets its
name because NADPH donates electrons to, or reduces, a three-carbon intermediate to make
G3P.

5. Regeneration. Some G3P molecules go to make glucose, while others must be recycled to
regenerate the RuBP acceptor. Regeneration requires ATP and involves a complex network of
reactions, which my college bio professor liked to call the "carbohydrate scramble."
In order for one G3P to exit the cycle (and go towards glucose synthesis), three CO2 molecules must
enter the cycle, providing three new atoms of fixed carbon. When three CO2 molecules enter the
cycle, six G3P molecules are made. One exits the cycle and is used to make glucose, while the other
five must be recycled to regenerate three molecules of the RuBP acceptor.

Summary of Calvin cycle reactants and products

Three turns of the Calvin cycle are needed to make one G3P molecule that can exit the cycle and go
towards making glucose. Let’s summarize the quantities of key molecules that enter and exit the
Calvin cycle as one net G3P is made. In three turns of the Calvin cycle:
• Carbon. 3 CO2 combine with 3 RuBP acceptors, making 666 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate (G3P).
• 1 G3P molecule exits the cycle and goes towards making glucose.
• 5 G3P molecules are recycled, regenerating 333 RuBP acceptor molecules.
• ATP. 9 ATP are converted to 999 ADP (666 during the fixation step, 333 during the
regeneration step).
• NADPH. 6 NADPH are converted to 666 NADP^++start superscript, plus, end superscript
(during the reduction step).
A G3P molecule contains three fixed carbon atoms, so it takes two G3Ps to build a six-carbon
glucose molecule. It would take six turns of the cycle, or 6 CO2, start subscript, 2, end subscript, 18
ATP, and 12 NADPH, to produce one molecule of glucose.
“
Powering the Cell: Cellular Respiration
The Mitochondria
Mitochondrion, membrane-bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of almost all eukaryotic cells (cells
with clearly defined nuclei), the primary function of which is to generate large quantities of energy in
the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Mitochondria are typically round to oval in shape and range in size from 0.5 to 10 μm. In addition to
producing energy, mitochondria store calcium for cell signaling activities, generate heat, and mediate
cell growth and death.
The number of mitochondria per cell varies widely; for example, in humans, erythrocytes (red blood
cells) do not contain any mitochondria, whereas liver cells and muscle cells may contain hundreds or
even thousands. The only eukaryotic organism known to lack mitochondria is the oxymonad
Monocercomonoides species.
Mitochondria are unlike other cellular organelles in that they have two distinct membranes and a
unique genome and reproduce by binary fission; these features indicate that mitochondria share an
evolutionary past with prokaryotes (single-celled organisms).
The outer mitochondrial membrane is freely permeable to small molecules and contains special
channels capable of transporting large molecules. In contrast, the inner membrane is far less
permeable, allowing only very small molecules to cross into the gel-like matrix that makes up the
organelle’s central mass.
The matrix contains the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of the mitochondrial genome and the enzymes
of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle, or Krebs cycle), which
metabolizes nutrients into by-products the mitochondrion can use for energy production.
The processes that convert these by-products into energy occur primarily on the inner membrane,
which is bent into folds known as cristae that house the protein components of the main energy-
generating system of cells, the electron transport chain (ETC).
The ETC uses a series of oxidation-reduction reactions to move electrons from one protein
component to the next, ultimately producing free energy that is harnessed to drive the
phosphorylation of ADP (adenosine diphosphate) to ATP. This process, known as chemiosmotic
coupling of oxidative phosphorylation, powers nearly all cellular activities, including those that
generate muscle movement and fuel brain functions.

[In this image, you will see the basic overview of processes of ATP production. The three processes
of ATP production include glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. In
eukaryotic cells the latter two processes occur within mitochondria. Electrons that are passed through
the electron transport chain ultimately generate free energy capable of driving the phosphorylation of
ADP.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]
Most of the proteins and other molecules that make up mitochondria originate in the cell nucleus.
However, 37 genes are contained in the human mitochondrial genome, 13 of which produce various
components of the ETC.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is highly susceptible to mutations, largely because it does not possess
the robust DNA repair mechanisms common to nuclear DNA. In addition, the mitochondrion is a
major site for the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS; or free radicals) due to the high
propensity for aberrant release of free electrons.
While several different antioxidant proteins within the mitochondria scavenge and neutralize these
molecules, some ROS may inflict damage to mtDNA. In addition, certain chemicals and infectious
agents, as well as alcohol abuse, can damage mtDNA.
In the latter instance, excessive ethanol intake saturates detoxification enzymes, causing highly
reactive electrons to leak from the inner membrane into the cytoplasm or into the mitochondrial
matrix, where they combine with other molecules to form numerous radicals.

[In this image, this shows mitochondria; striated muscle. A transmission electron micrograph
showing a human striated muscle fibre partially contracted. Wide red bands contain actin and myosin
filaments, while mitochondria (green) supply the energy necessary for muscle contraction.©
SERCOMI—BSIP/age fotostock]
In many organisms, the mitochondrial genome is inherited maternally. This is because the mother’s
egg cell donates the majority of cytoplasm to the embryo, and mitochondria inherited from the father’s
sperm are usually destroyed. There are numerous inherited and acquired mitochondrial diseases.
Inherited diseases may arise from mutations transmitted in maternal or paternal nuclear DNA or in
maternal mtDNA. Both inherited and acquired mitochondrial dysfunction is implicated in several
diseases, including Alzheimer disease and Parkinson disease.
The accumulation of mtDNA mutations throughout an organism’s life span are suspected to play an
important role in aging, as well as in the development of certain cancers and other diseases. Because
mitochondria also are a central component of apoptosis (programmed cell death), which is routinely
used to rid the body of cells that are no longer useful or functioning properly, mitochondrial
dysfunction that inhibits cell death can contribute to the development of cancer.
The maternal inheritance of mtDNA has proved vital to research on human evolution and migration.
Maternal transmission allows similarities inherited in generations of offspring to be traced down a
single line of ancestors for many generations.
Research has shown that fragments of the mitochondrial genome carried by all humans alive today
can be traced to a single woman ancestor living an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 years ago.
Scientists suspect that this woman lived among other women but that the process of genetic drift
(chance fluctuations in gene frequency that affect the genetic constitution of small populations)
caused her mtDNA to randomly supersede that of other women as the population evolved.
Variations in mtDNA inherited by subsequent generations of humans have helped researchers
decipher the geographical origins, as well as the chronological migrations of different human
populations. For example, studies of the mitochondrial genome indicate that humans migrating from
Asia to the Americas 30,000 years ago may have been stranded on Beringia, a vast area that
included a land bridge in the present-day Bering Strait, for as long as 15,000 years before arriving in
the Americas.
Cellular Respiration Stage III:
Electron Transport Electron transport is the final stage of aerobic respiration. In this stage, energy
from NADH and FADH2, which result from the Krebs cycle, is transferred to ATP. Can you predict
how this happens? (Hint: How does electron transport occur in photosynthesis?)
Transporting Electrons
High-energy electrons are released from NADH and FADH2, and they move along electron transport
chains, like those used in photosynthesis. The electron transport chains are on the inner membrane
of the mitochondrion. As the high-energy electrons are transported along the chains, some of their
energy is captured. This energy is used to pump hydrogen ions (from NADH and FADH2) across the
inner membrane, from the matrix into the intermembrane space.
Making ATP
The pumping of hydrogen ions across the inner membrane creates a greater concentration of the
ions in the intermembrane space than in the matrix. This chemiosmotic gradient causes the ions to
flow back across the membrane into the matrix, where their concentration is lower. ATP synthase
acts as a channel protein, helping the hydrogen ions cross the membrane. It also acts as an enzyme,
forming ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. After passing through the electron-transport chain,
the “spent” electrons combine with oxygen to form water. This is why oxygen is needed; in the
absence of oxygen, this process cannot occur.
How Much ATP?
You have seen how the three stages of aerobic respiration use the energy in glucose to make ATP.
How much ATP is produced in all three stages? Glycolysis produces 2 ATP molecules, and the Krebs
cycle produces 2 more. Electron transport begins with several molecules of NADH and FADH2 from
the Krebs cycle and transfers their energy into as many as 34 more ATP molecules. All told, then, up
to 38 molecules of ATP can be produced from just one molecule of glucose in the process of aerobic
respiration.
SUMMARY
Photosynthesis requires water and CO2 as products of cellular respiration for energy conversion
while Cellular Respiration requires Oxygen and Glucose as products of photosynthesis for energy
production.
In other words, one process cant proceed without the other.
Photosynthetic equation = CO2 + H2O + sunlight -> C6H12O6 + O2
Cellular respiration equation = C6H12O6 + O2 -> CO2 + H20 + energy (ATP)