English

153mm 12mm 153mm
English Exposed
English
English Common Mistakes Made
Exposed by Chinese Speakers
Exposed
Having analysed the ‸most commonest English errors made in over 600 academic
papers written by Chinese undergraduates, postgraduates, and researchers, Steve
Hart has written an essential, practical guide specifically for the native chinese
‸Chinese speaker on how to write good academic English. English Exposed:
Common Mistakes Made by Chinese Speakers is divided by ‸into three main
sections. The first section examines errors made with verbs, nouns, prepositions,
and other grammatical classes of words. The second section focuses on problems
Common Mistakes Made by Chinese Speakers

of word choice. In additional ‸In addition to helping the reader finding ‸find the
right word, it provides instruction for selecting the right style too. The third sec-
tion covers a variety of other areas essential for the academic writer, like ‸such as
using punctuation, adding appropriate references, referring to tables and figures, Common Mistakes Made
by Chinese Speakers
and selecting among various English date and time phrases.
229mm
Using English Exposed will allow a writer to produce material where contents
‸content and ideas—not language mistakes—speak the loudest.
Steve Hart is an academic English tutor and dissertation supervisor at a higher

education institution in Cambridge, England. He has been editing and
proofreading for international academics and graduate students since 2005.
He has co-authored undergraduate English textbooks and written two practical
grammar guides for university students.
English Language Learning Steve Hart

Steve Hart
Printed and bound in Hong Kong, China
Hart_Exposed_pb.indd 1 24/01/2017 11:33 AM

English Exposed
English Exposed
Common Mistakes Made by Chinese

Speakers
Steve Hart
Hong Kong University Press
The University of Hong Kong
Pokfulam Road
Hong Kong
www.hkupress.org
© 2017 Hong Kong University Press
ISBN 978-988-8390-75-5 (Paperback)
All rights reserved. No portion of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or
any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the
publisher.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed and bound by Hang Tai Printing Co., Ltd. in Hong Kong, China
To the wonderful ASEH and the melodious T. T.
CONTENTS
Preface viii
About the Author x
Part A: Classes . . . to recognize

1. Countable and Uncountable Nouns 3
2. Articles 13
3. Pronouns and Quantifiers 24
4. Subject and Verb 36
5. Verbs and Tenses 42
6. Modals 59
7. Prepositions and Particles 68
8. Adjectives and Adverbs 80
9. Possession and Compounds 92
10. Clauses and Other Structures 98
Part B: Choices . . . to remember

11. Noun-Adjective-Verb Confusion 111
12. Selecting the Correct Word 121
13. Selecting the Correct Style 136
Part C: Components . . . to review

14. Regions and Countries 147
15. Dates and Time Expressions 153
16. Numbers and Percentages 161
17. Figures and Tables 169
18. Spelling and Typos 175
19. Punctuation 181
20. Referencing 190
Appendix: Irregular Verbs 198

Answers 201
Index 210
Preface
Failure is instructive. The person who really thinks, learns quite as much from
his failures as from his successes.
—John Dewey
John Dewey realized that just as much can be learnt from doing things badly as
from doing things well—and this certainly applies to writing in English. English is
not an easy language to master, especially if it is being learnt as a second or third
language. But improving written English skills can be achieved if instruction is
given on where to look for problems and then feedback provided on how to solve
them.
As an academic proofreader, I have read and edited over 600 papers written
by Chinese undergraduates, postgraduates, and researchers. Three years ago I
decided to analyse the most common errors1 found in these papers so Chinese
writers of English could improve their skills. Because each of the examples I
analysed was a real-world example, and had actually been written by a Chinese
student/researcher writing in English,2 I thought it would be the perfect material
for a learning resource and an opportunity to put Dewey’s idea that people
really can learn a lot from their mistakes—and from the mistakes of others—into
practice. English Exposed is the outcome of this process.
The mistakes made by writers3 are examined by grammar area, term selection,
and by elements found in an essay such as figures, punctuation, and referencing.
Naturally there is some overlap, but readers can see what topics and what errors
feature at the start of each chapter, and they can find specific topics and terms via
the indexes and the cross-referencing found throughout.
To ensure that the example errors are as instructive as possible, solutions
are provided directly beneath them and explanations are given. Background
1. Errors that occurred in at least 5% of the papers were considered ‘common’. This meant the error
had to have been made by at least thirty writers.
2. Where necessary, the wording of the example has been altered to preserve anonymity while
retaining the nature of the error.
3. The term ‘writer’ used throughout the book refers to a writer whose first language is not English.
Preface ix
information on each grammar area is provided and exercises can be found at the
end of each chapter to support the learning process and embed this knowledge.
There are three main parts to the resource.
Classes. This category looks at errors made in each general grammar class.
The parts of speech are explored and the most common errors revealed and
addressed.
Choices. This section focuses on confusion about word choice. It features
related and unrelated terms and how to rid writing of unnecessary and inappro-
priate phrases.
Components. This part addresses different elements that comprise an essay
or a paper, such as using numbers, tables, punctuation, and references. Useful
areas such as dates, time phrases, and referring to countries are also explored.
All content has been designed specifically for those writers looking to fine-
tune their language skills and create error-free academic English. It must be frus-
trating for good research skills and strong subject knowledge to be undermined
by weaker English writing ability. But if Dewey’s advice is followed and mistakes
are viewed as instructive, then English Exposed can empower Chinese writers of
English to acquire an awareness of the mistakes they and their peers are making
and, crucially, provide them with the knowledge to fix these errors and improve
their written English level.
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank Susie Han for her enthusiasm, diligence, and swift correspondence
on this project.
Steve Hart
2016
About the Author
Steve Hart has been editing and proofreading for international academics and
graduate students since 2005. He has co-authored undergraduate English text-
books and written two practical grammar guides for university students. He is
currently an academic English coordinator and dissertation supervisor at a higher
education institution in Cambridge, England.
Part A
Classes . . . to recognize
1
COUNTABLE AND
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Focus on . . . Countable nouns

Uncountable nouns
Plural noun forms
This chapter analyses the differences between countable and uncountable

nouns and explains why some nouns can be both countable and uncountable.
It also explores problematic plural noun endings along with errors that are
typically made in this area.
Background / 1.1 ‘evidence’ and dividing uncountable nouns /

1.2 number and amount / 1.3 plural noun endings /
1.4 countable and uncountable nouns / 1.5 phrases and plural nouns /
1.6 Exercises
Usage errors exposed in 1:

abilities (1.4) crisis (1.3) research (1.1)
amount (1.2) evidence (1.1) strength (1.4)
attention (1.1) for example (1.5) strengthen (1.4)
belief (1.3) for instance (1.5) weakness (1.4)
by means of (1.5) in detail (1.5)
caution (1.1) in practice (1.5)
clothes (1.3) in theory (1.5)
communication (1.4) many (1.1)
competition (1.4) number (1.2)
contents (1.4) phenomena (1.3)
4 English Exposed
BACKGROUND: If a noun can be counted, it will have a clear

boundary (physically or conceptually) and will be seen as a separate entity.
There were several managers present at the meeting.
A manager can be counted because it is a person and is clearly a separate thing.

But countable nouns do not have to exist physically in the real world.
A few more models were developed to try to resolve this issue.
Although some ideas and inanimate things can be countable and therefore plural,
most concepts and notions will be uncountable. An uncountable noun means no
boundary or limit can be formed for it; that is why these nouns are commonly
qualities, feelings, and social processes.
There was confusion because the government had previously acknowledged that
the problem was not a financial one.
REVEALED: 1.1 – How to use ‘evidence’ properly and how to

divide an uncountable noun
‘Evidence’ is an uncountable noun but what does uncountable actually mean?
First, an uncountable noun cannot have a plural form.
We collected evidences about the behaviour and then grouped them according
to their severity. ✘
We collected evidence about the behaviour and then grouped it according to its
severity. ✔
! When correcting this error, all the verbs and pronouns have to be in
singular form to reflect the uncountable nature of the noun.
The evidence is useful, and it can be . . .
Second, the uncountable noun cannot take an indefinite article (‘a’ / ‘an’).
There was an evidence of this after the model was initially tested. ✘
Countable and Uncountable Nouns 5
Other uncountable nouns that are mistakenly used as countable nouns include:
advice attention caution confidence confusion health help

information research safety support training transport trust
! Remember that none of the nouns above can be used in plural form.
advices attentions cautions . . .
The team has carried out a number of researches. ✘

The team has carried out a number of studies. ✔
A lot of attentions have been paid to this subject in recent years. ✘

A lot of attention has been paid to this subject in recent years. ✔
They should therefore proceed with cautions. ✘

They should therefore proceed with caution. ✔
Sometimes it is necessary to divide the uncountable noun into individual parts or

different types. Certain quantity phrases can be used to do this.
There was some evidence of this after the model was initially tested.
There are different types of evidence that can be used in this situation.
Different evidences were required. ✘

Different types of evidence were required. ✔
Note that the verb must agree with the phrase expressing quantity. Here, a plural
verb is required.
Three pieces of advice I received were . . .

Two different kinds of research have . . .
❘➤ RELATED ERRORS:
A common error is to use an uncountable noun as a plural with the term ‘many’.
Many evidences have been found to link obesity with the eating habits of parents.
6 English Exposed
‘Many’ is used with countable nouns. Uncountable nouns will usually require
‘much’. The verb will need to be singular as well.
Much evidence has been found to link obesity . . .
(See Chapter 3 for more quantity phrases.)
REVEALED: 1.2 – When to use ‘number’ and when to use

‘amount’
The countability of the noun determines whether ‘number’ or ‘amount’ should be
used. In this first example ‘studies’ is plural, so ‘number’ is the correct choice.
In contrast, an amount of studies have investigated the efficiency of smaller

banks. ✘
In contrast, a number of studies have investigated the efficiency of smaller
banks. ✔ (See 3.2.)
‘Amount’ is used with uncountable nouns. In the next example ‘development’ is

employed in an uncountable way (it can also be countable), and so the writer cor-
rectly uses ‘amount’.
This should also result in a greater amount of development taking place.
See 16.7 for an explanation of when to use ‘fewer’ and ‘less’ and 3 for more quantity
phrases.
REVEALED: 1.3 – How to form plural noun endings

Many plural nouns are formed by adding ‘s’ or ‘es’ to the singular noun.
subject, subjects design, designs approach, approaches
But there are also nouns that have irregular endings, and writers need to recog-
nize these.
The countable noun ‘phenomenon’ has a plural form that is written ‘phenomena’.
Writers either use the plural form as a singular noun, as in the following example:
This phenomena is prevalent in the villages and remote areas. ✘

This phenomenon is prevalent in the villages and remote areas. ✔
Or they add an ‘s’ to form the incorrect plural, phenomenons.
It is important to remember that a plural noun requires a plural verb form.
These phenomena has been investigated in other parts of the country as well. ✘
These phenomena have been investigated in other parts of the country as well. ✔
* * *
Another noun that causes problems is ‘belief’. This word has a regular ending. To
form the plural, ‘s’ is simply added; writers often commit the following error:
Research was also carried out on their traditions and believes. ✘

Research was also carried out on their traditions and beliefs. ✔
‘Believes’ is a verb form and not the plural form of the noun ‘belief’. (See also 11.3.)
* * *
The plural form of ‘crisis’ is ‘crises’. Often this change is not made to the plural.
A number of economic crisis have hit the region in the past few decades. ✘
A number of economic crises have hit the region in the past few decades. ✔
! Some nouns have only a plural form; for instance, ‘clothes’ has no
singular form. Note the following errors.
The company did not specifically ask them to wear their branded
cloths. ✘
The company did not specifically ask them to wear their branded
clothes. ✔
The cloth he wore was clearly authentic. ✘

The clothes he wore were clearly authentic. ✔
Normally, to refer to particular clothes a phrase such as ‘piece of

clothing’ or ‘item of clothing’ is used.
8 English Exposed
REVEALED: 1.4 – That some nouns can be both countable

and uncountable
A confusing point for many writers is that some nouns can be both countable and
uncountable.
The company prefers the application to be written on paper.

A number of papers had to be submitted before the end of term.
The first example of the noun ‘paper’ is referring to the substance and is there-
fore uncountable. But in the second example, the writer is referring to specific
essay papers which can naturally be counted (there are a number of them). Nouns
that can be both countable and uncountable are often countable when a specific
instance or kind is being referred to. They are uncountable when the general
concept or sense is desired.
This clearly demonstrates that absence from class will lead to failure. (general
concept)
There were a number of absences from this group the week before as well. (specific
instances)
* * *
‘Strength’ is a noun that can be used in either a countable or an uncountable way.
Countable: a particular quality or ability (that is good or beneficial).
Uncountable: physical or mental power and energy; quality or state of being

strong.
Writers often use the plural form instead of the required uncountable noun form.
These materials are frequently used in the industry because of their strengths. ✘
These materials are frequently used in the industry because of their strength. ✔

The phrase ‘strengths and weaknesses’ attracts the following errors.
There are a number of strengths and weakness. ✘

There are a number of strengths and weaknesses. ✔
An evaluation of its strength and weakens must then follow. ✘

An evaluation of its strengths and weaknesses must then follow. ✔
When used together, the two nouns are usually plural unless used in the following
way.
This is both a strength and a weakness.
Errors can also occur when the verb ‘to strengthen’ is required.
This strengths the line sufficiently. ✘

This strengthens the line sufficiently. ✔
They will also need to strength the links between the two operators. ✘
They will also need to strengthen the links between the two operators. ✔
Other nouns that can be either countable or uncountable are:
achievement behaviour control development experience
industry policy power society teaching theory
There is a tendency to overuse the plural with nouns that can be either count-
able or uncountable. Remember the uncountable form will be required when the
phrase is referring to the general concept or attribute and not describing specific
kinds or actual instances.
This will depend on their abilities to detect errors. ✘

This will depend on their ability to detect errors. ✔
Two nouns that seem to attract this error are ‘competition’ and ‘communication’.
The plural form has been used in this first example when the meaning only relates
to ‘competition’ in general.
In this framework, competitions occurring within the industry are targeted. ✘

In this framework, competition occurring within the industry is targeted. ✔
When used in the plural form or in the singular form with an indefinite article
(see Chapter 2), this noun (‘competition’) takes on a slightly different meaning and
relates to events or an actual event taking place—where individuals or groups
compete for something.
There were various competitions and workshops for the employees to take part in.
10 English Exposed
This is also the case with ‘communication’. Unless actual acts of communication
are taking place or being described, or the field itself or a particular network is
being referred to, the uncountable form is the likely choice.
Communications are vital between a patient and the carer. ✘

Communication is vital between a patient and the carer. ✔
Communication is not often used in a singular countable sense (‘a communica-

tion’). As a plural it can be used to refer to infrastructure or the field as shown here.
The next section gives an overview of the signalling and communications they
have developed on site.
They studied computer networks and communications at university.

The list of chapters and sections at the beginning of a paper is called the ‘Contents’.
It outlines the ‘content’ of the paper.
The report will also require a ‘Table of Content’. ✘

The report will also require a ‘Table of Contents’. ✔
The tutor suggested that there was too much contents in the first section. ✘
The tutor suggested that there was too much content in the first section. ✔
REVEALED: 1.5 – Phrases that should not contain a plural

noun
Singular and plural mistakes also occur in certain phrases. The terms in this section
are ‘fixed’ and must be written in a specific way. (See 2.5 for an explanation of fixed
phrases.)
The following must remain singular.
in detail
‘Details’ is the plural form of the noun ‘detail’.

The key details of this report can be found in the Appendix.
‘In detail’ is a fixed phrase meaning ‘item by item, or thoroughly’.
It should not be used as a plural.
The findings will be discussed in details in the next section. ✘

The findings will be discussed in detail in the next section. ✔
‘More’ can be inserted into the phrase, but again the term must remain singular.
The following section will look at the process in more details. ✘

The following section will look at the process in more detail. ✔
! Note that the phrase ‘more details’ is correct (without using ‘in’ at the
start).
More details will be provided at a later stage.

So, In more detail ✔ More details ✔
for example / for instance
. . . for examples, BMI is a better predictor of hypertension. ✘

. . . for example, BMI is a better predictor of hypertension. ✔
. . . which includes classroom performance and assessment; for instances, the

mid-term oral test . . . ✘
. . . which includes classroom performance and assessment; for instance, the
mid-term oral test . . . ✔
in theory / in reality / in practice
In theories, all the students could be asked to participate; in practices, the room is
too small to accommodate them all. ✘
In theory, all the students could be asked to participate; in practice, the room is
too small to accommodate them all. ✔
But this next phrase should be in the plural form.

12 English Exposed
by means of (‘by using’)
This is navigated by mean of a small door at the back. ✘

This is navigated by means of a small door at the back. ✔
! This can often be shortened to just ‘by’.
This was achieved by means of altering the middle section. ✘

This was achieved by altering the middle section. ✔
1.6 Exercises
A. Find the errors in these two paragraphs and correct them.
The issues related to healths and safety are discussed in the next section along
with any informations from the respondents of the employee survey. The training
schedule and transports advices for field trips are attached to the Appendices to
provide more details, to avoid any confusion. The believes of the employees will
be assessed, with a focus on whether they actually belief in the new policy.
The economic development of this region of China has aroused the interest
of researchers of late. By means of SWOT analysis (which stands for strengthens,
weakness, opportunities, and threats) I will assess the potential of the five SMEs
from the area, with a focus on competition between the five regarding their capa-
bilities. Any phenomena extracted from this analysis will form the basis for the
second part of the study. Any experiences detailed by the business managers will
also join those phenomenon as evidence to inform policy.
B. How many of these nouns can be used in a countable way (as a plural)?
advice staff training support behaviour evidence development
C. Pick one noun from above (B) that can be used in both a countable and an
uncountable sense. Write two sentences containing the noun, one as a count-
able noun and the other as an uncountable noun.
Countable:
Uncountable:
2
ARTICLES
Focus on . . . Articles

Countable nouns
Abbreviations
Fixed phrases
This chapter presents the different types of article occurring in English and intro-
duces the concept of definiteness to understand which article should be used for
which situation. The chapter reveals the most common mistakes and how they
can be rectified. It also explores the relationship between articles and generic ref-
erence and explains what fixed phrases are.
Background / 2.1 singular countable nouns / 2.2 ‘a’ or ‘an’? /

2.3 definite article use / 2.4 indefinite article with plurals /
2.5 fixed phrases / 2.6 leaving out an article / 2.7 Exercises
Featured errors in 2:
a/an (2.2) by name (2.5)
approach (2.1) European (2.2)
as a result (2.5) out of date (2.5)
at length (2.5) researcher (2.1)
author (2.1) study (2.1)
by email (2.5) such (2.1)
by interview (2.5) university (2.2)
14 English Exposed
BACKGROUND: An article is used before a noun to indicate the kind

of reference being made to the noun.
the definite article = the

the indefinite article = a/an
the zero article = no article is used before the noun
Articles in English help the reader or listener to identify and follow the nouns in a
sentence and to understand the relationship between them and the other parts
of the sentence.
The best way to determine whether a definite article is needed is to ask the fol-
lowing questions:
Will the reader be aware of the exact thing I am referring to?

Do I want to, and am I able to, single out the noun as a unique instance?
If the answer is yes to both, then the noun is definite, and ‘the’ can be used before
it.
The changes were designed to make it easier to attract investment.
! If the noun is a proper noun (a name) or forms part of a fixed phrase,

then it might not require a definite article. Note the examples below.
(See also 2.5.)
The first case study is a company from Hong Kong.

They have analysed the policies of PepsiCo from the US.
Most of the workers arrived by bus.
If the reader will not be able to identify (or more accurately, have ‘awareness’ of )
the exact thing being described, or the writer wishes to be vague or to write gen-
erally, then the reference is said to be indefinite.
If the noun is used in an indefinite way, it will need either an indefinite article
(‘a’/’an’) or a zero article (no article).
A singular countable noun takes an indefinite article when the reference is

indefinite.
Articles 15
A theory needs to be found that will help to explain this circumstance.
A plural (countable) noun or an uncountable noun will take a zero article.
Journals may also be a good source of information at this stage.

Education is the main reason for the improvement we are currently seeing.
If the reference is definite (i.e., specific journals are being referred to or the educa-
tion in a particular country is the subject), then a definite article is used.
The journals in the office may also be a good source of information at this stage.
The education in this country is below the level of its neighbours.
REVEALED: 2.1 – That singular countable nouns always

require an article
Identifying whether a noun is countable or uncountable can be difficult, espe-
cially given that some nouns can be both (see 1.4). When a noun is used in a
countable way and written in singular form, it will require either a definite article
or an indefinite article—but it must have an article.
Study by Morgan (2009) looked at the issue at a local level. ✘

A study by Morgan (2009) looked at the issue at a local level. ✔
In the previous example, ‘study’ is countable so requires an article. (When it has

an uncountable meaning, it will require a zero article, e.g., Study is important for
improving concentration in these pupils.) As Morgan’s study is being introduced,
the writer has used an indefinite article.
! In the plural form, a definite article can be used if the studies have
been mentioned.
Six studies were randomly selected from the database for this stage. The
studies were given a score out of five for their objectivity.
But the plural noun would not require an article in a general context such
as the one here (where the meaning is equivalent to ‘some studies’).
Studies have also focused on class size and the diversity of the pupils.
16 English Exposed
When writers refer to themselves as ‘researcher’ or ‘author’ in their work, they

often miss out the article. ‘Researcher’ and ‘author’ are singular countable nouns
and require definite articles when they are directly referring to the writer of the
paper or the research.
Researcher has demonstrated that practices in the country need to be in line with
international ones. ✘
The researcher has demonstrated that practices in the country need to be in line
with international ones. ✔
Because of this, author decided to rephrase question four. ✘

Because of this, the author decided to rephrase question four. ✔
One particular countable noun that always seems to be mistakenly written

without an article is ‘approach’.
We decided to use different approach this time. ✘
A possible reason for missing out an article is that information modifying the
noun (in the example above, the adjective different) has created a distraction.
We decided to use a different approach this time. ✔

‘Such’ has a tendency to attract errors. When it is followed by a singular countable
noun, an indefinite article should be used.
Such problem will not be solved in the short term. ✘

Such a problem will not be solved in the short term. ✔
An uncountable noun or a plural noun will not require an article.
Such development can only take place with extensive planning.

Such problems will clearly affect their ability to attract investment.
Articles 17
REVEALED: 2.2 – When to use ‘a’ and ‘an’ with abbrevia-

tions and numbers
Abbreviations have an interesting relationship with articles. The trick is to read
each individual letter out loud, for instance SME (S ‘es’, M ‘em’, E ‘e’). The sound of
the first letter will determine whether ‘a’ or ‘an’ should be used.
Unfortunately, it is unlikely that an SME will be able to secure a loan under this
scheme.
This would not be the case for a PLC.
I also spoke to a MOD employee. ✘

I also spoke to an MOD employee. ✔ (‘M’= ‘em’)
For numbers, the spelling of the word will determine the article.
An 18-gauge needle . . . (eighteen)
When a noun begins with ‘eu’ or ‘u’ and has a ‘you’ sound, ‘a’ is required.
The case study was that of an European country. ✘

The case study was that of a European country. ✔
It was not possible without an university degree. ✘

It was not possible without a university degree. ✔
REVEALED: 2.3 – When not to use the definite article even

though it seems the obvious choice
Writers sometimes use ‘the’ without assessing whether the noun can be singled
out as a unique instance.
This leaves an opportunity for the further study. ✘

This leaves an opportunity for further study. ✔
The error often occurs when writers are giving background information to some-
thing. They realize they are talking about a specific subject but fail to understand
the indefinite and generic nature of the sentence. A definite article in these next
examples would make the noun phrase unique, as if it was the only instance of its
kind.
18 English Exposed
China has the long history of developing this type of product for overseas
markets. ✘
China has a long history of developing this type of product for overseas markets. ✔
As previously mentioned, this is the old culture and many traditions have been
passed down through the generations. ✘
As previously mentioned, this is an old culture and many traditions have been
passed down through the generations. ✔
The second mention rule (use ‘a’ for the first mention and ‘the’ for the second
mention of a noun) that is often taught in schools is the cause of many errors in
sentences that are actually generic.
In this next example, the writer uses a zero article correctly in the first instance,
but when mentioning the noun phrase again remembers the second mention
rule and uses a definite article.
Brand loyalty (1) is a broad area that has been extensively discussed in the mar-
keting literature. This study will focus on the brand loyalty (2) and especially the
concept of online brand advocacy.
(1) The writer has correctly identified an uncountable and generic reading of the
noun phrase (brand loyalty) so uses a zero article.
(2) The writer has noted that the term has already been used so opts for a definite
article (because of the second mention rule) even though the noun is being used
in exactly the same way as before and so will not require an article.
Failing to recognize generic meaning is a common error. In this next example the
writer believes that, because she is writing about particular countries, a definite
article is needed. But this has a generic reading, and therefore a zero article should
be used.
It is not just in Asia either, as they have also reported a prevalence of approximately
20%–25% in the Western countries. ✘
It is not just in Asia either, as they have also reported a prevalence of approximately
20%–25% in Western countries. ✔
So, writers often fail to identify nouns being used in a general way. This is espe-
cially true if there are words modifying the noun. (See also 9.2.)
A major aspect of the customer service is the complaint resolution. ✘

A major aspect of customer service is complaint resolution. ✔
Articles 19
Perhaps surprisingly, a definite article is not usually required when defining a

term or discussing a feature of it.
The promotional pricing is a form of sales promotion designed to increase

product demand by offering a short-term price reduction. ✘
Promotional pricing is a form of sales promotion designed to increase product
demand by offering a short-term price reduction. ✔
! Note also that ‘sales promotion’ and ‘product demand’ above do not
have articles before them.
See 17.1 for another example of where the definite article seems to be the obvious
choice but is incorrect.
REVEALED: 2.4 – The common mistake of using an indefi-

nite article with a plural noun
An unexpected error is using an indefinite article with a plural noun. It often
occurs when there is information (modifying words) between the article and the
noun.
It has been important to utilize a different contexts for this. ✘

It has been important to utilize different contexts for this. ✔
These modifiers should not distract the writer from making the correct article
choice. It must always be informed by the noun, not necessarily the word coming
directly after the article. These further examples will illustrate the point.
These were all obtained from a semi-structured questionnaires. ✘

These were all obtained from semi-structured questionnaires. ✔
The problem with an additional and revised parameters is the inability to identify
them during the later stages. ✘
The problem with additional and revised parameters is the inability to identify
them during the later stages. ✔
20 English Exposed
REVEALED: 2.5 – What fixed phrases are and how to avoid

the errors associated with them
Fixed phrases are in general use and are familiar to native speakers. The particu-
lar words that feature in the phrase and their order are ‘fixed’. Sometimes these
phrases do not contain an article when one might be expected (e.g. by car). The
meaning of these phrases may also be different from what one would assume.
In other words, looking at the literal meaning of each word may not reveal the
true meaning of the phrase (see also 1.5 which deals with phrases that should not
contain a plural noun).
The preposition ‘by’ is often used before nouns in phrases that relate to transport,
communication, and methods. No article is needed in these fixed phrases.
These were obtained by the interview after the questionnaires had been returned
and analysed. ✘
These were obtained by interview after the questionnaires had been returned and
analysed. ✔
I would also recommend doing this by an email instead or by the post. ✘

I would also recommend doing this by email instead or by post. ✔
in the case of/in case of
These two phrases look similar but have very different meanings. ‘In case of’
means ‘if it should happen’. The phrase ‘in the case of’ means a particular case.
I suggested conducting the experiment indoors in case of rain.

This could be as large as 40% in the case of developing countries.

Here are some more examples where articles have been included in error.
Most of the literature they had used was out of the date even then. ✘
Most of the literature they had used was out of date even then. ✔
Morgan (1998) covered this at a length in his previous paper. ✘

Morgan (1998) covered this at length in his previous paper. ✔
Articles 21
The headmaster also knew every one of the pupils by the name. ✘
The headmaster also knew every one of the pupils by name. ✔
! Some fixed phrases do contain articles. Familiarization is key to select-

ing the correct one.
As the result, financial institutions may be reluctant to lend to these

firms. ✘
As a result, financial institutions may be reluctant to lend to these
firms. ✔
REVEALED: 2.6 – Why an article can sometimes be left out

and when this can be done
Because scientists tend to describe general principles and processes in their work,
the definite article is used sparingly in some technical papers.
Testing of this product was carried out over three weeks.
Things being tested are often stripped of their definite status and made generic
despite the fact that specific events and actions are being described. This is espe-
cially true of plural nouns.
Target regions were identified and drugs then added at regular intervals.
Subjects were observed for one hour or until effects had worn off, whichever was
sooner.
In standard writing, the following definite articles would be expected.
The target regions were identified and the drugs then added at regular intervals.
The subjects were observed for one hour or until the effects had worn off, which-
ever was sooner.
The problem with writing in the former style is the tendency to avoid using any
articles at all, which could lead to writing that is imprecise and difficult to follow.
22 English Exposed
Coefficient depends on physical parameters of soil. Image obtained was

recorded and added to survey. ✘
The coefficient depends on the physical parameters of the soil. The image
obtained was recorded and added to the survey. ✔
Often articles are omitted from titles and therefore from the contents page.
1.1 Nature of Learning Resources 3

1.2 Learning Resources in Context of Taiwan 5
Notice how in this next example the heading does not contain articles but the
first sentence of the section does.
XII Policy on Marine Area of Surrounding Islands

The policy on the marine area of the surrounding islands has recently been . . .
2.7 Exercises
A. Select the , a , an , or zero (no article) for each noun instance in this extract.
It was important to contact employees from the a an zero SME in the region to
see whether the a an zero theory was correct that these workers were not getting
the training opportunities that the workers of larger corporations enjoyed. Contact
was made first of all by the a an zero email, and then three visits were made to
the a an zero chosen company to conduct the a an zero formal interviews.
B. Circle the article errors made in this piece of writing.

Most previous investigations have been based on non-Chinese students lacking
Chinese cultural values. Chinese learners have been greatly influenced by main-
stream Chinese culture in their perception and behaviours when participating in
the communication inside and outside classroom. ‘The Chinese learner’ is char-
acterized as being reticent in the class. Wen and Clément (2003) explain that a
Chinese students are influenced by classic Confucianism, in particular examina-
tion-oriented learning, shaping their understanding and way of the learning.
Articles 23
C. Some of these nouns require a definite article (‘the’). Insert this article in the
space provided for those that do.
__________ student attendance has dropped to 78% in the past three months at
the college.
In __________ case of an attack from another network user, three recommenda-
tions are given.
__________ quality of the products was also much higher.
It is possible that __________ author overlooked this peripheral region.
3
PRONOUNS AND QUANTIFIERS
Focus on . . . Pronouns

Gender
Quantifiers
This chapter begins by explaining how a writer should approach gender reference.
It then looks at plural and possessive pronouns and how they can be effectively
employed. Quantity phrases are explored by identifying those that should be used
with singular nouns and verbs and those with plural. ‘Of’ phrases are introduced
along with the relationship between indefinite articles and words of quantity.
Then, two sets of quantifiers that always prove troublesome are examined.
Background / 3.1 gender / 3.2 singular and plural quantifiers /

3.3 ‘of’ phrases / 3.4 few and little / 3.5 every and all /
3.6 other and another / 3.7 Exercises
a few (3.4) either (3.2) number of (3.2)
a little (3.4) every (3.5) one (3.2)
all (3.5) he (3.1) other (3.6)
another (3.6) it (3.1) several (3.2)
both (3.2) its (3.1) some (3.3)
do not (3.5) more (3.2) they (3.1)
each (3.2) not (3.5) various (3.2)
Pronouns and Quantifiers 25
BACKGROUND: Sometimes nouns can be replaced by pronouns in

a sentence, especially when they are the subject of the sentence. Pronouns are
used instead of nouns to indicate someone or something already mentioned or
known. The following are personal pronouns:
I you he she it we they
The personal pronouns above are used for the subject of the sentence, but there
are others that are objects.
me you him her it us them
These pronouns are often used in academic writing for self-assessment and
presenting interview findings but not generally for standard essay writing; for-
tunately, institutions and writers are beginning to see the benefits of the active
voice (see 5.8) and employing the pronoun ‘we’, where appropriate, to represent
themselves (often a single author).
We began by assessing how the device could be used in other fields.
Some scientific fields do advise against using the personal pronoun ‘we’ when the
process is more important than the researcher. One simple way of avoiding the
personal pronoun is to reference the work or the topic instead.
We review the three models that have been developed so far.

The paper reviews the three models that have been developed so far.
We also discovered that these changes occur almost immediately.
The findings revealed that these changes occur almost immediately.
Another way is to employ the passive voice (see 5.8); however, constant use can
lead to a rather detached style and long-winded sentences (see 13.6).
Possessive pronouns include his, her/hers, its, our/ours, and their/theirs.
One issue here is the choice between ‘there’, ‘they’re’, and the possessive pronoun
‘their’. The following explains the difference.
‘There’ relates to a place: It is also unusual to find complete specimens there.

‘Their’ is the possessive form: This is true of their earlier policy proposals.
26 English Exposed
‘They’re’ is a contracted form of ‘they are’ but should be avoided in academic

writing unless it is a direct quote: ‘I think they’re unlikely to get permission for
this.’
* * *
A quantifier is a word or phrase that is used with a noun to show quantity. It can
describe how many or how much of something there is. The key requirement
when using quantifiers is to ensure that the noun and the verb match the term
being used.
Both systems are used by schools in the region.

Every machine is checked carefully before being operated.
REVEALED: 3.1 – How to reference gender correctly

Many writers fail to realize that ‘they’ can refer to a single person. It can be used
when a singular countable noun is representing a typical example of its kind or
type. ‘They’ has the effect of keeping the gender neutral and avoids the awkward
use of ‘he/she’ (this is especially useful when there are many references to he/she
and his/her in a paragraph).
This next example is referring to a manager in general, i.e., any manager and not a
particular person, so keeping the gender neutral is important.
A manager must ensure that he has control in these situations. ✘

A manager must ensure that they have control in these situations. ✔
! ‘They’ is still a plural pronoun though, which means it must take a

plural noun (‘have’ in the example above).
Some English grammar guides suggest that ‘they’ for an individual is unsuitable
for academic English and that a plural noun should be used instead, and that will
naturally also take ‘they’.
Managers must ensure that they have control in these situations.
But there are times when a singular noun is more appropriate. Here only one fund
manager is needed so a plural noun would not sound right.
“We needed to find a fund manager who has experience in this area so they will
be able to advise us before the meeting,” revealed Interviewee C.
A writer who is discussing an individual may wish to keep the gender hidden.
Again ‘they/their’ is an option for this.
Initially, they trained to be a doctor but then moved into medical law.
Equally, there may be a generic reference to the noun clearly implying one indi-
vidual where the definite article and singular noun is suitable.
If the driver presses their device quick enough, they will be able to regain control
with minimal consequences.
Without the use of this plural pronoun, the writer would be forced to write this:
If the driver presses his/her device quick enough, he/she will be able to regain
control with minimal consequences.
Which style do you prefer?
* * *
‘He’ should be avoided unless the individual is known to be a man; ‘it’ should not
be used to refer to people.
In this example a specific individual is being described, and that individual is a

man, so ‘he’ is fine.
The second interviewee was from Brand International, and he had worked for the
company for 15 years.
Naturally, companies and inanimate objects can be referred to by ‘it’.
A firm can maximize its potential by recruiting from this talent pool.
But singular and plural errors need to be avoided.
Firms can maximize its potential by recruiting from this talent pool. ✘
Firms can maximize their potential by recruiting from this talent pool. ✔
This scheme has economic motivations because they highlight those areas where
money could be saved and investment increased. ✘
This scheme has economic motivations because it highlights those areas where
money could be saved and investment increased. ✔
28 English Exposed
! A pronoun can be employed to prevent repetition in a sentence (see

also 13.4) and to avoid possessive phrases (as shown below.) In the
second example, the writer has used the possessive pronoun ‘their’ to
avoid repeating the noun ‘students’.
The objectives of the program are designed for students to seize opportu-
nities to speak English and improve students’ confidence.
The objectives of the program are designed for students to seize opportu-
nities to speak English and improve their confidence. (See 3B.)
REVEALED: 3.2 – Which quantifiers take singular verb

forms and nouns and which ones take
plural
Quantifiers come before the noun and modify it. When these words are the
subject of the sentence, it is sometimes difficult to know whether to use a singular
or a plural verb. Some take singular, some plural, and others both.
One of these problematic quantifiers is ‘each’. This next sentence represents a

typical dilemma faced by a writer.
Each of the team members were/was asked to fill in the questionnaire.
‘Each’ (meaning each one) should be used with a singular verb form.
Each of the team members was asked to fill in the questionnaire.
When a noun immediately follows this quantifier, it should be in the singular form.
During the process, each actor wants to maximize earnings, but each is con-
strained by the other since interdependent relationships have built up.
* * *
‘Either’ (meaning either one or the other) should be used with a singular noun
and a singular verb.
Either methods are appropriate for this type of research. ✘

Either method is appropriate for this type of research. ✔
As is also true of ‘each’, confusion normally arises when an ‘of’ phrase is used,
because then a plural noun is needed. Note that the verb remains singular though.
Either of the methods are appropriate for this type of research. ✘

Either of the methods is appropriate for this type of research. ✔

There are a number of other quantifiers that cause problems for writers. Those
that produce the most errors are surprisingly the ones that logically imply a plural
situation.
both: plural noun and plural verb
Both party give high priority to these issues. ✘

Both parties give high priority to these issues. ✔
The information is exchanged in both direction. ✘

The information is exchanged in both directions. ✔
Both has the same motives for boycotting the event. ✘

Both have the same motives for boycotting the event. ✔
The term ‘Both two’ should be avoided.
Both two studies are addressed next. ✘
* * *
several: plural noun and plural verb
There are several reason why this had an impact. ✘

There are several reasons why this had an impact. ✔
Several has expressed a desire to be part of the study ✘

Several have expressed a desire to be part of the study. ✔
* * *
30 English Exposed
various: plural noun and plural verb
Various step need to be taken before the project can begin. ✘

Various steps need to be taken before the project can begin. ✔
! This next quantifier implies singular but actually takes a plural noun
when used in an ‘of’ phrase (the same as ‘each’ and ‘either’ above).
One of the problem is that they cannot test the machine beforehand. ✘
One of the problems is that they cannot test the machine beforehand. ✔
* * *
A quantity phrase that tends to catch writers out is ‘a number of’ and ‘the number
of’. The expressions require different verb forms.
A number of options are available to these prospective entrepreneurs. (plural

verb)
The number of people is smaller for this task. (singular verb)
But the phrase should not be used with ‘more’.
More number of problems will likely occur if this is not changed. ✘

More problems will likely occur if this is not changed. ✔
REVEALED: 3.3 – How an ‘of’ phrase can change the

meaning of the sentence
As seen above, words of quantity can be followed by ‘of’; however, writers often
forget to place an article between the term and the noun.
Some of theories concentrate on the supply chain, including . . . ✘

Some of the theories concentrate on the supply chain, including . . . ✔
There is an apparent choice between leaving out ‘of the’ and using it, but the two
styles can actually have different meanings.
most people/most of the people
By including the ‘of’ phrase, the sentence takes on a specific meaning.
Most of the people think this is a good idea. (definite: a specific group of people)
Most people think this is a good idea. (indefinite: people in general)
All of the companies will struggle under these financial constraints. (definite: a
specific group of companies)
All companies will struggle under these financial constraints. (indefinite: compa-
nies in general)
REVEALED: 3.4 – The difference between few/little and a

few/a little
Sometimes, two similar-looking phrases can have very different meanings. The
addition of ‘a’ to the quantity words ‘few’ and ‘little’ has implications and in fact
produces the opposite effect.
few: almost none
They can take few positives from the findings. (negative result)
This means ‘almost none’ and does not represent a good outcome.
a few: some
They can take a few positives from the findings. (positive result)
This means ‘some’, so the findings are considered to have been a reasonable
success.
The writer in this next example wished to express that it was very likely that no
rain would fall on the field trip day; however, the sentence in fact implies that
there is a possibility that some rain would fall.
There was a little chance that rain would fall because of the time of year and
location, and so this was one of the reasons for choosing this particular date.
To produce the desired effect that there was no real chance of the event happen-
ing (that rain would fall), ‘little’ is required, not ‘a little’.
32 English Exposed
There was little chance that rain would fall . . .
Here is another example to clarify the point.
There was little moisture left in the bottle. (almost none)

There was a little moisture left in the bottle. (some)
! If the sentence has a negative implication (in the case below losing
accuracy), then the positive/negative meanings of ‘few’/’little’, ‘a
few’/’a little’ are reversed.
There was little loss of accuracy here. (almost none: positive outcome)
There was a little loss of accuracy here. (some: negative outcome)
(See 16.7 for information on ‘fewer’ and ‘less’.)
REVEALED: 3.5 – How to use ‘every’ and ‘all’

If a plural noun is chosen, then only certain quantifiers can precede it. Two quanti-
fiers that consistently prove troublesome are ‘every’ and ‘all’. The actual meaning is
not the issue in the first example below, because either of the quantifiers can be
employed; the issue is the agreement between the quantifier and the noun.
‘Every’ is used with singular nouns.
‘All’ is used with plural nouns and uncountable nouns.
Every respondents gave positive feedback on question six. ✘

Every respondent gave positive feedback on question six. ✔ OR
All respondents gave positive feedback on question six. ✔
Every evidence must be presented at this time. ✘

All evidence must be presented at this time. ✔
A plural noun has been used in this next example, so ‘all’ is required. A singular
noun would have required ‘every’.
This was so that every models could be evaluated. ✘

This was so that all models could be evaluated. ✔
Sometimes ‘all’ is used to begin a sentence that has a negative construction (do
not).
All of the subjects do not exercise regularly. ✘
A better way is to begin with ‘none of the’ and to remove the verb.
None of the subjects exercises regularly. ✔
Another issue occurs when the writer actually means ‘only some’. For this, ‘not all’
can be used.
All of the subjects do not have a family history of this. ✘

Not all of the subjects have a family history of this. ✔
For negation, ‘any’, not ‘all’, should be used to mean none. In the sentence below,
‘all’ would imply that it still worked on some of the subjects.
This did not work for all of the subjects. (It worked for some of them.)
This did not work for any of the subjects. (It worked for none of them.)
REVEALED: 3.6 – When to use ‘other’ and ‘another’

Two other terms that writers use incorrectly are ‘another’ and ‘other’. ‘Another’ is
used with a singular countable noun; ‘other’ takes a plural or uncountable noun.
The following mistake should be familiar to most writers.
Other issue is related to the lack of funding from public sources. ✘

Another issue is related to the lack of funding from public sources. ✔
If the writer wanted to state that there were a few issues, then the sentence would
begin: Other issues are related to . . .
Another evidence relates to wider cultural trends. ✘

Other evidence relates to wider cultural trends. ✔
In the example above, the uncountable noun ‘evidence’ is used, so ‘other’ is

required. If the writer wants to differentiate among the evidence, then a quantity
term such as ‘piece of’ can be used with ‘another’: Another piece of evidence
relates . . . (See also 1.1.)
34 English Exposed
For countable nouns, think of the terms in the following way:
another: singular (one other; a further)
other: plural (some other; further)
! When using a number to state how many ‘other’ of something there

are, write the number first.
Other two studies have discussed the implications of this measure. ✘

Two other studies have discussed the implications of this measure. ✔
(See also 16.2.)
3.7 Exercises
A. Some (but not all) of these sentences contain errors. Rewrite the ones that
contain errors in the spaces below.
A manager must ensure that he listens to his staff at all times.

Other issue is that the software took too long to load.
There have been few problems with attendance, so they decided to warn the
pupils.
Every employee is entitled to a break every two hours.
We can then change this into another formats.
B. Fill in the gaps with quantifier words. There may be a choice for some of
them.
one both some all less fewer
__________ of the models failed to produce satisfactory results, so we decided to

create our own.
It is important to make sure that with each draft __________ mistakes are made.
__________ of the evidence points to the fact that these policies have failed to
boost the economy.
There is __________ risk involved, so these investors might be tempted.
This only worked for __________ of the regions, as revealed in Table 4.
There was __________ participant without knowledge of the procedure.
4
SUBJECT AND VERB
Focus on . . . Subject-verb agreement

Collective nouns
Questions
This chapter explains the subject-verb agreement rule for sentences. It gives
situations in which it is difficult to recognize the subject in a sentence and then
moves on to problems relating to collective nouns. The chapter also explores how
the structure of questions is different from that of statements.
Background / 4.1 identifying the subject / 4.2 repeating the subject /

4.3 collective nouns / 4.4 questions and statements / 4.5 Exercises
can (4.4) it (4.2)
company (4.3) purpose (4.1)
group (4.3) role (4.1)
he (4.2) they (4.2)
how (4.4) what (4.4)
issues (4.1) would (4.4)
Subject and Verb 37
BACKGROUND: To ensure that the correct verb form is chosen for a

sentence, it is necessary to identify the subject.
The main purpose of the three models was to see how the population affected the
resources of the region.
Subject-verb agreement means that the main verb of the sentence matches the
subject, i.e., that both are singular or both plural. The subject comes before the
verb when making statements. In the example above, the subject is ‘The main
purpose (of the three models)’ and the verb is ‘was’. Both of these are singular, so
the sentence has subject-verb agreement.
REVEALED: 4.1 – How to identify the subject in a sentence

and consequently select the correct verb
form
Confusion occurs when there is extra information between the subject and the
verb. The example above is a good example of this, because ‘three models’ sits
between the subject and the verb and could be a source of confusion.
The main purpose of the three models were to see how the population affected the
resources of the region. ✘
The writer of the sentence above has been influenced by the plural noun phrase
‘three models’ and used a plural form of the verb (‘were’) to match it. But if it is
not the subject of the sentence, it should not affect the verb form. Here is another
example:
The role of consultants in this field have changed considerably. ✘
‘Consultants’ is not the subject of the sentence; the singular noun ‘role’ forms the
subject, so a singular verb is required.
The role of consultants in this field has changed considerably. ✔
Here is an example in which a singular noun (‘project manager’) has confused

things. The subject is in fact plural (‘key issues’) and therefore the verb should be
as well.
The key issues for the project manager is divided into four areas (see Table 11). ✘
The key issues for the project manager are divided into four areas (see Table 11). ✔
38 English Exposed
REVEALED: 4.2 – When the subject is mistakenly repeated

in a sentence
Sometimes a pronoun that repeats the subject is unnecessarily added. In all these
examples the subject has already been named and so does not require a second
reference to it.
Herbert Jones, one of Leung’s students, he stated that people’s perceptions were
heavily involved in this. ✘
Herbert Jones, one of Leung’s students, stated that people’s perceptions were
heavily involved in this. ✔
The study it aimed to fill in the gaps left by previous research on this topic. ✘
The study aimed to fill in the gaps left by previous research on this topic. ✔
. . . and the problems they were increased by the poor attitude of the workers. ✘
. . . and the problems were increased by the poor attitude of the workers. ✔
REVEALED: 4.3 – How to match the verb to a collective

noun
Using the correct verb form for collective nouns (e.g., company, family, firm,
group, public, school, society, team) is not always straightforward. Sometimes
these nouns appear to be correct with a singular verb and a plural verb.
The government has pledged to support these local schemes in the future.
The government have been struggling to come to an agreement on this matter.
Usually collective nouns take the singular form because they are considered a
unit—a single entity.
The committee is meeting this Friday to discuss the issue.
But if the members of the group are not acting together but rather as individuals,
a plural verb form can be used.
The committee have different opinions on this matter.
Note the contexts of the two sentences above. The first is referring to a meeting
that the committee as a group will attend; the second is referring to divided
opinions in the committee, and therefore the group has been viewed as compris-
ing different parts.
Subject and Verb 39
In these next examples, the singular verb form is preferred because the collective
nouns are clearly acting as one.
The company are moving its headquarters to Shanghai in November. ✘

The company is moving its headquarters to Shanghai in November. ✔
The first group have been given a marking scheme to evaluate. ✘

The first group has been given a marking scheme to evaluate. ✔
REVEALED: 4.4 – The difference between questions and

statements and the various forms that
questions can take
The subject normally comes before the verb, but in sentences that are questions
the verb is written before the subject.
Are the figures reliable?
If the question above is rewritten as a statement, the subject (‘the figures’) would
come before the verb (‘are’).
The figures are reliable.
Writers sometimes make statements when they actually want to ask questions.
They can adapt to the firm’s philosophy? ✘
This is not a question; it is a statement. To make it a question, the subject and verb
(in this case the modal verb ‘can’) have to change places.
Can they adapt to the firm’s philosophy? ✔
Equally, some statements are turned into questions by mistake.
We will now look at why is this the case. ✘
This is supposed to be a statement and therefore should be written as follows:
We will now look at why this is the case. ✔
(See also interrogative statements in 6.4.)

40 English Exposed
Questions contain auxiliary verbs (‘be’, ‘do’, ‘have’) and/or modal verbs (‘will’,
‘would’, ‘can’, ‘could’, etc.). Sometimes these verbs are missed out completely.
You change anything about the current system? ✘

Would you change anything about the current system? ✔
Interrogative words can also be used in questions. They are placed at the start of
the question:
how, what, where, why, when, which, who, whose
Who is the new CEO of the company?
Another mistake is to correctly place the interrogative word at the beginning of

the question but put the auxiliary verb or the modal after the subject or at the
end.
What managers can do to overcome this barrier? ✘

What can managers do to overcome this barrier? ✔
Who the new CEO of the company is? ✘

Who is the new CEO of the company? ✔
‘How’ questions tend to be mistakenly written without a modal or auxiliary.
How to change this with limited support? ✘
There are a number of solutions to this particular mistake.
How can this be changed with limited support? ✔

How can we change this with limited support? ✔
How do we change this with limited support? ✔

Interrogative words have very specific meanings and perform different roles in
questions. Two that require extra attention are ‘how’ and ‘what’.
how: in what way; by what means
what: to what extent; used to ask about the identity, nature, or value of something
Subject and Verb 41
What will this change the performance of the workers? ✘

How will this change the performance of the workers? ✔
How are the effects on the speaking abilities of the students? ✘

What are the effects on the speaking abilities of the students? ✔
4.5 Exercises
A. Identify the subject and then select the appropriate verb form.
The assistance provided to these people is/are important because it is the only
support available to them.
Networking in groups is/are more effective than walking around as an individual
is.
Educating these groups prevent/prevents them from getting involved in crime
and anti-social behaviour.
Workers who had enrolled in the scheme was/were more likely to have a positive
attitude towards their company.
Most of the students’ perceived speaking improvements is/are related to pres-
entation skills.
B. Add a question mark to the sentences you think are questions and a full
stop to those that are statements.
We will also ask whether they have noticed an improvement in the past six months
They can change this at any point during the process
The teacher must decide if this is acceptable behaviour
How can this system be changed to suit every department
How these reports are assessed is another talking point
What relationships can be formed when these two areas combine
5
VERBS AND TENSES
Focus on . . . The verb ‘to be’

Verbals (infinitive, –ing form, participles)
Tense
Voice (active and passive)
The chapter begins with an examination of the forms of the verb ‘to be’. Verbals
are introduced and categorized by their various forms and uses. The relationship
between participles and irregular verbs is then assessed. When to employ the dif-
ferent tenses precedes a discussion about the active and the passive voices.
Background / 5.1 to be / 5.2 being and been / 5.3 introduction to verbals /

5.4 infinitive ‘to’ / 5.5 when to use –ing / 5.6 past participle use /
5.7 tense selection / 5.8 passive vs. active voice / 5.9 Exercises
afford (5.4) discuss (5.3) underwent (5.6)
after (5.5) fail (5.4) watch (5.4)
allow (5.4) following (5.7) with (5.2)
as (5.2) in (5.5) withdrew (5.6)
been (5.2) instruct (5.4) worth considering (5.5)
began (5.6) plan (5.4) worth mentioning (5.5)
being (5.2) previous (5.7)
chose (5.6) recommend (5.3)
convince (5.4) shake (5.6)
despite (5.5) suggest (5.3)
Verbs and Tenses 43
BACKGROUND: The verb ‘to be’ is an irregular verb and unique in its
construction. It is so common in English that becoming familiar with its various
forms is vital.
to be 1. to exist or live 2. to take place; to occur

3. having a specified state or role
present participle: being past participle: been
Simple past Past perfect Past progressive

I was I had been I was being
it/she/he was it/she/he had been it/she/he was being
we/they were we/they had been we/they were being
Simple present Present perfect Present progressive

I am I have been I am being
it/she/he is it/she/he has been it/she/he is being
we/they are we/they have been we/they are being
Simple future Future perfect Future progressive

I will be I will have been I will be being
it/she/he will be it/she/he will have been it/she/he will be being
we/they will be we/they will have been we/they will be being
REVEALED: 5.1 – When ‘to be’ is included in error or mistak-

enly left out
The needless insertion of the simple present form (‘is’, ‘are’) is one of the most
common errors associated with the verb ‘to be’.
This is depends on a number of factors, and these have been categorized in

Figure 6. ✘
This depends on a number of factors, and these have been categorized in
Figure 6. ✔
These books are recorded all the incidents that took place in the first term. ✘
These books recorded all the incidents that took place in the first term. ✔
In the last example the progressive tense could have been used alongside ‘are’:
These books are recording all the incidents that take place in the first term.
44 English Exposed
The verb ‘to be’ is used alongside participles (see 5.3–5.6 and 8.3) and in passive
writing (see 5.8). Missing out the verb is a frequent error when forming the passive
voice. In these next examples the writer has overlooked it.
Over 5,000 participants involved in the survey. ✘

Over 5,000 participants were involved in the survey. ✔
The experiment carried out by researchers at the local college. ✘

The experiment was carried out by researchers at the local college. ✔
REVEALED: 5.2 – When to use ‘being’ and when to use

‘been’
The verb form ‘being’ is the present participle of the verb and is used for the
present progressive tense, which involves an ongoing action.
We will now look at how they are been affected. ✘

We will now look at how they are being affected. ✔
The form ‘been’ is the past participle and is always found after the verb ‘to have’.
I have been busy choosing a methodology for my research.
Often the two are confused.
These models have being used before in similar studies. ✘

These models have been used before in similar studies. ✔
The form to use after a preposition is ‘being’ (see 5.5). This is demonstrated in the
following example that contains the preposition ‘with’:
There may be some people who agree to be interviewed but are not happy with
been audio recorded. ✘
There may be some people who agree to be interviewed but are not happy with
being audio recorded. ✔
It is often difficult to know when to employ the various forms of the verb ‘to be’,
but the preposition rule is useful to know. Another situation that offers some
clarity is when writing about a particular point in time.
Verbs and Tenses 45
‘Has been’ is used to describe something that happened in the past, but the actual
time of the event is not important. It may be linked with something continuing
today. There is some overlap between ‘was’ and ‘has been’, but the error is made
when a particular point in time is used. A date in the past usually means that the
present perfect (‘has been’) cannot be applied.
In 2009 a new system has been created to make the task easier. ✘
In 2009 a new system was created to make the task easier. ✔
The exceptions to this are a particular date being used with ‘since’ to show that
the event is still continuing today and when the current year is stated.
The chief executive of the company (who since 2009 was Dr Leung) was also una-
vailable for comment. ✘
The chief executive of the company (who since 2009 has been Dr Leung) was also
unavailable for comment. ✔
Fortunately, 2016 has been different because of the introduction of more stringent
safety standards.
* * *
In the next examples, the writers have failed to construct the present perfect
correctly.
Many results have obtained for this particular subgroup. ✘

Many results have been obtained for this particular subgroup. ✔
Several systems have successfully used to extract the data. ✘

Several systems have been successfully used to extract the data. ✔

The simple present form ‘is’ tends to be confused with ‘as’. This mistake can occur
in phrases where things are being defined, described, or regarded, as these
examples demonstrate:
They define a pilot study is an initial test of the ideas and . . . ✘
They define a pilot study as an initial test of the ideas and . . . ✔
They view this is a setback in the relations between the two countries. ✘
They view this as a setback in the relations between the two countries. ✔
46 English Exposed
REVEALED: 5.3 – The function of verbals and verbs that

are followed by the -ing form
Verbals represent a challenging area for the writer of English in that, although
they are derived from verbs, they function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs in a
sentence.
Three types are recognized.
Gerunds are verb forms that end in –ing and act like nouns.
Comparing the three systems allowed us to select the best one for this region.
Infinitives are verb forms that are usually preceded by ‘to’ and that act like nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs.
Barnes (2001) collected them to investigate why this happens so frequently.
Participles are verb forms that usually end in –ing or –ed and that act like adjectives.
This is vital in a developing industry.

A completed study has yet to be achieved by this group.
These labels are useful to know, but at the practical level the dilemma a writer will
often face is whether to use the –ing form or ‘to + verb’. It is certainly a problem
when there is already a main verb in the sentence and the writer is trying to deter-
mine what verbal form should come after it.
I anticipate to find/I anticipate finding further errors in the data.
The answer is that some main verbs are followed by –ing and some are followed
by ‘to + verb’—and these just have to be learnt; for instance, ‘anticipate’ is always
followed by the –ing form.
I anticipate finding further errors in the data.
The –ing form is also used after ‘admit’. If another verb form follows the verb to
‘admit’, it must end in –ing.
They admit taking a risk with this proposal.

Verbs and Tenses 47
The following is a selection of examples where the wrong choice has been made;
these verbs all require the –ing form after them.
They also discussed to put the project back one month. ✘

They also discussed putting the project back one month. ✔
The paper recommended to invest in this market. ✘

The paper recommended investing in this market. ✔
My supervisor suggested to find a better logo. ✘

My supervisor suggested finding a better logo. ✔
These verbs are also always followed by the –ing form (e.g., They also advise
seeing a specialist):
advise deny miss resist

appreciate dislike postpone risk
avoid enjoy practice stop
consider finish recall tolerate
delay keep resent understand
! Verbs that relate to causation, i.e., someone or something causing

something else to happen, can be followed by the ‘to + verb’ form if an
object (noun or pronoun) is present. ‘Advise’ is one such verb. (See also
5.4.)
We advise moving this to section four. OR

We advise them to move this to section four.
48 English Exposed
REVEALED: 5.4 – The verbs that are followed by the infini-

tive (‘to + verb’) form and the verbs that
need an actor
As with the –ing form, there are some verbs that have to be followed by the infini-
tive ‘to + verb’ form.
The following is a selection of examples where the wrong choice has been made.
These sentences all require the infinitive form after the main verb.
They could not afford ignoring the advice. ✘

They could not afford to ignore the advice. ✔
It was surprising that they failed noticing what was happening around them ✘
It was surprising that they failed to notice what was happening around them. ✔
We plan working on this for the next few months. ✘

We plan to work on this for the next few months. ✔
Here are some more verbs that are followed by the ‘to + verb’ form (e.g., Twenty
employees agreed to participate in the research):
agree claim hope offer seem

appear decide intend prepare struggle
arrange demand learn pretend threaten
ask deserve manage promise wait
attempt expect mean propose want
care hesitate need refuse wish
! Some verbs can take either the infinitive or the –ing form with no real
change in meaning. These include:
begin, continue, forget, like, prefer, regret, remember, start, try
Fifty percent said they will continue to work hard.

Fifty percent said they will continue working hard.
The new officer must start to make decisions.

The new officer must start making decisions.
Verbs and Tenses 49
Some can take either but with a change in meaning.
One participant said that he always stopped to buy a coffee.

Many of the participants revealed that they had stopped buying coffee.
Another situation in which the infinitive form should be used is after participles
that are acting as adjectives.
They were relieved to see progress was finally being made.

It was interesting to hear their views on these treatments.
Notice how the verb cannot change when preceded by ‘to’; it must retain the
simple or dictionary form. These next examples show the writer being influenced
by tense.
The company tried to changed their logo last year to reflect their new image. ✘
The company tried to change their logo last year to reflect their new image. ✔
They were always looking for opportunities to speaking the language outside of
the classroom. ✘
They were always looking for opportunities to speak the language outside of the
classroom. ✔

Sometimes the infinitive form is used without the ‘to’.
We should see the resources improve in the next few years.
This is known as the base form or the bare infinitive. Besides being used for the
present tense and with modals (see Chapter 6), it is found after the object of
verbs that involve seeing or hearing (e.g., look, feel, hear, notice, watch, see, smell,
observe).
The pupils could watch their peers to compete and then learn from them. ✘
The pupils could watch their peers compete and then learn from them. ✔
It is also found after objects when the main verb is ‘have’, ‘make’, and ‘let’.
My tutor made me read through the chapter again.
* * *
50 English Exposed
The main verb in a sentence cannot always be directly followed by another verb
form. Some verbs require an actor (a pronoun or a noun) between them and the
verbal.
A verb that always causes problems is ‘to allow’.
This will allow to calculate the other values. ✘
Another word is needed in between (either a pronoun or a noun).
This will allow us/them/the engineer to calculate the other values. ✔
If pronouns have to be avoided, one option is to make the sentence passive.
This will allow the other values to be calculated.
The infinitive (‘to + verb’) can immediately follow ‘allow’ if the verb is in the past
participle form and alongside the verb ‘to be’. Compare the following:
In this first example an actor is required (in brackets).
We allowed (the patients in groups 1 and 2) to apply this liberally.
But in this next example ‘allowed’ can be followed by the infinitive.
Patients in groups 1 and 2 were allowed to apply this liberally.

Other verbs that usually require an actor in the active voice include:
advise, convince, enable, encourage, instruct, and permit
The researcher will then instruct to apply the cream. ✘

The researcher will then instruct the patient to apply the cream. ✔
We can then convince to adopt these measures. ✘

We can then convince the staff to adopt these measures. ✔
Verbs and Tenses 51
REVEALED: 5.5 – Other situations where the –ing form

should be used but is overlooked
One function of the –ing form is to create the progressive tense.
They are trying to complete the project before the new guidelines come into force.
As the present participle, it acts like an adjective in these two examples.
The second report is interesting because it details the reforms that have yet to
take place.
This is an interesting aspect of the discussion for a number of reasons.
As mentioned earlier, the –ing form must be used after a preposition.
There is little benefit in keep the original component. ✘

There is little benefit in keeping the original component. ✔
Despite the schools are rural, the facilities were better than expected. ✘
Despite the schools being rural, the facilities were better than expected. ✔
After review the current situation, three proposals will be drawn up. ✘
After reviewing the current situation, three proposals will be drawn up. ✔

The following error is commonly made:
It is worth to mention that only those participants that had experience in this
area were invited back for interview. ✘
It is worth mentioning that only those participants that had experience in this
area were invited back for interview. ✔
‘Worth’ is an adjective but it acts a bit like a preposition in this phrase (it has been
called a marginal preposition). It should therefore be followed by the –ing form
and not the infinitive.
Note also that ‘worth to consider’ should be written ‘worth considering’.
* * *
52 English Exposed
Mistakes are also made when a gerund phrase or present participle phrase begins
a sentence. These sentence starters require the first word to be in the –ing form.
Compare the two frameworks led to an insight into which factors should
remain. ✘
Comparing the two frameworks led to an insight into which factors should
remain. ✔
Refer primarily to the examination system, Morgan highlighted the strong organi-
zation of the schools in the country. ✘
Referring primarily to the examination system, Morgan highlighted the strong
organization of the schools in the country. ✔
Below is another example of the base form (or infinitive without the ‘to’) being
used instead of the –ing form. The writer in this example is suggesting some
actions that could be carried out. Although an infinitive (‘To clarify’ . . .) can also
start a sentence in this way, the gerund is the preferred option.
Clarify and verify existing discourse is also useful at this stage. ✘

Clarifying and verifying existing discourse is also useful at this stage. ✔
REVEALED: 5.6 – When the past participle should be

employed and errors to look out for
There are two errors of note when it comes to participles. The first relates to the
fact that the past participle form of irregular verbs can be different from the past
tense form.
irregular verb: to grow past tense: grew past participle: grown
When an auxiliary verb form such as ‘has/have’ or ‘was/were’ is used, then the past
participle must follow. (Also see the Appendix.)
It grew in the final quarter of 2005.

It has grown in the first quarter of the year.
This became a problem when the class size increased.

This has become an issue in the rural areas.
The form of the verb is different in the second examples with the auxiliary verb
(‘has’) present because ‘to become’ and ‘to grow’ are irregular verbs. Irregular
Verbs and Tenses 53
verbs just need to be learnt. A list can be found in the Appendix. The following
seem to cause particular problems though, and writers should certainly become
familiar with them:
to begin past tense: began past participle: begun
The move towards this new technology has now began. ✘

The move towards this new technology has now begun. ✔
to choose past tense: chose past participle: chosen
These specific cells were chose from the original 200 samples. ✘
These specific cells were chosen from the original 200 samples. ✔
to shake past tense: shook past participle: shaken
The two bottles were then shaked for five minutes to allow the particles to mix. ✘
The two bottles were then shaken for five minutes to allow the particles to mix. ✔
to undergo past tense: underwent past participle: undergone
According to the criteria, the participants had underwent some kind of surgery in
the past year. ✘
According to the criteria, the participants had undergone some kind of surgery in
the past year. ✔
to withdraw past tense: withdrew past participle: withdrawn
These participants had withdrew so their details were deleted from the records. ✘
These participants had withdrawn so their details were deleted from the
records. ✔
The second notable error relating to participles is forgetting to add ‘d’ when the
past participles of regular verbs are being used like adjectives and are modifying
a noun.
The balance diets were associated with the best overall scores. ✘
The balanced diets were associated with the best overall scores. ✔
There were a number of issues with the estimate recovery times ✘

There were a number of issues with the estimated recovery times. ✔
54 English Exposed

Similarly, when the past participle is employed after a linking verb such as ‘to be’,
writers need to ensure the correct form is used.
In this situation, the cash flow is reduces to an appropriate rate. ✘

In this situation, the cash flow is reduced to an appropriate rate. ✔
* * *
Another source of confusion is auxiliary verbs (‘to be’ and ‘to have’) in the perfect
and progressive tenses and which participle form to choose. (See also 8.3 for
when to select a present and a past participle.)
This is changed the way we think about energy usage in the home. ✘
Two options are:
This is changing the way we think about energy usage in the home. ✔
This has changed the way we think about energy usage in the home. ✔
They are looking at the way this is implementing. ✘

Two options are:
They are looking at the way this is being implemented. ✔
They are looking at the way this has been implemented. ✔
REVEALED: 5.7 – Which tense to employ at different stages

of a paper
Often writers are instructed to create their literature review in a certain tense. If
the instruction is to write in the past tense, this does not mean that every verb
should be written in the past tense; some writers think it does.
In general terms, a mixed diet incorporating many different kinds of vegetable was
essential to human health. Morgan analysed three types of . . . ✘
Using the past tense for the literature review means that reporting verbs (e.g.,
‘analysed’ above) and any particular experiments or research are written and
explained in the past tense. In the example above, a well-known fact is stated
(that a mixed diet is essential), so the verb should be in the present tense (‘is’
essential to human health). If something is still true today or is a current event,
then the past tense is inappropriate. Even if a particular tense is to be favoured,
Verbs and Tenses 55
each verb should be assessed for appropriate usage. So past tense does not mean
past tense for everything. (See also 15.3 for advice on which tense to use with
dates.)
Here is another example to further illustrate the point. The reporting verb (‘ques-
tioned’) can be used in the past tense, but the other verbs in this tense imply that
the information may not still be true today.
Morgan (2011) questioned this because the United Nations’ offices were situated
in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi . . . the UN was an international organization
founded in 1945. ✘
So, the present tense should be used.
Morgan (2011) questioned this because the United Nations’ offices are situated in
Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi . . . the UN is an international organization founded
in 1945. ✔
Despite their evident meaning, tense is often misused when writers use ‘previous’,
‘following’, and ‘next’ when referring to chapters and sections.
The previous chapter looks at the problems in rural areas and then assesses . . . ✘
The previous chapter looked at the problems in rural areas and then assessed
. . . ✔
In the following section we demonstrated how this could be achieved. ✘

In the following section we demonstrate/will demonstrate how this could be
achieved. ✔
(See also 17.1.)
The example above reveals that reporting verbs can be in the present form or the
future when referring to the content of an upcoming section.
In this chapter, I demonstrate how the research fills the gap in the literature and
how the nature of the topic affects the research process. I also clarify the chal-
lenges and ethical issues.
In this chapter, I will demonstrate how the research fills the gap in the literature
and how the nature of the topic affects the research process. I will also clarify the
challenges and ethical issues.
* * *
56 English Exposed
When summarizing or concluding, the past tense is the natural choice.
This study employed a mixed methods design to ensure that . . .
The present perfect is also a suitable tense for this task.
This paper has argued that product placement is less effective in the markets
under study.
REVEALED: 5.8 – The differences between the active and

the passive voice
There are two types of voice that writers can use in English, the active and the
passive. The subject performs the action in a sentence with an active voice.
We analysed the data to confirm this relationship.
The word order is altered to make the sentence passive.
The subject then goes from performing the action to being acted upon by the
verb. Note how the original subject (we) no longer features in the passive voice
sentence.
The data were analysed to confirm this relationship.
In the passive voice, a form of ‘to be’ (in this case ‘were’) is used and comes before
the past participle (‘analysed’).
The passive voice is used when the writer wishes to remain neutral or does not
want to explicitly reveal the person carrying out the action (even though it may
be obvious).
The researcher interpreted the results incorrectly for the first stage. (active)
The results were interpreted incorrectly for the first stage. (passive, and no direct
mention of the researcher)
A common error occurs when the writer tries to use both the active and the
passive voice in a sentence with consecutive and linked actions.
The scale was picked and then analysed the differences. ✘

The scale was picked and then the differences were analysed. ✔
Verbs and Tenses 57
The issue is clarified and then discussed the effects on speaking ability. ✘
The issue is clarified and then the effects on speaking ability are discussed. ✔
! The passive voice is therefore used when the writer wishes to avoid
the personal pronouns ‘we’ and ‘I’. (See 3B.)
We changed this material to a breathable one. (active with personal

pronoun)
The material was changed to a breathable one. (passive without
personal pronoun)
We will analyse this further in the next chapter. (active with personal
pronoun)
This will be analysed further in the next chapter. (passive without
personal pronoun)
5.9 Exercises
A. Select the appropriate option for each of these sentences. Underneath each
sentence explain why it is the correct choice.
There seems to be an issue with to extract / extract / extracting all the data from
this program.
They should let the students to think / think / thinking for themselves some of
the time.
They were allowed to change / change / changing their minds and select a dif-
ferent object if they were not happy.
Despite this to increase / increase / increasing the budget, the project was too
expensive to carry out.
58 English Exposed
B. How many verb or verbal errors can you find in this passage?
Although three participants withdraw from the research, we had enough to

beginning the experiment. Group A were all meant to underwent the full experi-
ment, but time constraints meant that they had to chose between the partial
and the full experiment. Whenever the liquid become too cloudy, the researcher
asked an assistant to shaken the bottle, and when this happened the clock was
stopped. __________
C. Rewrite the following sentences by either correcting the grammar or sim-

plifying them.
The following diagram demonstrated these connections and labelled the stages.
We designed the logo and then a presentation of the final product was given.
This allowed to change the final design and submit their work on time.
D. Change these active sentences into the passive voice and therefore omit
the subject at the beginning of each sentence (i.e., we, the teacher . . . )
We tested the product the following week.
The teacher asked the class to quieten down on a number of occasions.
The researcher reduced the number of participants for the next stage.
6
MODALS
Focus on . . . Modal verbs

The verb ‘to do’
This chapter introduces modal verbs, reveals the specific rules to follow and dem-
onstrates how modals influence other verb forms. The chapter also addresses the
problems encountered when using the verb ‘to do’ and this verb’s relationship
with questions.
Background / 6.1 modal rules / 6.2 ‘would’ or ‘will’? / 6.3 using ‘could’ /

6.4 the verb ‘to do’ and questions and negatives / 6.5 Exercises
could (6.3) should (6.4)
do (6.4) would (6.2)
do not (6.4)
60 English Exposed
BACKGROUND: Modals are supporting verbs that show the likeli-

hood or ability of something. They are followed by a main verb and give extra
information relating to ability, possibility, necessity, or willingness.
will would can could may might must should shall
Will: This modal verb is used for a certain future prediction. By using ‘will’, the
writer needs to be fairly certain it will happen! (See 6.2.)
Funding will continue to decline in this sector because the government is now pri-
oritizing soft skills.
Would: This modal is usually used with ‘if’ to state that something will happen on
the condition that something else does. (See 6.2.)
This system would work if there was a dedicated support team.
It can be used to express hope or justification.
This activity would be able to teach the employees conflict resolution.
‘Would’ is also the past tense of ‘will’.
The claim was that red would be a better colour for the logo than blue.
Can: This modal is used for occasions when something is possible but may not
happen.
Devices can improve their performance over time.
It is also used to show ability.
The designers can change the material of the outer layer as well.
Could, might: These modals also show possibility, but there is more doubt
involved. (See 6.3.)
It is unclear whether they could include developing countries in the index.

This might indicate a weakness in the original framework.
‘Could’ is also the past tense of ‘can’.
We allowed two weeks so the participants could provide as much information as

possible.
Modals 61
Should: This modal is used for a good expectation that something will happen.
This should alter the way in which product designers work in the industry.
It is also used to note the limitations of a study and to make recommendations to

others.
Future interventions should take place at a neutral venue but with familiar staff
present.
May: One of the best ways to express degrees of certainty or to ‘hedge’ is to use a
modal before the main verb. ‘May’ is often employed to add caution to a claim. It
is possible, but there is some doubt.
Adopting our proposed syllabus may give learning support tutors a more
proactive role.
‘Shall’ is a more formal version of ‘will’ and can mean ‘do you want me to?’
‘Must’ is used for something that is necessary or essential.
REVEALED: 6.1 – The main rules to follow for modal verbs

Usually a verb is affected by tense and plurality.
They have remained in the system despite leaving last year.

It remains in the system until the systems engineer removes the data.
A useful rule to learn is that the verb that follows the modal will stay in its normal
or base form regardless of the nature of the sentence.
They will remain here until the teacher returns.

It should remain in the beaker only for a short period.
! If the modal is followed by ‘be’, then the verb that follows can be in a
different form.
They could be spending more money than they are earning.

62 English Exposed
In this next example, even though the pronoun is singular (‘she’), the verb is unaf-
fected because of the modal (the main verb does not take an ‘s’ as it normally
would in the present tense: ‘she moves’).
She should moves around the class to ensure that every pupil is engaged in the
task. ✘
She should move around the class to ensure that every pupil is engaged in the
task. ✔
Normally the verb would be able to change for the pronoun ‘she’/’he’.
She moves . . . She moved . . . She is moving . . .
Some more example errors will help to illustrate the point.
A public accountant must uses ethical principles that serve as a guide in making
decisions. ✘
A public accountant must use ethical principles that serve as a guide in making
decisions. ✔
A loss of resources could translates into greater work engagement. ✘

A loss of resources could translate into greater work engagement. ✔
! The modal does not have to come directly before the verb to influ-
ence it.
Will this shapes the future policies of the government? ✘

Will this shape the future policies of the government? ✔
A common error is putting the verb in the past tense when it follows a modal. It is
important to remember that the verb does not change its ending when alongside
a modal.
This will facilitated the drug development process. ✘

This will facilitate the drug development process. ✔
Naturally, the –ing form cannot be used either.

Modals 63
Then they could facilitating the lessons from a different location. ✘

Then they could facilitate the lessons from a different location. ✔
REVEALED: 6.2 – When to use ‘would’ and when to use

‘will’
Writers tend to use ‘would’ to inform the reader about what follows in their work
or what they plan to discuss next. Because of its role in conditional sentences, it
sounds to the reader as though this was not actually possible.
We would choose this method for our study. ✘
The reader is waiting for the second part of the sentence.
We would choose this method for our study, but our dataset is probably too
small.
Instead, ‘will’ should inform the reader about what follows because it is a future
event and ‘will’ represents future time.
We will choose this material for reconstruction.

This will be covered in a later chapter.
The only time that ‘would’ can be used in this context is for expressing hope or
justification.
The issue has been present in research up to now, but this study would be able to
solve the problem.
This would be useful to teachers who struggle to prepare lessons in time.
These examples further illustrate the error:
This would be carried out in chapter three where the methodology is also
discussed. ✘
This will be carried out in chapter three where the methodology is also discussed. ✔
We would address these issues when we evaluate the scheme. ✘

We will address these issues when we evaluate the scheme. ✔
64 English Exposed
REVEALED: 6.3 – When to use ‘could’ in a sentence

‘Could’ is used to describe something that is possible in the present or the future
but that may not happen for various reasons.
We could interview these participants as well, but time constraints may prevent
this from happening.
‘Could’ is also used to express alternatives or possible reasons for something.
They could also look at cases where the problems were on a local scale.
It could be that there was no power left in the device.
One area of difficulty is recognizing when the simple present is sufficient, without
the need for modals or other tenses. Writers insert ‘could’ before the verb or ‘could
be’ when there is actually no doubt involved in the sentence.
We could realize that this is incomplete and therefore will add another layer to
our design. ✘
We realize that this is incomplete and therefore will add another layer to our
design. ✔
It could be normal to feel anxious in these situations, and many patients express
this emotion on the initial visit. ✘
It is normal to feel anxious in these situations, and many patients express this
emotion on the initial visit. ✔
! ‘Would be’ is also possible here.
It would be normal to feel anxious in these situations . . .
REVEALED: 6.4 – The role that the verb ‘to do’ plays in
negative sentences and questions
The verb ‘to do’ is an irregular verb and an auxiliary verb, which means it can act
like a modal by modifying the main verb in the sentence. It has different forms for
its simple past tense and past participle.
Modals 65
Simple present: I/we/they do he/she/it does
Simple past: I/we/they did he/she/it did
Present perfect: I/we/they have done he/she/it has done
The simple present forms need to be studied to avoid careless mistakes.
It is a simple strategy and do not solve the issue of poor attendance. ✘

It is a simple strategy and does not solve the issue of poor attendance. ✔
The verb is used to form ‘yes/no’ questions.
Do they have access to this information?
But when forming questions, writers tend to mistakenly favour ‘is’ or ‘are’ and
ignore the verb ‘to do’.
Are female learners believe this as well? ✘

Do female learners believe this as well? ✔
Is the contribution of other countries change during these periods? ✘

Does the contribution of other countries change during these periods? ✔
! Note how the main verb does not change from its normal or base
form when the verb ‘to do’ is used, much like a modal.
The level increases after a few successful runs.

Does the level increase after a few successful runs?
* * *
Another issue relates to statements that contain interrogative terms. (See also
4.4.)
Question: How do they deal with this issue?
Statement with an interrogative term: We will look at how they deal with this
issue.
This type of phrase is not a question and does not require the verb ‘to do’.
66 English Exposed
We will look at how do they try to change this issue. ✘

We will look at how they try to change this issue. ✔
All the respondents appear to have similar answers for how often do they like to
participate. ✘
All the respondents appear to have similar answers for how often they like to
participate. ✔
! ‘Do’ can also be used alongside modals. This next example does
require ‘do’, but the modal ‘should’ is creating the error and has to
change places with the subject.
It is also important to understand what should teachers do in this

situation. ✘
It is also important to understand what teachers should do in this
situation. ✔
Negative statements attract errors. When the negative form is required, writers
tend to forget to include the verb (in this case ‘do’ not).
However, studies about the oral gains in the SA environment not always receive
positive results. ✘
However, studies about the oral gains in the SA environment do not always receive
positive results. ✔
These resources not seem to be extensive enough for the number of students at the
college. ✘
These resources do not seem to be extensive enough for the number of students at
the college. ✔
Modals 67
6.5 Exercises
A. Three sentences are correct and three incorrect. Can you identify them? Put
an ‘x’ next to the ones that are wrong.
The next section would provide an evaluation of the three strategies. ____
We will also look at how they can improve their image? ____
Different teachers should sets different projects to ensure there is variety. ____
How does this affect their relationship with the staff? ____
It could be essential for all students to register their interest beforehand. ____
The reports does not include South America or Africa. ____
B. Select a suitable modal verb for each of these sentences (there is more than
one possibility for some sentences).
can could will would should
The results __________ be available the following day if everything goes to plan.
__________ they reduce their spending while retaining the quality of their
product?
Tan (2003) rejected the claim that they __________ enter both markets
successfully.
This __________ be discussed in the following chapter.
I __________ have selected managers but decided that the opinions of ordinary
workers __________ be more useful.
7
PREPOSITIONS AND PARTICLES
Focus on . . . Phrases containing prepositions

Phrasal verbs
This chapter provides lists of the most commonly confused phrases containing
prepositions, with the main issue being wrong choice of preposition/particle.
These mistakes can only be eliminated through exposure. The chapter also
explores how phrasal verbs are formed and why they should be replaced with
single verbs where possible.
Background / 7.1 choosing between ‘on’ and ‘in’ / 7.2 phrases that take ‘to’ /

7.3 other prepositional terms / 7.4 understanding phrasals / 7.5 Exercises
See lists (7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7,4) find out (7.4) left out (7.4)
plus . . . focus (7.1) point (7.2)
access (7.2) held up (7.4) prior (7.2)
effect (7.1) impact (7.1) reach (7.2)
filled (7.4) leading (7.2) tried out (7.4)
Prepositions and Particles 69
BACKGROUND: Prepositions help to show the relationship between

words in a sentence. Some have an obvious meaning when relating to the
position of physical objects (under, above, on, in), but others like ‘for’ and ‘of’ are
more difficult to define—they only really have meaning when they are used with
other words.
Prepositions modify nouns and phrases and can explain how something
happened, where something is, and what something is for.
The device was put back in its sleeve and placed on the table for the next group.
They are also used as time references.
Employees were told that from the following week they would no longer be able to
arrive after 9 a.m.
Prepositions are followed by an object (a noun or pronoun) to form a preposi-

tional phrase. These phrases can be short (after 9 a.m.) or quite long (with a differ-
ent outcome every time).
See 15.2 for advice on which prepositions to use with dates, 15.4 for which
prepositions to use for time periods, and 16.6 for which prepositions to use with
numbers and amounts.
REVEALED: 7.1 – Terms that create uncertainty over the use

of ‘on’ and ‘in’
on average
Participants buy these brands three times a year in average. ✘

Participants buy these brands three times a year on average. ✔
based on
This was based in his previous research about the industry. ✘

This was based on his previous research about the industry. ✔
70 English Exposed
! ‘Based in’ can be used for location:

The company is based in Beijing.
on the basis (of)
This was made in the basis of a stronger written constitution. ✘

This was made on the basis of a stronger written constitution. ✔
concentrate on
I will look to concentrate in the social issues of this trend. ✘

I will look to concentrate on the social issues of this trend. ✔
in contrast
On contrast, the south is much poorer and lacking these resources. ✘

In contrast, the south is much poorer and lacking these resources. ✔
dependent on/upon
The prices have important implications for developing countries that are
dependent in exports. ✘
The prices have important implications for developing countries that are
dependent on exports. ✔
invest in
Investing on internal R&D is a recent trend in the industry. ✘

Investing in internal R&D is a recent trend in the industry. ✔
involved in
The organization provides training opportunities for other stakeholders involved

on running the business. ✘
The organization provides training opportunities for other stakeholders involved
in running the business. ✔
on . . . occasion
In a few occasions, the participants declined to answer. ✘

On a few occasions, the participants declined to answer. ✔
participate in
Twenty-four workers agreed to participate on the study. ✘

Twenty-four workers agreed to participate in the study. ✔
on purpose
It appears that the children are doing this in purpose. ✘

It appears that the children are doing this on purpose. ✔
on the Internet/website
This information has been made available in the Internet/website. ✘

This information has been made available on the Internet/website. ✔
rely on
The scheme does not simply rely in the countries having lower labour standards. ✘
The scheme does not simply rely on the countries having lower labour
standards. ✔
in this situation
On this situation, the introduction can create a more welcoming environment. ✘

In this situation, the introduction can create a more welcoming environment. ✔
in the long/short term
On the long term, these provisions should take effect. ✘

In the long term, these provisions should take effect. ✔

Using ‘in’ by mistake also occurs in the following phrases that all require ‘on’:
This will have a considerable effect in society. ✘

This will have a considerable effect on society. ✔
It is important to focus in these failures. ✘

It is important to focus on these failures. ✔
72 English Exposed
They have a limited impact in intergovernmental relations in member states. ✘

They have a limited impact on intergovernmental relations in member states. ✔
! This wrong selection of ‘on’ and ‘in’ is also apparent when choosing
which of these prepositions to use for pages, sections, chapters, and
tables. (See also 17.1.)
This can be located in page 37. ✘

This can be located on page 37. ✔
On chapter four, the weaknesses of both schemes are assessed. ✘

In chapter four, the weaknesses of both schemes are assessed. ✔
These will be discussed on section three. ✘

These will be discussed in section three. ✔
Some of these statistics are presented on the table below. ✘

Some of these statistics are presented in the table below. ✔
Reports, studies, and papers all require ‘in’.
Their roles are clarified on this new report. ✘

Their roles are clarified in this new report. ✔
REVEALED: 7.2 – Terms that are followed by ‘to’

alternative to
A possible alternative with relocating is to expand the site. ✘

A possible alternative to relocating is to expand the site. ✔
applied to (to be suitable for)
Also, they outline how the models can be applied with Japanese firms. ✘
Also, they outline how the models can be applied to Japanese firms. ✔
assigned to
These participants will then be assigned with one of two groups. ✘

These participants will then be assigned to one of two groups. ✔
pay attention to
US companies pay more attention on long-term growth. ✘

US companies pay more attention to long-term growth. ✔
similar to
Their findings were similar with those obtained by Zavgren (1985). ✘

Their findings were similar to those obtained by Zavgren (1985). ✔
vulnerable to
It explains why these individuals might be vulnerable from changes in the

environment. ✘
It explains why these individuals might be vulnerable to changes in the
environment. ✔

Unsurprisingly given its size, ‘to’ can sometimes be overlooked. It needs to be
included in the following terms:
. . . and hopefully leading relevant and effective outcomes. ✘

. . . and hopefully leading to relevant and effective outcomes. ✔
Prior this there had been little support available. ✘

Prior to this there had been little support available. ✔
This points a change in government policy on the issue. ✘

This points to a change in government policy on the issue. ✔
In these cases ‘to’ is not required.
They should be able to access to the database from any device. ✘

They should be able to access the database from any device. ✔
74 English Exposed
! The noun does take ‘to’.

There was no access to the system.
The adult can reach to 15 cm when fully grown. ✘

The adult can reach 15 cm when fully grown. ✔
REVEALED: 7.3 – Other terms that attract the wrong

prepositions
accompanied by
This is usually accompanied with a reduction in exports. ✘

This is usually accompanied by a reduction in exports. ✔
associated with
It is associated to a lack of support and encouragement. ✘

It is associated with a lack of support and encouragement. ✔
benefit from
They might also benefit with the greater investment in training. ✘

They might also benefit from the greater investment in training. ✔
caused by
This was likely to have been caused with a weak connection. ✘

This was likely to have been caused by a weak connection. ✔
combine with
It is possible to combine this to counselling sessions. ✘

It is possible to combine this with counselling sessions. ✔
composed of
The index is primarily composed by the prices of traditional exports. ✘

The index is primarily composed of the prices of traditional exports. ✔
! ‘Composed by’ can be used for referring to someone who created

something.
The soundtrack was composed by Chen Yi.
in conjunction with
The angle in conjunction to these joint parameters affects the dynamics during
the task. ✘
The angle in conjunction with these joint parameters affects the dynamics during
the task. ✔
consist of
The system consists with three parts, which will be discussed in turn. ✘
The system consists of three parts, which will be discussed in turn. ✔
! But when writing ‘consistent’ use ‘with’.
This is consistent to previous research.

This is consistent with previous research.
except for
All social enterprises in the sample, except of E5, have relied on grants to start their
activities. ✘
All social enterprises in the sample, except for E5, have relied on grants to start
their activities. ✔ (See also 12.1.)
likelihood of
It shows the likelihood for an event taking place in the next few months. ✘
It shows the likelihood of an event taking place in the next few months. ✔
need for
These results highlight the need of studies on this issue. ✘

These results highlight the need for studies on this issue. ✔
76 English Exposed
! But ‘need of’ can be used with ‘in’ and as a plural.
be in need of—to need attention, help, money, etc.
The company is in need of a modern IT system.
needs (n)—what someone requires in order to live a normal healthy

life
They must address the needs of these marginal groups.
reason for
One reason of this is the difficulty in training all the staff. ✘

One reason for this is the difficulty in training all the staff. ✔
responsible for
This crisis is responsible in the poor results in these quarters. ✘

This crisis is responsible for the poor results in these quarters. ✔
! Also, you can be ‘responsible to’ a person or group of people.
These employees are responsible to their respective line managers.
result in
The component method will result to a more accurate forecast. ✘

The component method will result in a more accurate forecast. ✔
! ‘Result from’ means to be caused by.
The bad grade resulted from a lack of critical analysis.
verified by
This will be developed and verified with the research team and relevant experts. ✘
This will be developed and verified by the research team and relevant experts. ✔
REVEALED: 7.4 – What phrasal verbs are and which parti-

cles to select
Phrasal verbs are multipart verbs that comprise a verb and a preposition or an
adverb (called a particle in a phrasal verb). They are different from other phrases
that contain prepositions in that the meaning of the whole is not obvious if the
parts of the phrasal verb are considered separately.
They must look after this equipment for several weeks.
(The individual meanings of the terms ‘look’ and ‘after’ do not help to explain the
phrase.)
These verbs tend to end in directional words such as ‘on’, ‘down’, ‘out’, and ‘back’,
but they are being used in an abstract way and judging them can be difficult.
Many phrasal verbs are considered colloquial or examples of informal language,
so single-word verbs are preferable (e.g., ‘begin’ is preferred to ‘start off’); but some
have an important part to play in academic descriptive writing and can certainly
be useful once their meaning has been grasped and their use understood. A few
phrasal verbs appeared earlier in the chapter, and some others are listed here:
act on/upon add on back down break away

break up bring about cover up cut out
depend on help out look into look after
phase out rule out scale down set up
shut down team up tell apart type in
As mentioned, the single-word verb is normally a better option than a phrasal if

available.
Unfortunately, this further held up the procedure. ✘

Unfortunately, this further delayed the procedure. ✔
Most of these responses were left out of the analysis. ✘

Most of these responses were omitted from the analysis. ✔
They tried out the software beforehand to ensure it ran smoothly. ✘

They tested the software beforehand to ensure it ran smoothly. ✔
78 English Exposed

Questionnaires and forms can be ‘filled out’ or ‘filled in’ but not just ‘filled’. The
example below needs to be rewritten to include one of the prepositions.
These questionnaires were filled by the parents or guardian. ✘
* * *
There is a subtle difference between ‘to find’ and ‘to find out’. When reporting on
the experience of a researcher and what the experience revealed, use ‘find’ instead
of the phrasal verb.
Leung (2009) finds out that children will respond well to this type of support. ✘
Leung (2009) finds that children will respond well to this type of support. ✔
7.5 Exercises
A. Fill in the gaps with the correct particle/preposition.
A discussion of these theories will take place __________ chapter seven.

Prior __________ becoming CEO, she worked in the public sector.
Only pupils that had a good disciplinary record could participate __________ the
scheme.
Each participant was then assigned __________ one of five groups.
This could result __________ confusion, as the two departments would be dealing
with the same cases.
Hopefully, this will address the needs __________ the marginalized groups.
In most cases this leads __________ prosecution, so it is more than worthwhile.
B. Match the particle to the root word. One has already been done.
result by
caused from
rely on
likelihood in
benefit with
combine of
8
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
Focus on . . . Adjectives

Adverbs and conjunctive adverbs
Other sentence starters
This chapter covers adjectives and adverbs and explores how both are used in
English. It addresses adjectives that compare things and how some terms must
employ different means to form a comparison. Conjunctive adverbs are intro-
duced and assessed along with some commonly misused sentence starters and
phrases.
Background / 8.1 adjective and adverb –ly / 8.2 adverb position /

8.3 difference between the participles / 8.4 comparative adjectives /
8.5 ‘in’ +adjective or adverb / 8.6 conjunctive adverbs /
8.7 other sentence starters / 8.8 Exercises
additional (8.6) less (8.2) positive (8.1)
as (8.7) lowest (8.4) predominantly (8.2)
compared with (8.4) meanwhile (8.7) previous (8.6)
economically (8.5) more (8.2) realistic (8.6)
high / highly (8.1) most (8.4) recently (8.5)
however (8.6) negative (8.1) regarding (8.7)
in other words (8.7) on the other hand (8.7) specific (8.5)
in particular (8.5) overall (8.5) than (8.4)
in the meantime (8.7) particularly (8.5) tiring (8.3)
least (8.4) politically (8.5) with (8.7)
Adjectives and Adverbs 81
BACKGROUND: Adjectives are versatile in that they can describe,

identify, and quantify. They are used to modify nouns and pronouns.
The noun ‘country’ can be modified by an adjective in the following ways:
Describe: An underdeveloped country Identify: The next country
Quantify: Three countries
As seen above, the adjective usually goes before the noun. But when adjectives
are describing size or shape they can appear after the noun.
The poster was ten metres long and six metres wide.
(See 14.3 and 16.2 for advice on the order of adjectives in a sentence.)
Adverbs are similar to adjectives, but they modify verbs instead of nouns. Many,
but not all, adverbs end in –ly.
The industry has changed rapidly in the past few years.
Adverbs can be split into categories based on how they modify.
Manner: recently, quickly, loudly
They attended a conference recently.
Place: nearby, outside, everywhere
There is another research centre nearby.
Time: after, before, soon
A focus group will also meet soon.
Adverbs also modify adjectives and other adverbs.
Frequency: never, often, always
It is often difficult to extract information using this method.
Degree: quite, extremely, very
The patients revealed that they found this process quite stressful.
82 English Exposed
REVEALED: 8.1 – The mistakes that are made when

choosing between an adjective and its
adverb form (–ly)
Not all adverbs end in –ly but a common error that writers make is using the
adjective form instead of the –ly adverb when a verb or another adjective is being
modified.
Understandably, job engagement is positive related to job satisfaction. ✘

Understandably, job engagement is positively related to job satisfaction. ✔
As a result, it is usually perceived negative and not favoured by senior

management. ✘
As a result, it is usually perceived negatively and not favoured by senior
management. ✔
Here are further examples. First, an adjective (high) is used with another adjec-
tive when it should be an adverb (highly) doing the modifying. Second, an adverb
(highly) is modifying a noun (turnout) when it should be an adjective (high).
In the next section we will be focusing on high skilled employees. ✘

In the next section we will be focusing on highly skilled employees. ✔
In the 2000 election there was a highly turnout. ✘

In the 2000 election there was a high turnout. ✔
! Compounds that contain an adverb ending in –ly should not have a

hyphen. The following mistake is a common one made by writers:
The exhibits included a richly-decorated vase. ✘

The exhibits included a richly decorated vase. ✔
REVEALED: 8.2 – Where to place an adverb in a sentence

Adverbs are most effective when appearing before the word that they are modify-
ing. And when the word being modified is an adjective, the adverb must come
before it.
This was significantly changed when the new government took over.
But adverbs that describe how something is done, adverbs of time, and adverbial
phrases can be found after the modified word and at the end of a sentence.
This output decreases slowly until the final quarter.

The drone was then able to fly over the campus.
The adverb comes after forms of the verb ‘to be’.
The system frequently is checked for errors. ✘

The system is frequently checked for errors. ✔
* * *
A subtle mistake, but one that will be noticed by readers whose first language
is English, is placing the adverb before the verb instead of next to the adverbial
phrase it should be modifying. The following example demonstrates this:
The issue predominantly occurs in the poorer regions of the country. ✘

The issue occurs predominantly in the poorer regions of the country. ✔
The adverb ‘predominantly’ should be modifying the phrase ‘in the poorer regions
. . .’ and not the verb ‘occurs’.

‘More’ and ‘less’ can be used as adjectives (first example) and adverbs (second and
third examples below). Note the correct position in these sets of sentences.
There should be focus more on supporting these minorities. ✘

There should be more focus on supporting these minorities. ✔
They should more focus on supporting these minorities. ✘

They should focus more on supporting these minorities. ✔
They less agreed about whether the system should be available to non-
members. ✘
They agreed less about whether the system should be available to non-
members. ✔
84 English Exposed
REVEALED: 8.3 – How to differentiate between a present

participle and a past participle
The present and past participles can be used like adjectives, as seen in 5.3–5.6.
There is an important rule to help recognize when a present participle or a past
participle should be used. If the person or thing is the cause of the effect, then the
present participle (–ing) is needed.
The presentation was embarrassing, as the students had not prepared properly
and had little to say.
If the person or thing is experiencing the effect, then the past participle (usually
‘–ed’) is used.
The student felt embarrassed by the grade and sought advice from the tutor.
By using the information above, this common error below can be understood and
corrected.
Some of the participants might feel tiring after four consecutive tasks. ✘
Some of the participants might feel tired after four consecutive tasks. ✔
Note below how an outcome is being described in the first example, and a
person’s feelings about the outcome are being reported in the second.
This is disappointing given the resources that were available.

They were disappointed with the outcome of the study.
REVEALED: 8.4 – How to use comparative adjectives

Adjectives can be used to compare things with three degrees of comparison
possible (e.g., high, higher, highest). ‘Than’ is used to complete the comparative
(middle) form as seen below.
Poverty levels of the minority group living in urban China were also higher than
that of the majority group.
Adjectives in the first degree (e.g., high) do not technically compare so cannot be
used with ‘than’. In other words, if there is not a comparing word in the sentence,
‘than’ should not be used. ‘Compared with’ can be used to form a comparison
instead.
This rate is low than the results from the second sample. ✘
This rate is low compared with the results from the second sample. ✔
When there is an apparent choice between the two terms, opt for ‘than’ if the
adjective is in the comparative degree and the two things are being evaluated
directly.
The levels were also much greater compared with the companies in group two. ✘
The levels were also much greater than those of the companies in group two. ✔
! Sometimes ‘than’ is omitted by mistake.
The exports were higher the imports during this period. ✘

The exports were higher than the imports during this period. ✔
(See also 12.1.)
Two superlatives known to be a source of confusion are ‘least’ and ‘lowest’. ‘Lowest’
is the superlative form of low (low, lower, lowest). ‘Least’ is technically the superla-
tive form of ‘little’ but is mainly used for modifying other adjectives and adverbs to
mean the smallest extent or less than anything else.
This is the lowest abundant species in the region. ✘

This is the least abundant species in the region. ✔
‘Least’ is used with uncountable nouns and describes amount.
The country also has the least number of female engineers. ✘

The country also has the lowest number of female engineers. ✔
* * *
Some adjectives cannot form these different degrees of comparison by changing
their endings like ‘low’ can, so they use ‘more’/’less’ and ‘most’/’least’ instead. A
common error is failing to recognize the ones that can.
This logo showed the most close association with trustworthiness and
reliability. ✘
This logo showed the closest association with trustworthiness and reliability. ✔
86 English Exposed
REVEALED: 8.5 – Errors associated with the use of ‘in’

before adverbs and adjectives
The adjective ‘particular’ can be preceded by ‘in’ to form the following phrase:
They were interested in the use of these genes in particular.
‘In’ cannot be used with the adverb form.
This is in particularly useful for comparing strategies across disciplines. ✘

This is particularly useful for comparing strategies across disciplines. ✔
The adverb ‘particularly’ is used either before a verb or to begin a sentence as an

adverbial (see 8.6), whereas the phrase ‘in particular’ is often found at the end of
the sentence.
Mistakes also occur with ‘specific’, ‘overall’, and ‘recently’.
In specific, these regions were created as a ‘test base’ for liberalization. ✘

Specifically, these regions were created as a ‘test base’ for liberalization. ✔
In overall, the improvement has been minimal. ✘

Overall, the improvement has been minimal. ✔
In recently, this growth has slowed . . . ✘

Recently, this growth has slowed . . . ✔

The tendency to use in + adjective instead of the correct adverb form can also be
seen after the verb, as in these examples.
The policy has failed both in political and in economic. ✘

The policy has failed both politically and economically. ✔
This item is also produced in local. ✘

This item is also produced locally. ✔
REVEALED: 8.6 – The use and misuse of conjunctive

adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs (furthermore, however, meanwhile . . .) should be used spar-
ingly. Often there is no need to begin the clause with one.
This study examines efficiency measures using the new model; however, many
studies have examined efficiency including Morgan and Jones (2009) . . . ✘
This study examines efficiency measures using the new model. Many studies have
examined efficiency, including Morgan and Jones (2009) . . . ✔
It is important to study their meanings, because some are appropriate only in

certain situations.
‘However’ is often misused by writers. It does not mean ‘next’ or ‘additionally’.
Table 2 indicates the overall average mean and the standard deviation among 200
respondents. However, the mean for engagement is 3.54 and the standard devia-
tion is 0.50. ✘
‘However’ means ‘on the other hand’ or ‘yet/nevertheless’ and is used to introduce
a statement that contrasts with the previous one.
The contribution from salary increased from 22% to 30% in this period; however,
the contribution from the government declined during this time.
‘However’ is also used to begin a clause, rather than a new sentence, as it implies
the continuation of a point. (See 10 and 19.3.)

Some adverbs can begin sentences as adverbials. They modify the whole of the
sentence that follows. Many of them end in –ly but the suffix is often omitted by
writers, leaving an incorrect adjective form.
Additional, a quarter of the country’s students leave university or technical college

without graduating. ✘
Additionally, a quarter of the country’s students leave university or technical
college without graduating. ✔
Realistic, we need to assume that the response rate will be no higher than 75%
given the sensitive nature of the questions. ✘
88 English Exposed
Realistically, we need to assume that the response rate will be no higher than 75%
given the sensitive nature of the questions. ✔
Previous, they had attempted to do this without a set schedule. ✘

Previously, they had attempted to do this without a set schedule. ✔
REVEALED: 8.7 – The mistakes made when using other

sentence or clause starters
Writers often use ‘as’ instead of ‘with’ to mean accompanying.
As the emergence of globalization, CSR has become an important element that a

large enterprise cannot ignore. ✘
With the emergence of globalization, CSR has become an important element that
a large enterprise cannot ignore. ✔
At the beginning of a sentence ‘with’ can mean ‘accompanying’ or ‘in relation to’.
With the new position comes much more responsibility.

With previous projects they found that the best solution was to bring in consultants.
At the beginning of a sentence ‘as’ can mean ‘because’ or ‘given that’.
As the market had deteriorated, the company decided to withdraw.

As the teacher spoke, the students finally began to settle down.
At the start of a sentence ‘as’ begins a dependent clause, meaning a second part
of the sentence is required. Writers often add an ‘as’ unnecessarily when there is
no additional part.
As Li (2010) proposed that a new framework should be applied to motivation

studies. ✘
Li (2010) proposed that a new framework should be applied to motivation
studies. ✔
Or perhaps the writer meant to write,
As Li (2010) proposed, a new framework should be applied to motivation

studies. ✔
‘As’ and ‘with’ can be used together to mean ‘as we find in’ or ‘as is true of’.
As with any campaign, the level of funding proved crucial.
* * *
A few more phrases that act as sentence starters and that produce errors are listed
next.
There is no such phrase as ‘regarding to’. The ‘to’ should not be included; the
mistake may stem from the similarity to ‘according to’.
Regarding to nationalities, the author only interviewed American companies in

Japan. ✘
Regarding nationalities, the author only interviewed American companies in
Japan. ✔
Regarding means ‘with regard to’ or ‘concerning’. Another common mistake is to

write ‘in regard with’. Use one of the following instead:
regarding, in regard to, with regard to, as regards
In regard with the financial problems facing the company . . . ✘

With regard to/Regarding the financial problems facing the company . . . ✔
* * *
A phrase that is overused and misused is ‘in the meantime’.
In the meantime, testing was carried out on SMEs in the local area.
Writers often put the following:
In the meanwhile, I was busy researching the second topic. ✘
But ‘meanwhile’ stands on its own and has no prepositions associated with it.
Meanwhile, I was busy researching the second topic. ✔
Note also that ‘meantime’ is one word.
In the mean time, the plan is to initiate a formal discussion with the participants
to gauge their general views on the topic. ✘
* * *
90 English Exposed
Another misused phrase is ‘on the other hand’. It does not have the same meaning
as ‘also’ so cannot be used as an additional thought. It is used for giving a contrast-
ing viewpoint or applying caution to what has been said before.
I will address these issues in section four. On the other hand this section also
covers political reasons for the failure . . . ✘
I will address these issues in section four. This section also covers political reasons
for the failure . . . ✔
Here is an example of the phrase being used accurately.
On one hand, the taskforce has taken steps to ensure this does not end up being a
significant issue in the region. On the other hand, its mere presence does indicate
a potential problem in the long term.
Unsurprisingly, a common mistake is to write ‘in’ instead of ‘on’.
In one hand . . . in the other hand

On one hand . . . on the other hand
* * *
The following variations of this next phrase are all incorrect:
in another word in different words With other words
The correct form is ‘in other words’.
In another word, they are responsible for planning and setting the rules and
regulations. ✘
In other words, they are responsible for planning and setting the rules and
regulations. ✔
(See 2.5 for more fixed phrases.)

8.8 Exercises
A. In the following sentences, select the correct comparative form.
As Table 5 shows, the most high / higher / highest amount was recorded in Q2.
Less than 2% lost their jobs more than / than / compared with 4% the year
before.
These figures were low / lower / lowest than expected, considering many of
their competitors had improved their positions.
These findings reveal ‘InterTrain’ to be the most strong / stronger / strongest
brand of the five companies.
It has proven to be the less / least / lowest effective with the least / lowest / low
scores across all four tests.
B. Change the incorrect adverbs (–ly) into adjectives in this extract and vice
versa.
Given the current globally competitiveness in this industry, if companies can find
a way to conduct business effectively it will give them a clearly advantage over
their rivals. Similar, if negotiations can be carried out efficiently and promptly,
then more time can be devoted to research and development (R&D)—the focus
of this paper. A high regarded study on R&D is Sheridan and Lo (2013), who looked
at the frequently failure of three firms attempting to enhance their R&D output.
9
POSSESSION AND COMPOUNDS
Focus on . . . Possession

Compounds
The ‘of’ phrase
This chapter looks at how to express possession correctly in a sentence and the
instances where possession does not occur. The chapter presents the different
structures related to possession, including the ‘of’ phrase and generic compound.
It also clarifies the placement of the plural term in certain phrases.
Background / 9.1 the possessive apostrophe / 9.2 compound phrases /

9.3 ‘of’ phrases and which to select / 9.4 Exercises
conflict of interest (9.3) level of intensity (9.3)

earning (9.2) point of view (9.3)
et al. (9.3) school of thought (9.3)
its (9.1)
Possession and Compounds 93
BACKGROUND: The apostrophe is used to indicate both possession

and contraction. For possession, it shows that something belongs to someone or
something, or to a group. Note that the apostrophe comes before the ‘s’ for these
singular nouns and after the ‘s’ for the plural nouns.
Noun Singular possessive Plural possessive

author author’s authors’
country country’s countries’
participant participant’s participants’
The authors’ biographies are presented at the end of the paper. (plural: more than
one author)
The author’s biography is presented at the end of the paper. (singular: one author)
(See 3B for possessive pronoun use.)
REVEALED: 9.1 – When to use the possessive apostrophe

There seems to be an urge to use the possessive apostrophe with almost every
plural noun. In the example below, there is no possession, so no apostrophe is
required.
The participants’ were then asked to remove their blindfolds and carry out the
task normally. ✘
The participants were then asked to remove their blindfolds and carry out the task
normally. ✔

Of course, the classic possessive error is its/it’s.
its: The most important feature is it’s flexibility. ✘

The most important feature is its flexibility. ✔
it’s = (it is): They also pointed out that it’s a lot cheaper than the other schemes.
Note that contractions should be avoided in academic writing. (See also 13.1.)
94 English Exposed
REVEALED: 9.2 – How compounds are formed and when

they should be chosen over possessive
phrases
Some terms involve two or more nouns (or adjectives and nouns) in a row to form
a single phrase that is considered a single unit. Most of these compounds have a
generic, uncountable meaning rather than detailing an actual situation. The initial
word acts like an adjective (even though it may be a noun) and modifies the other
word(s). But when the first word is a noun as in these next examples, the tempta-
tion is to use the plural form or possession.
They used genetic switches for biomarkers detection. ✘

They used genetic switches for biomarker detection. ✔
Students’ learning has been measured by three different scales. ✘

Student learning has been measured by three different scales. ✔
In this way, researchers bias can be reduced. ✘

In this way, researcher bias can be reduced. ✔
Possession is not suitable because these compound phrases are generic and not
describing specific instances. And this next example is not referring to a particular
person but to adults in general and therefore the adult population in general.
Most studies have analysed the local adult’s population. ✘

Most studies have analysed the local adult population. ✔
The pluralized error also appears when units of time are used in a standard adjec-
tive phrase. (See also 15.5.)
The participants had less than a ten minutes walk to the meeting room. ✘
The participants had less than a ten-minute walk to the meeting room. ✔
There was a two hours break between these lectures. ✘

There was a two-hour break between these lectures. ✔
! There are a few terms that are exceptions to this singular modifier
rule.
systems analyst admissions policy earnings forecast
The words in bold are commonly used in the plural form in their
respective fields even when modifying.
This subfield is known as earning management. ✘

This subfield is known as earnings management. ✔
REVEALED: 9.3 – The relationships among ‘of’ phrases,

possessive phrases, and compounds
There are usually three options available to the writer when forming these types
of phrases. They are evaluated here using the words ‘system’ and ‘design’.
Some tutors of English believe that the possessive should not be used for inani-
mate objects and an ‘of phrase’ should be employed instead.
The design of the system was prioritized by the team.
Others see no reason why the possessive form should not be used.
The system’s design was prioritized by the team.
But these options are only available if a particular system is being referred to.
Otherwise, the sentence is generic and the compound is required.
System design is an important part of this process.
The following error is common:
System’s design was prioritized by the team. ✘
This is neither possession nor a compound and is therefore not an option. If it was
meant to be a specific system and possessive, then it would require an article as in
the second example above.
96 English Exposed
If it was meant to be a generic reference, then it would be written without an

apostrophe and without an article.
System design was prioritized by the team. ✔
* * *
Some terms are written as ‘of’ phrases instead of combining to form compounds.
When these phrases are plural, the first word is plural but the second part remains
singular.
We were hoping to extract different point of views from the employees in the
focus group. ✘
We were hoping to extract different points of view from the employees in the
focus group. ✔
The following are also common errors related to this construction:
conflict of interests conflicts of interest

level of intensities levels of intensity
school of thoughts schools of thought
Equally, ‘of’ phrases can be overused and are even inappropriate in some situa-
tions. The following are two extreme examples:
The performance of it is also assessed from the perspectives of the end user. ✘
Its performance is also assessed from the perspectives of the end user. ✔
In the section of methodology the key terms were defined. ✘

In the methodology (section) the key terms were defined. ✔

The ‘of’ phrase is probably the best choice when showing possession for more
than two authors (i.e., when the reference contains et al.). Using the apostrophe
(et al.’s) has an awkward appearance.
Williams et al. (1999)’s suggestion is an interesting one. ✘

Williams et al. (1999’s) suggestion is an interesting one. ✘
The suggestion of Williams et al. (1999) is an interesting one. ✔
9.4 Exercises
A. Select the correct term from the options below and complete the sentences.
country country’s countrys’ countries countries’
This could prove difficult for __________ not signing up to this scheme.
I will focus on five Asian __________ for answering question five.
I will also look at this __________ attitude towards consumer rights.
Most __________ policies differ in this respect, so it will require a deep analysis.
B. Fill in the gaps by picking the most appropriate phrase from the options.
native population native’s population natives population

natives’ population
A distinction should be made between this cohort and the __________.
four hour four hour’s four hours four hours’

The session was __________ long and covered the key topics.
three-steps three’s-step three-step three-step’s
A __________ framework is now proposed that seeks to resolve this issue.
manager viewpoints manager viewpoint manager’s viewpoint

managers’ viewpoint
This particular __________ is captured through a questionnaire and an interview.
10
CLAUSES AND OTHER STRUCTURES
Focus on . . . Clauses

Irregular sentence structure
Lists
Negative statements
The chapter begins by presenting the two main types of clause and how they
function in a sentence. It then introduces certain phrases that can begin and link
clauses, including the troublesome term ‘that’. The chapter explains a few irregu-
lar sentence constructions before finishing with some guidance on forming lists
and negative sentences.
Background / 10.1 ‘which’, ‘where’, and ‘whereas’ /

10.2 connecting clauses and ‘although’ / 10.3 leaving out ‘that’ /
10.4 ‘not only . . . but also’ / 10.5 comparative construction /
10.6 writing lists / 10.7 forming negative sentences / 10.8 Exercises

also (10.4) firstly (10.6) such as (10.6)
although (10.2) no (10.7) that (10.3)
at last (10.6) not (10.7) where (10.1)
but (10.2, 10.4) not only (10.4) which (10B, 10.1)
etc. (10.6) only with/if (10.4)
even though (10.2) rather (10.4)
Clauses and Other Structures 99
BACKGROUND: Every sentence has a main clause that contains a

subject and a verb. Main clauses are also known as independent clauses because
they can stand on their own without requiring any additional information. They
represent a complete idea or thought.
The government is currently tackling this issue.
A dependent clause ‘depends’ on the independent (main) clause for its meaning,
so it cannot be used on its own. It is only part of a sentence and not a complete
thought.
Which will be a difficult task.
This is an incomplete thought, and there must be some information before it.
The speaker must keep this audience interested for two hours, which will be a
difficult task.
If the clause beginning with ‘which’ is left out, the sentence will still make sense
because the first clause is an independent one.
REVEALED: 10.1 – When to choose ‘which’, where’, and

‘whereas’
‘Which’ is inserted unnecessarily into main (independent) clauses by writers. It is

primarily used to begin dependent ones.
These stocks which are picked from the FTSE 100. ✘

These stocks are picked from the FTSE 100. ✔
Here is a typical way to employ ‘which’.
The stocks are picked from the FTSE 100, which is a share index on the London
Stock Exchange.
‘That’ can be used to begin a phrase modifying the first part of an independent
clause.
They looked at the cases which had occurred in the last two months. ✘
They looked at the cases that had occurred in the last two months. ✔
100 English Exposed
‘Which’ is also mistakenly used instead of ‘where ‘/ ‘in which’ for expressing location
or place.
First we analyse China, which Zhang and Xu (2014) have conducted some interest-
ing research. ✘
First we analyse China, where Zhang and Xu (2014) have conducted some inter-
esting research. ✔
But ‘where’ should be replaced with ‘whereas’ when there is contrast or a

comparison.
Tan (1998) focused on the lack of funding and support from the government,
where Lin (2007) listed the welfare schemes the government had implemented. ✘
Tan (1998) focused on the lack of funding and support from the govern-
ment, whereas Lin (2007) listed the welfare schemes the government had
implemented. ✔

The verb ‘to be’ is often missed out in error when ‘which’ is used.
This is dependent on acquiring the latest technology, which a further cost that the
organization has to manage. ✘
This is dependent on acquiring the latest technology, which is a further cost that
the organization has to manage. ✔
These issues, which a permanent source of confusion, can only be addressed by

. . . ✘
These issues, which are a permanent source of confusion, can only be addressed
by . . . ✔
REVEALED: 10.2 – When to connect clauses and how to

use ‘although’
Connecting clauses can be a real problem for some writers. This first example
consists of one clause when two are actually required. A main verb (‘was’ in this
case) has been used at the start, but this leads to confusion when the reader
meets another main verb (‘indicated’) a little further along.
Another influential study by Kim (2001) was about how their expectancies
might influence the potential performance of students indicated that these
effects can occur outside the classroom.
This first part would be fine as a standalone sentence.
Another influential study by Kim (2001) was about how their expectancies might
influence the potential performance of students.
A better construction for the entire sentence could be achieved by removing the
first verb and putting a dependent clause between two commas.
Another influential study by Kim (2001), about how their expectancies might
influence the potential performance of students, indicated that these effects
can occur outside the classroom. ✔
(See also 19.1 and 19.3 for punctuation use in clauses.)
* * *
‘Although’ is used at the beginning of dependent clauses. If a comma is used
directly after ‘although’, it is difficult to follow the meaning of the sentence.
Although, there was considerable variation in the range of values among indi-
viduals, all of them displayed symptoms. ✘
Although there was considerable variation . . . ✔
‘Although’ can be used AFTER a comma to begin an additional thought, and in a

moderating phrase BETWEEN commas.
The target to aim for is N5, although the method works equally well for other
standards.
The literature on multivariate analysis, although extensive, is widely scattered.

A sentence beginning with ‘even though’ will also need an additional clause for it
to make sense.
Even though Chomsky did not examine this. ✘

Even though Chomsky did not examine this, he did distinguish between ‘strict
rules’ and ‘selectional rules’. ✔
102 English Exposed
The connecting term ‘but’ should not begin the main clause. This is a common
mistake when the dependent clause starts with ‘even though’ or ‘although’.
Even though the sample was large, but the results proved inconclusive. ✘
Even though the sample was large, the results proved inconclusive. ✔
REVEALED: 10.3 – When to leave out ‘that’ in a sentence

It is sometimes difficult to know when to leave out ‘that’ and when to retain it.
When ‘that’ begins a dependent clause that is the OBJECT of the sentence, it can
usually be omitted. Normally there is a personal pronoun present (‘they’ below).
The amount of time (that) they take is also considered.
When ‘that’ is part of a phrase modifying the SUBJECT (‘SMEs’ below), then it
should not be omitted.
The SMEs were previously rejected will also be included in this sample. ✘
The SMEs that were previously rejected will also be included in this sample. ✔
Here is another example where ‘that’ is crucial to the sentence:
Market efficiency and accounting qualities are two major factors influence this. ✘
Market efficiency and accounting qualities are two major factors that influence
this. ✔
! The other option for the writer is the –ing form.
Market efficiency and accounting qualities are two major factors influ-
encing this.
Here, ‘that’ is required to modify the phrase in the first part of the sentence.
There are few studies have looked at the long-term effects . . . ✘
There are few studies that have looked at the long-term effects . . . ✔
But the first part is not really necessary (There are), and this means neither is ‘that’.
Few studies that have looked at the long-term effects . . . ✘

Few studies have looked at the long-term effects . . . ✔
If in doubt, read the sentence with and without ‘that’. This may help to determine
whether it can be omitted or not.

Writers needlessly insert ‘that’ into a whole host of sentences.
The reason is because that there is no internal support from the institution. ✘
The reason is because there is no internal support from the institution. ✔
This is a new development, so that they are eager to understand its impact. ✘
This is a new development, so they are eager to understand its impact. ✔
It did not arise in other firms that with lower liquidation. ✘

It did not arise in other firms with lower liquidation. ✔
This next example is a typical error. There is a choice here between ‘that is’ or
omitting the phrase, but the writer chooses the option that is not available—’that’.
Rong (2011) states that this would only occur in an industry that lacking
information. ✘
Rong (2011) states that this would only occur in an industry that is lacking
information. ✔
Rong (2011) states that this would only occur in an industry lacking information. ✔
REVEALED: 10.4 – How to form the phrase ‘not only . . . but
also’
Some sentence constructions go against the normal rules and show inversion
despite being statements and not questions; for instance, the subject and verb
are reversed when using the adverbial clause ‘not only’ at the start of the sentence.
Writers understandably place the subject before the verb.
Not only the number is wrong but also the placement. ✘

Not only is the number wrong but also the placement. ✔
104 English Exposed
The verb ‘to do’ should not be added to the phrase.
They did not only change the number of firms but also the industry in which they
conducted their business. ✘
They not only changed the number of firms but also the industry in which they
conducted their business. ✔
When a modal is included, the first part is again inverted. And the position of ‘also’
should be noted.
Not only they must have knowledge of the different strategies, but also they must
have enough influence to impose them. ✘
Not only must they have knowledge of the different strategies, but they must
also have enough influence to impose them. ✔
! Avoid the form ‘not only . . . but rather’, as this does not make sense.
In this first example the writer wished to show difference, not

connection.
They not only utilized the usual plastic but rather liquid wood. ✘
They did not utilize the usual plastic but rather liquid wood. ✔
Here the writer DID want to give an additional example, so
‘not only . . . but also’ can be used.
They not only used published letters but rather personal

correspondence. ✘
They not only used published letters but also personal
correspondence. ✔
A similar phrase begins ‘only with/if . . . ’. This time the second part is inverted.
Only with the support of the board members can the scheme be implemented.
The second part on its own would form a question normally.
Can the scheme be implemented? (See also 4.4 and 6.4.)

REVEALED: 10.5 – How to form the comparative phrase

Another irregular sentence construction is the comparative one.
The higher the price, the lower the satisfaction rating.
Both parts begin with ‘the’, and the verb ‘to be’ is often omitted. Writers usually
make one of the following four errors:
The higher is the price, the lower satisfaction rating. ✘

The higher the price is, the lower is the satisfaction rating. ✘
The higher the price, lower the satisfaction rating. ✘
The higher price, the lower satisfaction rating. ✘
REVEALED: 10.6 – Key errors when writing lists

When creating lists, there are a few rules to follow.
When stating all the options and how many there are, the phrases ‘such as’ and
‘including’ are not necessary.
This is split into four categories such as, fully trained, newly trained, partly trained,
and untrained. ✘
This is split into four categories: fully trained, newly trained, partly trained, and
untrained. ✔
‘First, second, third . . . ’ are preferred to ‘firstly, secondly, thirdly . . . ’
Firstly, the three schemes will be examined; secondly . . . ✘

First, the three schemes will be examined; second . . . ✔
(See also 16.4.)

* * *
The phrase ‘at last’ should never end a list. It sounds as though the writer is
relieved it is over.
. . . third, I will address the main concerns of the four stakeholders; at last, I will offer
a conclusion based on these discussions. ✘
. . . third, I will address the main concerns of the four stakeholders; last, I will offer a
conclusion based on these discussions. ✔
106 English Exposed
(See also 13.2.)
* * *
‘Etc.’ is short for ‘et cetera’ and means ‘and the rest’/’and so forth’.
The meaning of the term implies ‘and’, so it does not need to come before it.
These include creativity, service, products, and etc. ✘

These include creativity, service, products, and e.t.c. ✘
These include creativity, service, products, etc. ✔
Note that only one full stop is required—at the end.
REVEALED: 10.7 – Whether to use ‘no’ or ‘not’ when

forming negative sentences
When a noun phrase is expressed in a negative manner, then ‘no’ should be used.
There is not a reason for this delay. ✘

There is no reason for this delay. ✔
! When the sentence is expressing that something is not actually some-

thing, then ‘not a’ can be used.
This is not a valid reason for withdrawing.

So, No reason = There aren’t any possible ‘reasons’.
Not a reason = This particular instance cannot be called a ‘reason’
For all other situations, ‘not’ is the correct term. In this next example an adjective
is expressed negatively, so ‘not’ should be used.
This is no required for employees who have worked at the company for more than
three years. ✘
This is not required for employees who have worked at the company for more than
three years. ✔
10.8 Exercises
A. Which of the following are complete sentences (independent clauses), and
which are incomplete/just additional information (dependent clauses)?
The collaboration was fairly successful _____________________

Since my colleagues were unwilling to change the topic _____________________
I made a suggestion about allocating tasks _____________________
Although there were times when the group fell silent _____________________
Without a coordinator in place during the meeting _____________________
B. Rewrite each of these incorrect sentences to make them error-free.
Naturally, greater the dose faster the medication will work.
Not only the tutor should get involved but a member of the senior management.
It is clear there is a component has not been fitted properly.
C. For each sentence assess whether ‘that’ is required. Cross out the ones that
can be omitted.
These employees worked in the department that was going to be restructured.

They knew that this was only a temporary measure.
The roles that they filled were quite varied.
The students were relieved that the exams were finally over.
Part B
Choices . . . to remember
11
NOUN-ADJECTIVE-VERB
CONFUSION
Focus on . . . Noun-adjective differences

Noun-verb confusion
This chapter explores how related noun and adjective forms are misused, focusing
initially on the typical endings or suffixes of these forms. Then the chapter
addresses noun and verb confusion with a list that reveals the terms that prove
particularly problematic to distinguish.
Background / 11.1 noun and adjective forms / 11.2 gender issues /

11.3 confusing pairs of nouns and verbs / 11.4 Exercises

see list (11.3) plus . . . economy (11.1) significance (11.1)
basic (11.1) interpretivist (11.1) strategic (11.1)
basis (11.1) loose (11.3) strategy (11.1)
collectivism (11.1) males (11.2) woman (11.2)
different (11.1) minimalism (11.1)
economic (11.1) rational (11.1)
112 English Exposed
BACKGROUND: Appreciating the difference between a noun and an

adjective does not always prevent errors in written English. Often, familiarity is a
better preventative tool. Suffixes can sometimes indicate the form of the word, for
instance whether it is a noun or an adjective. Recognizing the common noun and
adjective endings is one way to help eradicate this type of error.
The following sets of terms are commonly mixed up; writers use the noun form
instead of the adjective, and vice versa. The noun forms end in –nce, and the
adjective forms end in –nt.
Noun Adjective Noun Adjective

absence absent confidence confident
difference different distance distant
dominance dominant importance important
inconvenience inconvenient persistence persistent
presence present prevalence prevalent
prominence prominent relevance relevant
silence silent tolerance tolerant
! Not all adjectives end in –nt and not all words that end in –nt are
adjectives.
The assistant was there to gain experience of this type of environment.

An incident did occur when one of the assistants referred to a pupil as an
adolescent.
The three words ending in –nt in the above examples are nouns.
REVEALED: 11.1 – How to distinguish the noun from its

adjective form
To avoid this very common error, it is important that the writer first stops to
consider whether the noun or the adjective is required and then, if applicable,
selects a term using the general –nce and –nt pattern mentioned above.
Noun-Adjective-Verb Confusion 113
This makes it difficult to detect small but potentially significance differences

across groups. ✘
This makes it difficult to detect small but potentially significant differences across
groups. ✔
The only different is that the first design used a hybrid material. ✘
The only difference is that the first design used a hybrid material. ✔
* * *
In the social sciences, the suffix –ism is used frequently for nouns that name ideas
or practices.
Positivism is a systematic, scientific, and objective-based approach to conducting

research.
Some of these nouns have adjective forms that end in –ist.
A positivist approach for this type of research has been suggested by Cheung
(2000) and Morgan (2003).
But people can also be labelled with this –ist suffix, and the term would then
naturally be a noun.
He would also regard himself as a positivist, and his research certainly conforms
to positivist paradigms.
In the sentence above, the first instance of ‘positivist’ is a noun and the second is
an adjective. These next examples demonstrate the –ist or –ism dilemma.
In a collectivism culture, people will value the interests of the social group more
than they value individual interests. ✘
In a collectivist culture, people will value the interests of the social group more
than they value individual interests. ✔
This research takes the position of interpretivist. ✘

This research takes the position of interpretivism. ✔
She was primarily a minimalism artist. ✘

She was primarily a minimalist artist. ✔
114 English Exposed

Four sets of terms that cause noun-adjective confusion are presented here.
basic adjective: essential; underlying

basis noun: the main principle, the foundation
The basic of this is that reliable criteria will eventually be found. ✘

The basis of this is that reliable criteria will eventually be found. ✔
This is a basis principle in the area of fluid mechanics. ✘

This is a basic principle in the area of fluid mechanics. ✔
rational adjective: reasonable, sensible

rationale noun: the main reason accounting for something
Usually the noun ‘rationale’ is required.
The rational is that students will retain the information. ✘

The rationale is that students will retain the information. ✔
economy noun: the way that money, businesses, and products are organized in
a particular country, area, etc.
economic adjective: relating to business, industry, and managing money
The full effect is present in this particular country’s economic. ✘

The full effect is present in this particular country’s economy. ✔
There are different economy and political issues. ✘

There are different economic and political issues. ✔
strategy noun: the set of plans and skills used in order to gain success or
achieve an aim
strategic adjective: done as part of a military, business, or political plan
This will help to establish the best strategic. ✘

This will help to establish the best strategy. ✔
There is a need for strategy thinking here. ✘

There is a need for strategic thinking here. ✔
REVEALED: 11.2 – When to use the noun and adjective

forms for gender
When using ‘men’ / ‘women’ and ‘males’ / ‘females’, the terms need to be consistent
in the sentence (i.e., a noun should not be used for one gender and an adjective
for the other).
There were thirteen males and eleven women in total. ✘

There were thirteen men and eleven women in total. ✔
And when writing generally, the terms should be either singular or plural (plural is
usually appropriate for a general reference).
Men are more likely to reject advice in this situation than is a woman. ✘
Men are more likely to reject advice in this situation than are women. ✔
‘Male’ and ‘female’ can be adjectives or nouns, but as nouns (‘a male’, ‘a female’)
they usually refer to animals; ‘man’ and ‘woman’ are preferred for humans in a
study.
One man and three women were selected for this stage.
One male and three females were used to determine whether rats also have this
ability.
REVEALED: 11.3 – Noun and verb forms that attract errors

Noun and verb forms can also generate errors. The following are particularly
misused in sentences.
to adjust: verb adjustment: noun
This supported the adjust to the measures of the policy. ✘

This supported the adjustment to the measures of the policy. ✔
to advise: verb advice: noun
The advise helped me to uncover more facts surrounding the investigation. ✘

The advice helped me to uncover more facts surrounding the investigation. ✔
116 English Exposed
The tutor was there to advice the participants on how to use the program
effectively. ✘
The tutor was there to advise the participants on how to use the program
effectively. ✔
! As mentioned in 1.1, ‘advice’ is an uncountable noun so has no plural

form and cannot be used with an indefinite article.
I would like to thank them for their effort and constant advices. ✘
I would like to thank them for their effort and constant advice. ✔
An advice that was given to me was to prepare thoroughly. ✘
A quantity phrase can be used instead: A piece of advice . . .
to analyse: verb analysis: noun
Using frequency to analysis the condition helps in understanding which factors

have a greater influence. ✘
Using frequency to analyse the condition helps in understanding which factors
have a greater influence. ✔
Finally, there is an analyse of Chinese listed companies. ✘

Finally, there is an analysis of Chinese listed companies. ✔
! Note how the plural noun form is the same as the present tense of the
verb.
These analyses should reveal where the problem is located.

The computer analyses this data and then produces a report.
to argue: verb argument: noun
This argue had been raised on a number of occasions. ✘

This argument had been raised on a number of occasions. ✔
to believe: verb belief: noun
They belief this can only be achieved with further investment. ✘

They believe this can only be achieved with further investment. ✔
This is to assess the believes of the respondents. ✘

This is to assess the beliefs of the respondents. ✔
(See also 1.3.)
to choose: verb choice: noun
It is a difficult choose for the policymakers. ✘

It is a difficult choice for the policymakers. ✔
to complain: verb complaint: noun
Participant 3 also complaints about the amount of training provided. ✘

Participant 3 also complains about the amount of training provided. ✔
This is a common complain among the staff. ✘

This is a common complaint among the staff. ✔
to examine: verb exam: noun
The next stage is to exam all the evidence collected so far. ✘

The next stage is to examine all the evidence collected so far. ✔
to extend: verb extent: noun
The extend of this problem can be seen from the statistics below. ✘
The extent of this problem can be seen from the statistics below. ✔
It is not really known to what extend they differ from the normal population. ✘
It is not really known to what extent they differ from the normal population. ✔
to lose: verb loss: noun
The downside to this is that they may loss some service. ✘

The downside to this is that they may lose some service. ✔
118 English Exposed
This is a great lose for the company. ✘

This is a great loss for the company. ✔
The plural noun is ‘losses’. There is a temptation to use the verb.
This was a direct result of the loses made by the company in the previous year. ✘
This was a direct result of the losses made by the company in the previous year. ✔

The verb is sometimes confused with the unrelated adjective ‘loose’.
In this case they may loose sensation in their fingers. ✘

In this case they may lose sensation in their fingers. ✔
This appears next to the lose material that had been used for a previous project. ✘
This appears next to the loose material that had been used for a previous
project. ✔
to participate: verb participant: noun
The next stage was to ask the participates to evaluate the three designs in front
of them. ✘
The next stage was to ask the participants to evaluate the three designs in front
of them. ✔
to prove: verb proof: noun
This model proofs that external shocks have an important effect. ✘

This model proves that external shocks have an important effect. ✔
It is a prove of how much development is still required. ✘

It is proof of how much development is still required. ✔
to pursue: verb pursuit: noun
The reason is that they pursuit this power as soon as they can. ✘
The reason is that they pursue this power as soon as they can. ✔
to respond: verb response: noun
Organizations need to response better to different strategic and business

scenarios. ✘
Organizations need to respond better to different strategic and business
scenarios. ✔
They were still waiting for a respond . . . ✘

They were still waiting for a response . . . ✔
! People who respond to a survey or questionnaire are ‘respondents’

not ‘responds’.
There were five responds who were asked back for an interview. ✘
There were five respondents who were asked back for an interview. ✔
11.4 Exercises
A. Choose either the noun or the adjective form for each of these sentences.
There was no real different / difference between the two schemes.

Luo (1997) only looked at the figures that were important / importance to the
shareholders.
The present / presence of the senior management team seemed to affect the
performance of the sales team on this task.
In positivism / positivist research, the researcher is interested in gaining
knowledge.
B. How many noun-verb mistakes can be found in this extract?
When the degradation in the value of silver is combined with the diminution
of the quantity of it contained in the coin of the same denomination, the lose
is frequently still greater.
It was Adam Smith’s believe that striving for personal gain is a natural human
trait. Smith also proofed a number of other theories of the time, and the extend
of his influence is still apparent today. Given its economy relevance, the argue put
120 English Exposed
forward about the ‘invisible hand’ should be explored in more detail, and there-
fore a discussion will take place in the chapter that follows.
C. Select appropriate gender terms for each sentence.
man men woman women male female males females
The aim was to interview at least three ________ and two ________ from each
department.
One ________ rat was withdrawn from the process on account of its size.
________ deaths were much lower for period four.
The number of ________ improving remained stable.
________ are more likely to seek treatment early.
12
SELECTING THE CORRECT WORD
Focus on . . . Commonly confused terms

Prefixes
This chapter presents words that are commonly confused, including forms of the
same root word. It also explores prefixes by first defining them and then explain-
ing how the sentence structure can change when negative ones are applied.
Background / 12.1 commonly confused words /

12.2 prefix definitions and use / 12.3 Exercises

see list (12.1) plus . . . existence (12.2) no (12.2)
affected (12.2) fairly (the same) (12.1) not (12.2)
again (12.2) fall (12.1) other than (12.1)
almost (similar) (12.1) inaccessible (12.2) rather than (12.1)
assess (12.2) inconsistent (12.2) termed (12.1)
consistent (12.2) named (12.1) uneasy (12.2)
122 English Exposed
BACKGROUND: A similarity in spelling or sound or a similarity in

meaning usually causes the following words, listed alphabetically, to be among
the most likely to be confused by writers.
REVEALED: 12.1 – Sets of words that are commonly

confused
about/regarding
About the third series, they note that it was largely affected by the limitations of
the ADF test. ✘
Regarding the third series, they note that it was largely affected by the limitations
of the ADF test. ✔ (See also 8.7.)
affect/effect
This had no affect on the results. ✘

This had no effect on the results. ✔
In the example above, ‘effect’ means result or consequence.
‘Affect’ is a verb meaning to have an influence on.
This may effect the company in the long term. ✘

This may affect the company in the long term. ✔
! ‘Effect’ is also a verb meaning ‘to accomplish’ or ‘to bring about’.
This affected the change to wireless technology. ✘

This effected the change to wireless technology. ✔
It is more commonly used as a noun, though.
apart from/except for
‘Except for’ excludes something or someone.
All regions were making a profit, except for the South West.
Selecting the Correct Word 123
‘Apart from’ can exclude OR include something or someone.
Apart from philosophy, he has written on biology and linguistics. (include)

They discussed all the factors apart from the political ones. (exclude)
The error is made when trying to use ‘except for’ to include something.
Except for being an accountant, they have also been a media consultant and a
salesperson. ✘
Apart from being an accountant, they have also been a media consultant and a
salesperson. ✔
! Be careful when using ‘for’ and ‘from’ in these expressions:
. . . except from . . . apart for

. . . except for . . . apart from
as well/also
The first thing to note is that ‘as well’ is always two words (NOT aswell). It also
normally goes at the end of a sentence.
It could play an important part as well.
It can only go at the beginning in the form of ‘As well as . . . ’.
As well as leaving the company in debt, it damaged the reputation of the senior
staff.
‘Also’ can appear at the beginning of a sentence as a conjunctive adverb.
As well, there was very little funding available at the time. ✘

Also, there was very little funding available at the time. ✔
‘Also’ is often used before a verb.
This could as well affect the reputations of the companies. ✘

This could also affect the reputations of the companies. ✔
124 English Exposed
casual/causal
The first term means relaxed and unconcerned; the second relates to a cause.
These reforms weaken the argument that suggests there is a strong casual
relation. ✘
These reforms weaken the argument that suggests there is a strong causal
relation. ✔
called/known as
Only ‘known’ can be followed by ‘as’.
This kind of software package is known as PFM software.

Customers who buy online are called as e-customers. ✘
The same rule applies to ‘named’ and ‘termed’. They should not be followed by ‘as’.
They are influenced by a set of factors—which Leung named as motivation

factors. ✘
These early phases are often termed as ‘technology development’. ✘
concern/consider
The verb ‘to concern’ has two primary meanings.
to relate to
This section concerns the problems they were facing at the time.
to trouble or worry
They were concerned about this information being made available to the
shareholders.
But it is overused and misused by writers. It cannot be used in the following ways:
Tan et al. (2006) concern such a relationship the other way round. ✘
Tan et al. (2006) consider/view such a relationship the other way round. ✔
Both reliability and validity were concerned when analysing the results. ✘
Both reliability and validity were considered when analysing the results. ✔
An inductive study tends to concern more on context. ✘

An inductive study tends to concentrate/focus more on context. ✔
They must concern at the reasons why this is taking place. ✘

They must look at the reasons why this is taking place. ✔
This paper has concerned on the reasons for the poor performance of the
company. ✘
This paper has examined/investigated the reasons for the poor performance of
the company. ✔
contrary to/in contrast
Contrasting can be a complicated business. Three phrases can be employed.
On the contrary, the United States failed to even consider this.

In contrast, the social world of business and management is complex.
Contrary to the findings in the journal, they found no instances at all.
There is little difference between them, but ‘in contrast’ is normally used as a
mere comparison. The other two (‘on the contrary’/’contrary to’) clearly state the
opposite and show disagreement.
‘On the contrary’ can only be used as a response to something just mentioned.
On the contrary to the findings in the journal . . . ✘

The findings are not disappointing in this instance. On the contrary, they provide
a number of . . . ✔
In the contrary ✘ On the contrary ✔
In the contrast ✘ In contrast ✔
In contrary to ✘ Contrary to ✔
follow(ing)/as follows
The root word ‘follow’ and its various forms cause countless problems for writers.
An estimation of the cost will also follows. follow

. . . will be explained in the follow parts: following
The advantages are described as following: as follows
126 English Exposed
The three recommendations as follows a brief analysis. follow

The followings are some suggestions: following
lack/fail
A distinction can be made between these two verbs.
to lack verb: to be without
to fail verb: to fall short in achieving something
This still lacks to explain why they did not respond to the original supplement. ✘
This still fails to explain why they did not respond to the original supplement. ✔
‘Fail’ is also mistakenly used instead of ‘fall’.
This is ignored as it fails outside the range. ✘

This is ignored as it falls outside the range. ✔

The verb and noun forms of ‘lack’ are often misused. A common error is using ‘of’
with the verb.
Most lack of a suitable support network to deal with the implementation of new
ICT. ✘
Most lack a suitable support network to deal with the implementation of new
ICT. ✔
It is the noun form that partners ‘of’.
There was a lack of motivation in many of the subjects.
There is a tendency for the verb to be overlooked. Here is another example of a

writer using the noun phrase by mistake.
China still lack of research examining this inequality across provinces. ✘

China still lacks research examining this inequality across provinces. ✔
rarely/merely
These adverbs may sound similar, but they have very little in common semantically.
rarely adverb: seldom, infrequently
In fact, this system is rarely used as it is quite complex.
merely adverb: simply, only
The study based the selection criteria of participants merely on the research aims.
Teachers merely have the opportunity to give SEN students their full attention. ✘
Teachers rarely have the opportunity to give SEN students their full attention. ✔
remain/keep
‘Remain’ and ‘keep’ are similar in meaning, and either can be used in this example.
It is crucial to keep/remain calm when this occurs.
to remain verb: to continue to be; to be left; to stay there
to keep verb: to hold or retain; to maintain
When the meaning relates to something that continues to be or continues to

exist, then ‘remain’ is the correct word.
This can keep a problem for those with learning difficulties. ✘

This can remain a problem for those with learning difficulties. ✔
‘Keep’ or ‘retain’ is required when the meaning relates to maintaining or holding

on to something.
They need to remain their competitiveness for as long as possible. ✘

They need to keep/retain their competitiveness for as long as possible. ✔
remark/remind
This respondent also reminded that there are no guidelines currently in place. ✘
This respondent also remarked that there are no guidelines currently in place. ✔
rest/remaining
‘Rest’ and ‘remaining’ are terms that have similar meanings, so choosing between
them is troublesome for many writers. There are, however, a few useful situations
where one should be employed and the other rejected.
128 English Exposed
If a specific number is given, then ‘rest’ is not appropriate.
The rest 30 cannot be detected at this stage. ✘

The rest cannot be detected at this stage. ✔
The following options are also available:
The remaining 30/The other 30 cannot be detected at this stage.
‘Rest’ is a noun, and ‘remaining’ is an adjective. The nouns in these examples

require ‘remaining’ to describe them.
The rest transformers supply the 33kV busbar. ✘

The remaining transformers supply the 33kV busbar. ✔
We will now look at the rest security goals. ✘

We will now look at the remaining security goals. ✔
The noun ‘rest’ cannot be used as a plural.
The rests were deemed unnecessary for what we are trying to achieve. ✘
The rest were deemed unnecessary for what we are trying to achieve. ✔
! Whatever ‘rest’ is referring to will determine whether the verb is

singular or plural.
The rest (of the evidence) is considered weak.

The rest (of the users) were given a different task.
rise/raise
to rise verb: to increase
noun: an increase; an act of rising
to raise verb: to lift up; to elevate
noun: an increase in amount (especially salary)
‘Raise’ as a verb always has an object linked to it.

They raised the level of payments to three hundred dollars.
‘Rise’ as a verb is used on its own and does not require a direct object.
The prices will rise again in the future.
As a rule, someone ‘raises’ something, but something ‘rises’.
‘Rise’ is an irregular verb.
Present simple:
I/you/we/they rise
he/she/it rises
Present participle: rising
Past participle: risen
Past simple: rose
Often the wrong verb or verb form is selected.
In 2011, the number of companies raised to 24%. ✘

In 2011, the number of companies rose to 24%. ✔
They rose the price to coincide with this event. ✘

They raised the price to coincide with this event. ✔
same/similar
same (as) adjective: identical
similar adjective: having a likeness or resemblance, especially in a general way
Note the article use.
These figures were the similar as the previous ones. ✘

These figures were the same like the previous ones. ✘
These figures were the same as the previous ones. ✔
OR: These figures were similar to the previous ones. ✔
Mistakes frequently occur when writers state that something is identical (same),
when they actually just want to say there are some things in common (similar).
130 English Exposed
A same finding was reported by Cho (2009). ✘

A similar finding was reported by Cho (2009). ✔
Or: The same finding was reported by Morgan (2009). ✔
! ‘Same’ is always used with a definite article.
The trade-off is that the same bank will also face losses.
The phrases ‘almost similar’ and ‘fairly the same’ are incorrect.
The communication outside the classroom will influence this level, which is almost
similar to the social activities variable. ✘
The communication outside the classroom will influence this level, which is similar
to the social activities variable. ✔
These findings are fairly the same as Cheng and Wang’s. ✘

These findings are similar to Cheng and Wang’s. ✔
than/then
‘Than’ is a conjunction and is used to either introduce something that is in the

lower degree or to compare generally.
‘Then’ is an adverb relating to time and means ‘at that time’ or ‘after that’.
This will also be much quicker then computer-based tasks. ✘

This will also be much quicker than computer-based tasks. ✔
‘Then’ is also erroneously found in the following phrases:
When applied to a sample of firms other then those used in developing the model,
the results differ. ✘
When applied to a sample of firms other than those used in developing the model,
the results differ. ✔
Research has looked at the causes of this rather then the effects on the
population. ✘
Research has looked at the causes of this rather than the effects on the
population. ✔
trend/tend
‘Trend’ is a noun and means a general development or change in society. ‘Tend’ is

a verb and means to behave in a certain way.
These employees trend to perform a wider range of tasks. ✘

These employees tend to perform a wider range of tasks. ✔
try/attempt
As a noun, ‘try’ cannot be used with the verb ‘to make’. Instead, ‘attempt’ should
be employed.
A try was made to fix this problem before the third set of tests. ✘
An attempt was made to fix this problem before the third set of tests. ✔
They were making a try to distinguish between the two forms but unfortunately
were let down by the data. ✘
They were making an attempt to distinguish between the two forms but unfortu-
nately were let down by the data. ✔
You can give something a try or have a try at something, but you ‘make an attempt’.
underlying/underlining
‘Underlining’ relates to emphasis or actually drawing a line under something.
‘Underlying’ is an adjective and relates to something that is fundamental or some-

thing that is present but not obvious.
Attention is paid to this subsystem in order to reveal underlining elements that

disrupt stability. ✘
Attention is paid to this subsystem in order to reveal underlying elements that
disrupt stability. ✔
132 English Exposed
well/good
A person who is ‘well’ can also be ‘good’, so deciding between the two descriptive
words can be a problem. In this instance (stating that someone is ‘well’), ‘well’ is an
adjective meaning healthy. But in academic writing its main use is as an adverb,
and this is where the distinction from ‘good’ occurs. ‘Good’ is an adjective and
therefore is mainly used with nouns to describe the subject of the sentence. It
comes before the noun.
There was a well turnout, and this contributed to the success of the evening. ✘
There was a good turnout, and this contributed to the success of the evening. ✔
In order to form a well understanding, both parts must be read. ✘

In order to form a good understanding, both parts must be read. ✔
So if a noun is being described, then ‘good’ should be used.
‘Well’ often modifies a verb or adjective.
They performed good in the second task. ✘

They performed well in the second task. ✔
It only ever describes a noun when it is part of a compound adjective.
He is a well-behaved pupil in the morning lessons.
REVEALED: 12.2 – How to use prefixes effectively

A prefix is an element that is attached to the beginning of a word and serves to
modify that word, creating a new one in the process. Each prefix has a specific
meaning that can help with assessing the meaning of a term; however, it is not
always obvious which prefix should be used in a given situation. These definitions
offer some guidance.
de: take something away; do the opposite of; reduce dis: reverse; opposite
dys: difficult; bad; abnormal hetero: different
homo: same; alike hyper: excessive; above
in: not, negative; into iso: equal; same
mal: bad; abnormal mis: bad, badly; wrong
non: not; absence of poly: many
re: again; repeatedly un: not; opposite (not always a negative meaning)
If there is an appropriate prefix that can be attached to a particular word, then it

should be used. It is always preferable to adding ‘not’ ‘or ‘again’.
Based on this they need to assess again the parameters . . . ✘

Based on this they need to reassess the parameters . . . ✔
In this next example, the prefix ‘non’ should be adopted.
The second respondent complained that the support for the department was
almost not existent. ✘
almost no existence. ✘
almost nonexistent. ✔
A writer will sometimes be unsure about which prefix to use to create a negative
meaning. Looking the form up in a dictionary to see if it exists is advisable.
Critics argued that the system was unaccessible to most of the employees. ✘
Critics argued that the system was non-accessible to most of the employees. ✘
Critics argued that the system was inaccessible to most of the employees. ✔
! Words that contain negative prefixes are not always opposites of the
positive form. For instance, ‘uneasy’ is not the opposite of ‘easy’.
Although the first group completed the task well, the third group found
the task uneasy. ✘
Although the first group completed the task well, the third group found
the task difficult. ✔
‘Uneasy’ means troubled or uncomfortable.
Not using an available prefix is even more apparent when the sentence appears
to begin in a positive way:
This makes it . . . (as opposed to ‘This does not make it’).
The reader is expecting the sentence to continue along these lines, but instead . . .
This makes it not a suitable case study to use.

134 English Exposed
A better option would be to use a prefix with a negative meaning so the sentence
can retain its form without the need for ‘not’.
This makes it an unsuitable case study to use.
Sometimes a choice is available between a negative beginning to the sentence

and a prefix indicating negation.
All of the company’s websites were not affected. ✘

None of the company’s websites were affected. ✔
All of the company’s websites were unaffected. ✔ (See also 3.5.)

The terms ‘consistent’ and ‘inconsistent’ are often misused. The following con-
struction is common:
This is in consistence with Leung’s proposal. ✘
Depending on the desired meaning the two options are:
This is consistent with Leung’s proposal. ✔

This is inconsistent with Leung’s proposal. ✔
12.3 Exercises
A. Select from the ‘following’ options and fill in the gaps.
follow following as follows follows
This will be explained in the __________ parts:

The advantages are described __________:
The three recommendations __________ a brief analysis.
An estimation of the cost will also __________.
The __________ are some suggestions:
B. Cross out the incorrect option(s) for each sentence.
This will also rise/raise the price of the commodity in the short term.
The similar/same finding was reported by Chen (2009) and Tran (2013).
Some of the teachers concerned/considered/concentrated this measure and
then agreed it could provide a solution to the problem.
The accuracy and the relevance of the content cannot be guaranteed, and this
also/as well applies to any links that are provided on their pages.
C. Match the prefixes to the root words. One has already been done.
de assess
dis comfortable
in specific
non consistent
re hydrate
un similar
13
SELECTING THE CORRECT STYLE
Focus on . . . Unsuitable expressions

Unsuitable style
Redundant terms
Nominalization
This chapter examines language that is inappropriate for academic writing and
reveals the individual terms that should be avoided. It explores adjective choice
and how writing can be improved by removing unnecessary phrases from sen-
tences, to improve clarity and understanding. It ends with a discussion on the
merits of using noun phrases and verbs.
13.1 contractions / 13.2 phrases to avoid / 13.3 excessive adjectives /

13.4 clarity and redundancy in writing / 13.5 verbs in sequence /
13.6 nominalization / 13.7 Exercises

absolutely (13.3) don’t (13.1) majorly (13.2)
afterwards (13.4) each (13.4) massive (13.3)
again (13.4) extremely (13.3) quit (13.2)
anyway (13.2) few (13.4) reckon (13.2)
as mentioned (13.4) incredible (13.3) return (13.4)
at last (13.2) interconnected (13.4) revise (13.4)
basically (13.2) investigate (13.6) totally (13.2)
brand new (13.4) isn’t (13.1) very (13.3)
brief (13,4) last but not least (13.2)
continue (13.4) magnificent (13.3)
Selecting the Correct Style 137
REVEALED: 13.1 – When contractions are acceptable and

when they should be avoided
Some words can be shortened by using an apostrophe to replace missing letters,
but this is only really acceptable in academic writing when transcribing interviews
and directly quoting. In this next example it is inappropriate.
Investors don’t have access to this type of information. ✘

Investors do not have access to this type of information. ✔
The contraction is not appropriate in the opening sentence of this next set, but it
can be used when relaying exactly what a respondent has said.
Respondent D believed that this wouldn’t address the needs of the community. ✘
Respondent D believed that this would not address the needs of the community. ✔
‘We haven’t been given a voice, and the decisions are being made without any
input from the local people,’ reiterated Respondent C. ✔
REVEALED: 13.2 – Which phrases to avoid in academic

writing
Some phrases are either too informal or not precise enough for academic writing.
The following terms should be avoided:
Use ‘however’ or ‘regardless’, not ‘anyway’.
Anyway, these factors will be addressed in the research. ✘
Often there is no need to replace ‘anyway’ with another term, but sometimes
‘however’ or ‘regardless’ is appropriate.
There were also limited data available for India. Anyway, we decided to retain this
country in our sample because . . . ✘
There were also limited data available for India; however, we decided to retain this
country in our sample because . . . ✔
Use ‘essentially’ or ‘ultimately’, not ‘basically’.
If an adverb must be used, then opt for ‘essentially’ or ‘ultimately’ instead.

138 English Exposed
Basically, the money spent on this project was misused. ✘

Ultimately, the money spent on this project was misused. ✔
Use ‘last’, not ‘at last’. (See 10.6.)
Use ‘last’, not ‘last but not least’.
‘Last but not least’ is a fixed phrase used to indicate that a final point is being
made but is no less important than those preceding it. It should be avoided and
replaced with simply ‘last’.
Last but not least, the overall conclusion will be presented in chapter eight. ✘
Last, the overall conclusion will be presented in chapter eight. ✔
Use ‘largely’ / ‘greatly’, not ‘majorly’.
‘Majorly’ is another word that crops up quite often but should be treated as
informal and avoided. There are plenty of other adverbs to use in its place.
They ended up focusing majorly on how to improve the packaging of the

product. ✘
They ended up focusing largely on how to improve the packaging of the
product. ✔
This has majorly increased both the price and the production time. ✘
This has greatly increased both the price and the production time. ✔
Use ‘withdraw’, not ‘quit’.
When referring to participants leaving a research study, the most suitable verb is
‘to withdraw’.
In total, four patients quit the study before the second consultation meeting. ✘
In total, four patients withdrew from the study before the second consultation
meeting. ✔
Opt for ‘imagine’, ‘consider’ or ‘suppose’ instead of ‘reckon’.
They reckon it will be a lot smaller when the final design is presented. ✘
They imagine it will be a lot smaller when the final design is presented. ✔
Use ‘in total’, not ‘totally’.

‘Totally’ is a more informal word for ‘completely’ but should be avoided in

academic writing and used only for conversational pieces.
‘Some of the material is totally biodegradable, but some of it is only partially,’

revealed Interviewee C.
It cannot be used as an alternative to ‘in total’.
There were sixty participants totally. ✘

There were totally sixty participants. ✘
There were sixty participants in total. ✔
REVEALED: 13.3 – Adjectives and adverbs that are

inappropriate or unnecessary
Some writers make the mistake of using strong adjectives or inserting adverbs
to try to convince the reader of something. Often this leads to overemphasis
or exaggeration and gives the impression that the writer is trying too hard to
persuade the reader. More modest adjectives and phrases can assist the writer in
presenting a view or idea that the reader is more likely to accept.
An incredible observation is that once a patient has . . . ✘

A key observation is that once a patient has . . . ✔
It also led to a magnificent decrease in lost data. ✘

It also led to a marked decrease in lost data. ✔
There is a massive amount of research on this topic. ✘

There is a large/great amount of research on this topic. ✔
Some adjectives already have a strong meaning and therefore do not require
any assistance from adverbs to add emphasis. These include ‘crucial’, ‘critical’, and
‘necessary’.
This is absolutely crucial to the success of the scheme. ✘

It is a very critical issue and one that will be addressed next. ✘
Creating a detailed schedule for the field work is also extremely necessary. ✘
140 English Exposed
REVEALED: 13.4 – How to make writing clear and efficient

Although identifying unnecessary phrases and eliminating wordiness can be a
challenge, there are some terms that can be easily edited to reduce word count
and avoid redundancy.
Based on what has been discussed above, three hypotheses can be formed. ✘
Based on the above (discussion), three hypotheses can be formed. ✔
As it has been mentioned previously in this study, the main development

occurred in the 1960s. ✘
As mentioned earlier, the main development occurred in the 1960s. ✔
This is a brand new design and incorporates all these elements. ✘

This is a new design and incorporates all these elements. ✔
These initial interviews were brief in duration and only covered personal
details. ✘
These initial interviews were brief and only covered personal details. ✔
There are few in number in this area of the college, and there have been com-
plaints from some departments. ✘
There are few in this area of the college, and there have been complaints from
some departments. ✔
This continues to remain an issue for students without a recognized teaching

qualification. ✘
This remains an issue for students without a recognized teaching qualification. ✔
The next stage is to ensure all the nodes are interconnected to each other. ✘
The next stage is to ensure all the nodes are interconnected. ✔
The frequency for this region was 400 cars per each kilometre. ✘
The frequency for this region was 400 cars per kilometre. ✔

The prefix re– means ‘again’, so it is usually unnecessary to add this or a similar
word.
The proposal was revised again to eliminate these inconsistencies. ✘

The proposal was revised to eliminate these inconsistencies. ✔
The report was renamed afterwards ‘Effective Planning in Rural Conservation

Areas’. ✘
The report was renamed ‘Effective Planning in Rural Conservation Areas’. ✔
It would be useful to return back to the original question. ✘

It would be useful to return to the original question. ✔
* * *
Repetition is also apparent when writers are introducing or naming something.
Usually a second reference will not require the thing to be named in its entirety.
Instead, shortening the terms or using pronouns can prevent needless repetition.
These two examples will demonstrate the point. (See also 3.1.)
The Gregory-Hansen linear cointegration model was applied initially. The

Gregory-Hansen linear cointegration model is useful because it can . . . ✘
The Gregory-Hansen linear cointegration model was applied initially. The model is
useful because it can . . . ✔
Using this tool can help analysts decide which routes analysts should take. ✘
Using this tool can help analysts decide which routes they should take. ✔
REVEALED: 13.5 – That verbs in a sequence are more effec-

tive than a mixture of verbs and nouns
When listing a sequence of points, it is desirable to keep the format consistent. If
the list begins with a verb, it is advisable to retain a parallel structure with all the
verbs in the same form; mixing verbs and nouns in a list should also be avoided.
The purpose of the journal is to introduce the process, analysing the methods used
and reflect on the outcomes. ✘
The purpose of the journal is to introduce the process, analyse the methods used
and reflect on the outcomes. ✔
The key steps involved analysing the problem, identifying a method, application
of the chosen method . . . ✘
The key steps involved analysing the problem, identifying a method, applying the
chosen method . . . ✔
142 English Exposed
REVEALED: 13.6 – What nominalization is and when it can

be used
Nominalization occurs when a verb (or adjective) is replaced by its related noun
form. Sometimes it results in a weak and drawn-out sentence compared to its
verb counterpart.
investigate: verb investigation: noun
They investigated the resources available to international students.

They carried out an investigation of the resources available to international
students.
Although the second example above is not grammatically incorrect, it is not effi-
cient or particularly effective writing. But the nominalization in this next example
would be considered ineffective.
They also looked at procedures for an investigation of the issue of plagiarism in

the work of high school students. ✘
They also looked at procedures for investigating the issue of plagiarism in the
work of high school students. ✔
But choosing verbs to form active voice (see 5.8) instead of using noun phrases is
not always advisable. Inserting a noun phrase can add variety and prevent repeti-
tion, and it can provide a link to a previous idea or action. This next example is a
bit repetitive with two identical verbs and two pronouns (‘we’), whereas the noun
phrase in the second example helps the writing to flow a bit better.
We discussed the optimum size of the network with the relevant managers. We
also discussed key security features to ensure . . .
We discussed the optimum size of the network with the relevant managers. A dis-
cussion of the key security features also took place to ensure . . .
If the guidelines of a particular subject suggest avoiding ‘we’ (see 3B), then nomi-
nalization is one option available. The problem is that constant use can lead to
undynamic passive writing and long-winded sentences. Notice in the examples
above how nominalization requires extra phrases such as ‘carried out’ and ‘also
took place’ to be present for the sentence to make sense and to be grammatical.
13.7 Exercises
A. Cross out the unnecessary words in this extract.
Returning back to the original design, it is very obvious that the brand new model
created by Smith Motors is definitely the best. We then ranked the companies in
the order Orion, Dubaki, Renton Spares. Last but not least is Spades, but they were
hampered by crazy misfortune when their mechanic was taken ill; their design
team was also comparatively small in number. This proved to be very critical, as
Wu (2007) suggests that five members is optimal.
Based on the results that have been stated above, we conclude that . . .
B. What is a more appropriate term for each of these phrases?
majorly __________ wildly __________ reckon __________

couldn’t __________ at last __________ basically __________
Part C
Components . . . to review
14
REGIONS AND COUNTRIES
Focus on . . . Regions and countries as nouns

Regions and countries as adjectives
This chapter offers instruction on how to refer to countries and regions and how
to recognize the differences between the noun and the adjective forms. It also
addresses generic and specific sentences, the order of adjectives in a sentence
with a country reference, and the capitalization of these terms.
Background / 14.1 countries as adjectives /
14.2 noun and adjective confusion / 14.3 order of adjectives /
14.4 Exercises

Asia/Asian (14.2, 14.3) Japan/Japanese (14.2)
China/Chinese (14.1, 14.2) Korea/Korean (14.2)
Germany/German (14.2) UK (14B, 14.1)
Hong Kong (14B) US (14B)
India/Indian (14.2)
148 English Exposed
BACKGROUND: Although most proper nouns do not require an

article, the names of some countries and regions have ‘the’ as part of their name.
the United Kingdom the People’s Republic of China

the Netherlands the United States
I will now compare the stock markets of UK and Hong Kong. For the reasons stated
earlier, US and Japan will not be considered here. ✘
I will now compare the stock markets of the UK and Hong Kong. For the reasons
stated earlier, the US and Japan will not be considered here. ✔
! The correct form is ‘Hong Kong’, not any of the following:
Hong kong Hongkong HongKong Hon Kong
REVEALED: 14.1 – Which forms to use when countries act

as modifiers
Despite the information provided about the UK and the US above, countries and
regions that have ‘the’ as part of their name do not always have to be preceded
by ‘the’. When the country/region acts like an adjective in a noun phrase and that
phrase has a generic meaning, then ‘the’ will not be required. (See also 2.3.)
The UK economic growth has yet to recover from the 2008 recession. ✘
UK economic growth has yet to recover from the 2008 recession. ✔
! In the example above the UK is acting like an adjective. Its adjective

form is the same as its noun form. Many countries have different forms
for the name of the country and for the adjective of the country; for
instance, ‘Chinese economic growth’ not ‘China economic growth’
would be used in the above situation.
In the example above, ‘economic growth’ is the subject and means economic
growth of the UK in general. So ‘the UK’ loses its definite article. Here are two more
examples to illustrate this point and a further one.
Regions and Countries 149
Chinese economy is gradually improving after the poorer than expected growth
of last year. ✘
The Chinese economic growth has yet to recover from . . . ✘
The writer of the first example may have assumed that the reference was general
(or has not realized that ‘economy’ might require an article because it is a singular
countable noun) and therefore has not used an article. Similarly, the second
example is referring to the economic growth of a particular country (China), and
so the writer believes a definite article is needed.
However, in the first example the economy is the subject, and it is a count-
able noun so requires an article. In the second example ‘economic growth’ is the
subject, and growth is taken to have a generic meaning (even though it relates to
a specific country, China) so does not require an article. (See also 9.2.)
The Chinese economy is gradually improving after the poorer than expected
growth of last year. ✔
Chinese economic growth has yet to recover from these recent setbacks. ✔
! If this last example was rearranged into an ‘of’ phrase, an article would
then be required.
The economic growth of China has yet to recover from these recent
setbacks.
In this next example, a particular (specific) industry is being referred to, so the
definite article is warranted.
This has proven to be a real boost for Chinese steel industry. ✘

This has proven to be a real boost for the Chinese steel industry. ✔
REVEALED: 14.2 – How to recognize the adjective form

and the noun form of countries and
their people
Adjectives and nouns are often confused (see 11.1), and this is certainly true when
countries and their people are being referenced. As touched upon earlier, this first
example will require the adjective form.
150 English Exposed
The current China government promotes economic growth and prioritizes money
before environmental problems. ✘
The current Chinese government promotes economic growth and prioritizes
money before environmental problems. ✔
! Regardless of whether they are nouns or adjectives, all terms derived

from countries must begin with a capital letter.
This is a typical experience for a Chinese student living abroad.

China and South Korea have yet to release their figures.
In this next example the writer is naming countries so nouns are needed, not
adjectives.
Future studies could assess similar methodologies with the data of multiple coun-
tries such as Korean, Japanese, and China. ✘
Future studies could assess similar methodologies with the data of multiple coun-
tries such as Korea, Japan, and China. ✔
Care must also be taken with the noun and adjective forms ‘Asia’ and ‘Asian’.
It means that other Asia countries are able to sell products of similar quality. ✘
It means that other Asian countries are able to sell products of similar quality. ✔
In order to understand inter-regionalism between Asian and Europe, it is neces-

sary to study how the regions are constructed. ✘
In order to understand inter-regionalism between Asia and Europe, it is necessary
to study how the regions are constructed. ✔
* * *
When introducing a list of places as ‘countries’, naturally there should not be any
regions or continents in it.
The countries that will adopt this include Japan, China, Europe, and the US. ✘
The regions that will adopt this include Japan, China, Europe, and the US. ✔
The countries that will adopt this include Japan, China, and the US. Europe is also
set to introduce . . . ✔
* * *
Regions and Countries 151
The noun and the adjective forms of some nations and their people are listed here
with associated errors.
noun adjective noun adjective noun adjective

Germany German France French Switzerland Swiss
India Indian Japan Japanese Thailand Thai
Malaysia Malaysian Taiwan Taiwanese Brazil Brazilian
The study took place in German and France. ✘

The study took place in Germany and France. ✔
Twenty India participants were selected for stage one. ✘

Twenty Indian participants were selected for stage one. ✔
! Note that nouns that name the language of a country have the same
form as the country’s adjective.
German is also spoken in this region.

For these students the questionnaire was also written in Chinese.
REVEALED: 14.3 – How to order adjectives that contain a

country reference
The order of adjectives needs to be recognized when there is more than one
describing a noun. The adjective for nationality should come after other modifiers
(and therefore be nearest the noun).
This is an Asian small country located on the same peninsular. ✘

This is a small Asian country located on the same peninsular. ✔
The Taiwanese emerging market will no doubt play a part in the near future. ✘
The emerging Taiwanese market will no doubt play a part in the near future. ✔
152 English Exposed
14.4 Exercises
A. Select either the adjective or the noun for each sentence.
We interviewed three Germany/German employees, two Korea/Korean em-

ployees, and the manager of the company (who was born in Germany/German )
at the Japan/Japanese headquarters in Tokyo.
A number of China/Chinese firms have been studied, two from the north of
China/Chinese and three from the south. We also discuss the findings of
Yoshinaga (2009), who looked at the performance of Japan/Japanese firms
listed on Japan’s/Japan/Japanese stock exchange.
B. How many of these sentences contain incorrect references to a country,

nationality, or language? Cross out the error(s) and insert the correction(s) in
the space provided.
They identified how the China government can resolve this issue. __________
We focus on the UK, the US, Germany, and France. __________
China economy is beginning to emerge from the crisis. __________
France steel companies have not suffered the same fate as their counterparts in
the UK. __________
We looked at the structure of the following languages: Korea, Japanese, Germany,
English, and French. __________
15
DATES AND TIME EXPRESSIONS
Focus on . . . Dates

Expressions of time
This chapter focuses on using dates and selecting appropriate time phrases for
particular situations. It covers general formatting, prepositional selection, and the
relevant tense to use. It also explains how certain expressions can date events in
sequence.
15.1 correct format for dates / 15.2 prepositions and dates / 15.3 tense /
15.4 time phrases / 15.5 adjective time phrases /
15.6 ‘today’ and ‘nowadays’ / 15.7 Exercises

from (15.4) on (15.2)
less than (15.4) recent decades (15.3)
in (15.2) since (15.4)
nowadays (15.6) until (15.4)
154 English Exposed
REVEALED: 15.1 – How to write dates correctly

It is increasingly common for dates to be written without an apostrophe if there is
no possession taking place.
This style of clothing was typical in the 1970s.
But the normal rules apply when there is possession.
I will concentrate on 1970s’ fashion and the way the music scene influenced these
designs.
! Some tutors might prefer this last example to be rephrased rather

than using a possessive apostrophe.
I will concentrate on the fashion of the 1970s and the way the music scene
influenced these designs.
Avoid the definite article when referring to a year.
In the 2012, a number of protests took place in the town square. ✘
When the year acts like an adjective to refer to an event, the article is needed.
They were present at the 2012 Health Education Conference.
Dates must always be written in numbers, not in words.
The technology was available in the nineteen eighties, but there was no way to
apply it. ✘
The technology was available in the 1980s, but there was no way to apply it. ✔
REVEALED: 15.2 – Which prepositions to use with dates

There are a few general rules about when to use ‘in’ and ‘on’ with dates.
‘In’ is used for months and years.

Dates and Time Expressions 155
This occurred in June.

This occurred in June 2004.
This occurred in 2009.
The data was collected on March 2010. ✘

The data was collected in March 2010. ✔
And ‘on’ is used for specific dates and days of the week.
This occurred on June 15th, 2004.

This occurred on Tuesday.
This occurred in 4th October. ✘

This occurred on 4th October. ✔
REVEALED: 15.3 – Which tense to use when mentioning

the date of something
Most of the time writers will be referring to studies or events that have taken place
in the past. When providing a past date, the tense needs to reflect this.
In 2010 they are faced with a similar situation. ✘

In 2010 they were faced with a similar situation. ✔
Equally, when a future date is mentioned, the tense has to match.
The next conference took place in Beijing in 2019. ✘

The next conference will take place in Beijing in 2019. ✔
If the date of an event or research paper is the same as the year in which the work
is being written (2016 below), then the present perfect or simple past is normally
appropriate when referring to it.
The situation was bound to escalate, and 2016 has seen renewed fighting in the
region.
In 2016 they began testing this device over small areas.
156 English Exposed

‘Recent years’ is a better term than ‘recent decades’. Given the fast-changing
nature of industry and research, there is nothing ‘recent’ about 20 or 30 years ago.
‘Past few’ can be used for decades and the sentence written in the present perfect.
As a key component of many economic activities, the demand for radio spectrum
is rising in recent years. ✘
As a key component of many economic activities, the demand for radio spectrum
has been rising in recent years. ✔
There was an increase in capability in the past few decades, and this has resulted
in . . . ✘
There has been an increase in capability in the past few decades, and this has
resulted in . . . ✔
REVEALED: 15.4 – Which phrases to use for certain time

periods
Selecting the correct expression for time periods can be confusing. The following
chart shows the start and end points for the key terms.
from six weeks
within six weeks
in six weeks
after six weeks
for six weeks
up to six weeks
at six weeks
weeks 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time prepositions are some of the hardest to comprehend; fortunately, there are
certain ones that can be defined and distinguished.
‘Until’ is used when the activity continues up to a specific end point.
We will continue until there are no more outliers left.
‘By’ can be used to set a time limit for an activity or situation.
The effects should be known until 18:00. ✘

The effects should be known by 18:00. ✔ (‘by 18:00’ means no later than 18:00)
* * *
Another pair of time prepositions is ‘since’ and ‘from’. These two terms can be dis-
tinguished as follows:
‘From’ can be used to indicate a specific time as a starting point in the future.
Since 2018, this will be made compulsory for all workers. ✘

From 2018, this will be made compulsory for all workers. ✔
‘Since’ can be used for an event beginning in the past and still continuing today.
From 1999, this has been the responsibility of the Ministry of Home Affairs. ✘
Since 1999, this has been the responsibility of the Ministry of Home Affairs. ✔
‘From’ can also indicate the first of two specific points (with ‘to’ or ‘until’).
The session took place from 6:00 until 7:00.

Recognizing the context is important when choosing between ‘less than’ and ‘up
to’. These terms do not express the same time frame because technically ‘up to
six months’ could be the whole six months, whereas ‘less than six months’ cannot
be as long as six months. Errors occur when the writer wishes to imply that the
length of time is long or excessive (i.e., a negative connotation); ‘less than’ would
then be inappropriate.
158 English Exposed
Given the alterations that have been identified, the finished model may even take
less than two years to build. ✘
Given the alterations that have been identified, the finished model may even take
up to two years to build. ✔
A crime of this severity will carry a sentence of less than 15 years. ✘

A crime of this severity will carry a sentence of up to 15 years. ✔
REVEALED: 15.5 – How to form time phrases that are

adjectives modifying a noun
When time phrases represent an adjective modifying a noun, the unit of time
needs to be in the singular form and the term hyphenated.
This three years cycle was confirmed by the research group in 1967. ✘
This three-year cycle was confirmed by the research group in 1967. ✔
A twenty minutes break every three hours is now recommended for jobs of this
nature. ✘
A twenty-minute break every three hours is now recommended for jobs of this
nature. ✔
(See also 9.2.)
REVEALED: 15.6 – The difference between ‘today’ and

‘nowadays’
Writers often use ‘nowadays’ and ‘today’ interchangeably, but they have different
uses.
The only time they do have similar purposes is when starting a sentence in the
following way:
Today/Nowadays, these areas are much more tightly controlled as a result of . . .
In the example above, ‘today’ does not refer to ‘this day’ but takes on the meaning
of ‘at the current time’.
The mistake occurs when writers try to give ‘nowadays’ possession. Nowadays can
only be used as an adverb and therefore cannot take a possessive form like ‘today’
can.
In nowaday’s market, it is important to take advantage of investment from these

new online sources. ✘
In today’s market, it is important to take advantage of investment from these new
online sources. ✔
To use nowadays here it must be rephrased.
In the market nowadays . . .
That said, ‘nowadays’ might be considered too informal for some situations. Terms
such as ‘today’, ‘current’, and ‘contemporary’ have a more academic sound to them.
In the current market . . .
15.7 Exercises
A. How many mistakes are there in the following passage? Rewrite the passage
in the lines provided.
Since 2020 the headquarters will be in Munich. This move has come about
because of nowaday’s market, where production is centring on Germany. On June
the company issued a statement detailing the move and that within three years
they wanted to streamline the business prior to relocation on 2020. In recent
years profits were declining, so action needed to be taken.
B. Fill in the gaps with either ‘since’ or ‘from’.
The government has been discussing this __________ Tuesday.

This has only been happening __________ the new software was installed.
The measures will hopefully be in place __________ Tuesday.
The office is open __________ 9:00 until 12:00 noon at the weekend.
160 English Exposed
C. Cross out the phrases that are unsuitable, based on the information
provided. The first one has been done for you.
It should not take as long as six weeks.

from six weeks within six weeks in six weeks after six weeks
for six weeks up to six weeks at six weeks
It is likely to take longer than six weeks.

It is likely to last six weeks.

It will start around six weeks’ time.

16
NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES
Focus on . . . Numbers

Rank and order
Percentages
This chapter focuses on numbers and percentages and covers the issues of format,
use, and suitability of terms. It also addresses the differences between cardinal
and ordinal numbers and how to express fractions correctly.
16.1 using numbers / 16.2 order of adjectives / 16.3 ordinal numbers /

16.4 rank and article use / 16.5 fractions / 16.6 prepositional choice /
16.7 working with percentages / 16.8 Exercises

additional (16.2) forty (16.3) quarters (16.5)
divided by (16.6) fourteen (16.3) rank (16.3)
double (16.5) hundred (16.1) second (16.3, 16.4)
eight (16.3) last (16.2) seventeenth (16.3)
eleventh (16.3) less than (16.7) thirds (16.5)
equals (16.6) main (16.2) thousand (16.1)
fewer than (16.7) million (16.1) twelfth (16.3)
first (16.2, 16.4) next (16.2) twice (16.5)
fourth (16.3) percent/percentage
fortieth (16.3) (16.7)
162 English Exposed
REVEALED: 16.1 – How to use numbers in a sentence

Numbers should only be spelled out using letters if they are under 11.
The aim was to have at least one hundred and twenty-five questionnaires
returned by the end of week six. ✘
The aim was to have at least 125 questionnaires returned by the end of week
six. ✔
! If a number begins the sentence, then it must be spelled out regard-

less of its value.
14 theories have been offered, and these will be evaluated next. ✘

Fourteen theories have been offered, and these will be evaluated next. ✔
3 steel frames were acquired from Danvers, a local company. ✘

Three steel frames were acquired from Danvers, a local company. ✔
Numbers, not words, should always be used with units.
The guidelines suggest that this should be a fifteen cm incision. ✘

The guidelines suggest that this should be a 15 cm incision. ✔
Numbers and letters should not be mixed when writing out a number. This is
commonly seen with hundreds and thousands.
The government is hoping the scheme will create 150 thousand new jobs. ✘
The government is hoping the scheme will create 150,000 new jobs. ✔
! When spelling out exact numbers, ‘hundred’, ‘thousand’, and ‘million’

should not be made plural even if their unit value is more than one.
Three thousands are used with this device. ✘

Three thousand are used with this device. ✔
Numbers and Percentages 163

When separating thousands and hundreds of thousands, a comma should be
used and not a decimal point.
3.500 200.000 3,500 200,000
REVEALED: 16.2 – How to sequence adjectives that include

a number
When used alongside adjectives to modify a noun, the placement of the number
is important. The number must go after sequence words such as ‘first’, ‘next’, and
‘last’.
The three next cases relate to the national level. ✘

The next three cases relate to the national level. ✔
But numbers go before any other modifying word.
Additional three tests were carried out to discover why the machine kept cutting
out. ✘
Three additional tests were carried out to discover why the machine kept cutting
out. ✔
These are the main two contributions of this study. ✘

These are the two main contributions of this study. ✔
REVEALED: 16.3 – How to use ordinal numbers effectively

Ordinal numbers are used for order and rank. These numbers should not be used
to represent a quantity.
Fourteenth sets of fermentations were performed using samples from . . . ✘

Fourteen sets of fermentations were performed using samples from . . . ✔
Here, an ordinal is required, but a cardinal number has been used by mistake.
A study reported it as the eight most common cause of _____ in the US. ✘
A study reported it as the eighth most common cause of _____ in the US. ✔
164 English Exposed
Writers should benefit from the following list, as these terms are generally misused
and misspelled.
two 2nd second 2th

four 4th fourth forth
eleven 11th eleventh 11st
twelve 12th twelfth twelvth
seventeen 17th seventeenth sevententh
forty 40th fortieth fourty fourtieth
The forms ‘fourth’, and ‘forty’ are the most problematic. Remember that ‘4th’ has a
‘u’ but ‘40’ does not.
Fourty participants took part in the next stage. ✘

Forty participants took part in the next stage. ✔
It was the forth time that the bill had been delayed. ✘
It was the fourth time that the bill had been delayed. ✔
! There is no need to use the word ‘rank’ here.
‘Little opportunity for training’ was fourth rank on the list. ✘

‘Little opportunity for training’ was fourth on the list. ✔
REVEALED: 16.4 – The relationship between rank and

article use
A definite article is normally used when referring to a particular rank, because
rank implies that only one thing can represent each place. This is demonstrated in
the following example, where ‘first’ is used as an adjective.
The first problem is whether there is enough memory to carry out all these tasks.
But when used as an adverb that expresses the order of a list of points, no article
is required.
The first, we will look at the attitude of the workers; the second, their background
and general work experience . . . ✘
First, we will look at the attitude of the workers; second, their background and
general work experience . . . ✔
REVEALED: 16.5 – How to use fractions correctly

The main issues with fractions are failing to pluralize the term and using ordinal
numbers.
In other words, two third of the students felt that the amount of written English
support was low. ✘
In other words, two-thirds of the students felt that the amount of written English
support was low. ✔
Third quarters of the respondents answered ‘very often’ for question 12. ✘
Three-quarters of the respondents answered ‘very often’ for question 12. ✔
twice/double
It is often difficult to choose between these related terms in a given situation.

‘Twice’ can only be used as an adverb; ‘double’ can be used as a noun, adjective,
adverb, and verb. There is some overlap in meaning, but as a guideline ‘twice’ is
used for ‘two times’ and for comparison alongside ‘as’. ‘Double’ is used for express-
ing quantity, specifically for multiplying by two or as much again in size, strength,
or number.
In this scenario, the dose would be twice. ✘

In this scenario, the dose would be doubled. ✔
There were double as many withdrawals . . . ✘

There were twice as many withdrawals . . . ✔
166 English Exposed
REVEALED: 16.6 – Which prepositions to select for certain

number-related phrases
The following phrases are employed with numbers, but writers often select the
wrong particle. A number can be divided ‘by’ another number, but not ‘with’, ‘to’, or
‘into’. For the second error, there is a choice between ‘equal to’ and ‘equals’.
divided by
The number of components is then divided into the number of devices. ✘

The number of components is then divided by the number of devices. ✔
equal to/equals
They assert that the value of a leveraged firm is equal with the value of an unlever-
aged firm plus tax shield. ✘
They assert that the value of a leveraged firm equals to the value of an unlever-
aged firm plus tax shield. ✘
They assert that the value of a leveraged firm is equal to the value of an unlever-
aged firm plus tax shield. ✔ OR
They assert that the value of a leveraged firm equals the value . . . ✔
REVEALED: 16.7 – How to format percentages correctly in

a sentence
The percentage sign (%) is preferred to words when using percentages in the
main text.
The success rate was slightly lower than 60 percent. ✘

The success rate was slightly lower than 60%. ✔
But if the sentence begins with a percentage, then the term should be written
without numbers or signs.
70% is acceptable in year one. ✘

Seventy percent is acceptable in year one. ✔
If there are no numbers attached to the term, then the phrase to use is ‘percent-
age’ not ‘percent’.
A small percent will be caused by poor visibility or low temperatures. ✘

A small percentage will be caused by poor visibility or low temperatures. ✔
These figures are also written in percents. ✘

These figures are also written in percentages. ✔

When providing percentages in the results section, the ‘of phrase’ is likely to be
needed, though it is usually left out in error.
Twenty percent teachers completed this task within the time allowed. ✘
Twenty percent of the teachers completed this task within the time allowed. ✔
But in the second school only 80% learners achieved this. ✘

But in the second school only 80% of the learners achieved this. ✔
When the percentage is acting like an adjective, then the ‘of’ phrase will not be
required.
The machine had a 68% success rate for this task.
* * *
For subject-verb agreement, the noun following the percentage should deter-
mine whether the verb is singular or plural. Here ‘patients’ is a plural noun, so a
plural verb form (‘are’) is required.
As a result, 20% of the patients is eligible to proceed to the next phase. ✘

As a result, 20% of the patients are eligible to proceed to the next phase. ✔
In this next example an uncountable noun (‘training’) is used, so the verb has to
be singular to agree.
According to the report, 25% of the training were supervised. ✘

According to the report, 25% of the training was supervised. ✔
The noun and not the percentage will also determine the verb form for these
terms. Note that, in general, ‘fewer’ is used with countable nouns and ‘less’ with
uncountable.
168 English Exposed
Less than 20% of the patients are eligible . . . ✘

Fewer than 20% of the patients are eligible . . . ✔
Fewer than 25% of the training was supervised. ✘

Less than 25% of the training was supervised. ✔
16.8 Exercises
A. Three sentences contain number errors, and three sentences are written
correctly. Can you identify them?
The 19th section of the report lists the occasions when this can occur.
Brooks, C. 2014. Introductory Econometrics for Finance. 3rd ed. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
The forth reason is related to location, and the fifth reason is external investment.
19 out of 60 of the studies reviewed rejected the hypothesis put forward by
Klinger (2002).
The company came seven in a list of the top ten companies in revenue.
Almost three-quarters of the respondents ‘strongly agreed’ with this statement.
B. Fill in each gap with an appropriate form.
percentage percent %
These are all written as a __________

Sixty-seven __________ were absent on the final day.
At least 60 __________ are in favour.
The __________ of people who then report this has decreased, though.
17
FIGURES AND TABLES
Focus on . . . Articles with figures and tables

Tense with figures and tables
This chapter focuses on the terms to use when referring to figures and tables. It
covers the areas of article use, tense, prepositions, and verb choice.
17.1 numbered figures / 17.2 using ‘above’ and ‘below’ /

17.3 verb choice / 17.4 Exercises

above (17.2) following (17.1)
according to (17.3) in (17.1, 17.3)
as shown (17.3) next (17.1, 17.3)
below (17.2) on (17.1)
exhibit (17.3) previous (17.1)
170 English Exposed
REVEALED: 17.1 – How to refer to parts of an essay that are

numbered
When figures (diagrams and images) and tables are numbered, the noun takes
on the properties of a proper noun. This means the definite article (the) is not
needed.
This can be seen in the Figure 4 below. ✘

This can be seen in Figure 4 below. ✔
! Without the number, the noun will require a definite article.
This can be seen in the figure below.
As shown in the Table 3, this is not the case for SMEs. ✘

As shown in Table 3, this is not the case for SMEs. ✔
When sequence words are used (next, previous, following, etc.), a number should
not be added. These terms require an article and already indicate which figure is
being referred to. The reference number can be written in brackets for clarification.
In the next Table 2.4, the results from the second session are presented. ✘
In the next table, the results from the second session are presented. ✔
In the next table (2.4), the results from the second session are presented. ✔
! ‘In’ should be used for tables and figures, not ‘on’.
On the following table, the studies relating to this topic are presented. ✘
In the following table, the studies relating to this topic are presented. ✔
(See also 7.1.)
The previous equation 3.4 is also useful for this task. ✘

The previous equation (3.4) is also useful for this task. ✔
Equation 3.4 is also useful for this task. ✔
Figures and Tables 171
REVEALED: 17.2 – How to refer to figures correctly when

using ‘above’ and ‘below’
Readers are often guided to sections and figures that are below or above the text
they are reading. The problem is that these two terms have different usages.
Both are used as prepositions. ‘Below’ is also an adverb, whereas ‘above’ can be an
adverb or an adjective. This means that ‘below’ cannot come before a noun like
this:
This can be seen in the below figure. ✘

This can be seen in the figure below. ✔
‘Below’ can be used before ‘is/are’.
Below is a table displaying these results.
‘Above’ is more flexible and can be used as an adjective before a noun.
The above diagram does not address the issues at the lower level.
But as an adverb it must come after the verb.
As above argued, the importance of this will change depending on the makeup
of the sample. ✘
As argued above, the importance of this will change depending on the makeup
of the sample. ✔
REVEALED: 17.3 – Which verbs to use when introducing

figures
When referring to tables and figures, the following verbs are typical:
to show to depict to display to see to present
One error that should be addressed is the use of ‘exhibit’.
The breakdown of these results is exhibited in Table 4. ✘

The breakdown of these results is shown/displayed in Table 4. ✔
172 English Exposed
The figure should not be labelled ‘exhibit’ either.
This has been provided in Exhibit 3 below. ✘
* * *
Naturally, the tense has to match the position of the table or figure and the terms
employed.
This next model (3.5) demonstrated how key variables were selected. ✘
This next model (3.5) demonstrates how key variables were selected. ✔
If the figure is located close to the description, then the present tense is employed.
Figure 2.4 shows the model adapted from Lu (2013).
! There is no need to use the past tense for introducing a figure located
directly above the text.
Figure 2.4 (above) showed that this rate has dropped significantly in the
past five years. ✘
Figure 2.4 (above) shows that this rate has dropped significantly in the
past five years. ✔
Two phrases that are often used to refer to a figure or table are ‘as shown’ and
‘according to’.
As it is shown in Table 2 . . . ✘

According to Table 2 it shows that the number of firms increased substantially
in the 1990s. ✘
Both of these have to be rewritten to simplify them and improve their clarity. The
first has to be changed to:
As shown in Table 2 . . . ✔
There are two options for the second phrase. Either
Table 2 shows or According to Table 2,

Figures and Tables 173
There is no need to add a reporting verb (‘shows’) or to repeat the subject (‘it’)
when the sentence begins with ‘According to’.
According to Table 2, the number of firms increased substantially in the 1990s. ✔
(See also 20.4.)
But care must be taken, because the phrase cannot always be used as a straight
substitute for ‘in’. ‘According to’ relates to the information within the figure, not
just the figure in general.
‘According to Figure 3’ is a shortened version of ‘According to the data/results in

Figure 3’.
It can also mean ‘in agreement with’.
According to (the method/instruction/guidelines presented in) . . .
It therefore sounds strange when used for just referring generally to the figure.
In fact, often these introductory phrases are redundant and the reference to the
figure can simply be placed within brackets.
We have taken each study and assessed its strengths and weaknesses according
to Figure 7. ✘
We have taken each study and assessed its strengths and weaknesses (Figure 7). ✔
17.4 Exercises
A. For the three sets of sentences that introduce a table, tick the option that is
correct.
The Table 4 below shows the relationships among the four variables.
The below table 4 shows the relationships among the four variables.
Table 4 below shows the relationships among the four variables.
This is showed in Table 7 below.

This is shown in the below Table 7.
This is shown in Table 7 below.
174 English Exposed
According to the table below, the only support the scheme received was from
Morgan (2006).
According to the table below, it shows that the only support the scheme received
was from Morgan (2006).
According to table below, the only support the scheme received was from Morgan
(2006).
B. Rewrite the following sentences to make them error-free.
The following Table 6.3 presents the findings of our study.
This will be demonstrated in the Figures 3.1–3.4 above.
Previous model 4.1 presents the four algorithms.
Below diagram (Figure 7) outlines these provisions.

18
SPELLING AND TYPOS
Focus on . . . Commonly misspelled words

Typos
This chapter presents spelling errors that are caused by confusing certain terms,
picking up bad habits, and simply mistyping.
Background / 18.1 misspelled terms /
18.2 issues with double consonants / 18.3 Exercises

See list (18.1) plus . . . identify (18.1)
assess (18.2) occasion (18.2)
costumer (18.1) occurrence (18.2)
diverse (18.1) possess (18.2)
176 English Exposed
BACKGROUND: Certain spelling mistakes are merely the result of

mistyping. Some occur because the writer has been influenced by similar-looking
words or by a common order of letters, and others through mixing up vowels
or because of the presence of double consonants. Recognition of the particular
terms that are commonly misspelled will increase awareness and should lead to
more care being taken to ensure they have been written correctly.
REVEALED: 18.1 – Terms most often misspelled

adjust/ajust
These figures will then have to be ajusted to reflect the extra days. ✘
These figures will then have to be adjusted to reflect the extra days. ✔
align/aline
Their arguments aline with those of Patel and Guthrie (2009). ✘

Their arguments align with those of Patel and Guthrie (2009). ✔
beginning/begging
The advantage is that there is a clear begging and end that can be measured. ✘
The advantage is that there is a clear beginning and end that can be measured. ✔
combining/combing
Combing these therapies has yielded impressive results. ✘

Combining these therapies has yielded impressive results. ✔
continuous/continues
It focuses on developing these experiences and continues learning. ✘

It focuses on developing these experiences and continuous learning. ✔
country/county
The data were collected from six counties in the first stage. ✘
The data were collected from six countries in the first stage. ✔
Spelling and Typos 177
customer/costumer
Yu (2015) analysed the relationship between the staff and the costumers. ✘
Yu (2015) analysed the relationship between the staff and the customers. ✔
! Sometimes the writer means ‘consumer’.
This comes under the topic of costumer rights. ✘

This comes under the topic of consumer rights. ✔
even though/thought
The proposal was submitted to the management, even thought the projections
had yet to be made. ✘
The proposal was submitted to the management, even though the projections
had yet to be made. ✔
from/form
These were obtained form a digital imaging company. ✘

These were obtained from a digital imaging company. ✔
language/langauge
Langauge acquisition can be measured in a variety of ways. ✘

Language acquisition can be measured in a variety of ways. ✔
learning/leaning
It was a great leaning experience for the tutors. ✘

It was a great learning experience for the tutors. ✔
linear/liner
The liner regression model is described below: ✘

The linear regression model is described below: ✔
178 English Exposed
manager/manger
Many of these studies interviewed workplace mangers about the effects it has on
staff. ✘
Many of these studies interviewed workplace managers about the effects it has
on staff. ✔
phase/phrase
This is likely to be a common occurrence in the design and development phrases

of the project. ✘
This is likely to be a common occurrence in the design and development phases of
the project. ✔
previous/pervious
This was primarily based on their pervious teaching experiences. ✘

This was primarily based on their previous teaching experiences. ✔
severe/sever
This has triggered sever competition between both the regions. ✘

This has triggered severe competition between both the regions. ✔
! A similar mistake occurs with diverse/divers.
Conversely, there was a divers group in Morgan’s (1999) study. ✘

Conversely, there was a diverse group in Morgan’s (1999) study. ✔
whether/weather
Several studies have attempted to determine weather hedging is important in

specific emerging markets. ✘
Several studies have attempted to determine whether hedging is important in
specific emerging markets. ✔
Spelling and Typos 179
widely/wildly
As the coordinates were wildly spread, the demonstrators were given 50 minutes
to complete the route. ✘
As the coordinates were widely spread, the demonstrators were given 50 minutes
to complete the route. ✔
One of the most misspelled words in academic English is ‘identify’. The spelling
error even generates over half a million hits on Internet search engines.
The second aim was to indentify models of community intervention employed by

social workers. ✘
The second aim was to identify models of community intervention employed by
social workers. ✔
REVEALED: 18.2 – How to spell certain terms that contain

double consonants
Good concentration can help to reduce spelling errors, but there are some terms
that really can prove difficult to get right every time. Terms with sets of double
letters need careful consideration.
In order to asess the physical properties, a differential scale was used. ✘

In order to assess the physical properties, a differential scale was used. ✔
This species has been proven to posses the ability to discriminate between this
polarized light. ✘
This species has been proven to possess the ability to discriminate between this
polarized light. ✔
! The third person singular contains a further ‘s’, making five in total.
Hardouvelis (1987) assesses five different market indexes, including the

S&P 500.
180 English Exposed
It is also difficult to remember where to place the double letters for these terms.
On this occassion the performance exceeded their expectations. ✘

On this occasion the performance exceeded their expectations. ✔
This is used to measure the occurence of unanticipated events. ✘

This is used to measure the occurrence of unanticipated events. ✔
18.3 Exercises
A. There are ten spelling/typo mistakes in this passage. Can you find them all?
Every project must go though different phrases with different teams involved.
This next section indentifies the phases in which the mangement team feature
to from an overall picture of their role and influence. Perviously we looked at the
design teams and how they alined their ideas with the production team. The aim
is to create a product that the costumer identifies with. This is were feedback is
also important, so the teams can lean about what the customer desires.
19
PUNCTUATION
Focus on . . . Punctuation (commas, semicolons, and dashes)

Capital letters
This chapter investigates the role certain punctuation marks play in writing. It
focuses on comma placement, semicolon use, the three types of dash, and when
to employ capital letters.
Background / 19.1 commas and clauses /

19.2 commas, conjunctions, and references /
19.3 semicolons, clauses, and lists / 19.4 distinguishing dashes /
19.5 capital letter use / 19.6 Exercises

although (19.1) unless (19.2)
but (19.2) well (19.4)
however (19.3, 19.5) whereas (19.2)
if (19.1)
182 English Exposed
BACKGROUND: Punctuation is used to organize writing, enhance

readability, and promote understanding. Too much punctuation or too little will
make for an unpleasant reading experience; the wrong punctuation will obscure
or even change the meaning of a sentence. The position of a comma, or its
absence, can markedly alter the context.
For the first task, the participants could choose among a magnetic compass or
a GPS compass, a mobile phone with GPS enabled, our experimental device with
instructions or a map.
For the first task, the participants could choose among a magnetic compass or
a GPS compass, a mobile phone with GPS enabled, our experimental device with
instructions, or a map.
In the first example, it may appear to some that a participant can choose the
experimental device and then decide whether to have instructions with it or have
a map. In the second example, with the addition of a comma, the options seem to
be a device OR a map.
In some cases, the sentence is unreadable if the comma is in the wrong place.
If it is not carried out the opportunity to provide students with feedback, will be
missed. ✘
If it is not carried out, the opportunity to provide students with feedback will be
missed. ✔
See 20.5 for information on the three-point ellipsis.
REVEALED: 19.1 – The relationship between commas and

clauses
Commas should not be used to split up sentences that are independent and rep-
resent two different thoughts. Full stops (periods) should be used for this.
To answer this, we looked at artists that had used this technique in their work, we
discovered that a number of painters relied heavily on red, black, and white. ✘
To answer this, we looked at artists that had used this technique in their work. We
discovered that a number of painters relied heavily on red, black, and white. ✔
* * *
Punctuation 183
A dependent clause can appear within another clause in a sentence to give addi-
tional (but not essential) information (see 10B). Commas are placed on each side
of the dependent clause.
The export data of the countries were analysed, with the exception of Thailand,
and then tabulated according to their region (Tables 3.4–3.9).
But in this next sentence the middle clause is not additional information. It should
be the start of a new sentence because it does not follow on from the opening
independent clause. This method of splitting up every part with a comma is a
common mistake.
Ten variables were selected for this study, to avoid the temptation of including
as many variables as possible, only items with missing variables were used. ✘
Ten variables were selected for this study. To avoid the temptation of includ-
ing as many variables as possible, only items with missing variables were
used. ✔
When a sentence begins with a dependent clause, a comma is used to separate it

from the independent clause.
If the device is in this mode for longer than six hours, then the batteries will need
to be replaced.
A comma is not required if an independent clause comes first, unless a connect-

ing word that relates to contrast or concession (unless, although, whereas . . .)
begins the dependent clause.
The participants are allowed to converse, if the instructions have already been
given. ✘
The participants are allowed to converse if the instructions have already been
given. ✔
Hseih and Fu (2003) increased this number to ten although they searched within a
smaller area. ✘
Hseih and Fu (2003) increased this number to ten, although they searched within
a smaller area. ✔
184 English Exposed
REVEALED: 19.2 – Where to place commas when using

conjunctions
Commas should always be placed before a connecting word, not after.
These researchers noted the difficulties that they encountered when reaching their
target participants whereas, Hu (1988) used the learners from the institution. ✘
These researchers noted the difficulties that they encountered when reaching their
target participants, whereas Hu (1988) used the learners from the institution. ✔
The conditions cannot be changed at a later date unless, a factual error has been
made in the document. ✘
The conditions cannot be changed at a later date, unless a factual error has been
made in the document. ✔
The government subsequently introduced free primary education but, this was not
accompanied by the necessary financial support. ✘
The government subsequently introduced free primary education, but this was not
accompanied by the necessary financial support. ✔
REVEALED: 19.3 – When to use a semicolon in a clause and

in a list
Semicolons are more powerful than commas and can be employed when two
clauses are being contrasted.
The first method produced sufficient simulation time and was able to determine
unique values; the second method failed in both these tasks.
When a conjunctive adverb is used to break up two independent clauses, a semi-

colon is placed before this connecting word and a comma after it.
The third group scored higher than the other two groups on all of the tasks;
however, their accuracy was the lowest for half of the tasks carried out.
When additional information is being provided for each entry in a list, commas
and semicolons should be used together to break up entries and improve read-
ability. The writer here is using lists within a list and the semicolons serve to divide
the entries clearly.
Punctuation 185
It included questions about demographics, such as socioeconomic status and

household structure; life events, including early life exposure; healthy and
unhealthy habits, such as smoking, alcohol intake, and drug use; general health,
including reproductive events and illnesses; . . . ✔
Without the semicolons, the list would be more difficult to interpret and the
main categories (in bold above) would not be easily recognized. In this next
example it is hard to tell whether these elements all come under the heading of
demographics or are separate categories.
It included questions about demographics, such as socioeconomic status and

household structure, life events, including early life exposure, healthy and
unhealthy habits, such as smoking . . . ✘
REVEALED: 19.4 – The different types of dash and how

they are employed
There are three types of dash.
hyphen -
en dash –
em dash —
Hyphens are the smallest of the three horizontal lines. They connect words and
word fragments. They are commonly found in compounds that are modifying a
noun and coming before the noun.
This is a well defined concept, but little has been written about its application in
the field. ✘
This is a well-defined concept, but little has been written about its application in
the field. ✔
! But when the term comes after the noun, a hyphen is not required.
The different stages of this process have been well defined. (See also 8.1.)
The en dash is the length of a standard ‘n’ and is used mainly for notation to repre-
sent ranges and to split up names and opposites.
186 English Exposed
. . . as seen in Robertson and Davies (1998, pp. 110–118)

The 2011–2012 report was also made available online for six months.
The em dash is slightly longer than the en dash and has two functions. It is used at
the end of a sentence for a final thought or a restatement of a previous thought.
It is especially useful in long sentences when a set of commas has already been
used. Only one dash is used for this task.
The data are available to all staff, especially data related to the outcomes of
relevant trials, but training is required on effective search techniques—as observed
in our study.
It can also be used in pairs instead of commas or brackets to add emphasis and
to clarify, or if the phrase interrupts the previous one. Brackets should be used for
information that carries little real importance.
If the infant has reached a suitable weight usually around 5 kg then dialysis
would also be an option. ✘
If the infant has reached a suitable weight—usually around 5 kg—then dialysis
would also be an option. ✔
Two hyphens cannot represent an em dash.
. . . as many of the political parties focused on this issue of nationalism--an idea
originally put forward by a respected commentator prior to the campaigns. ✘
. . . as many of the political parties focused on this issue of nationalism—an idea
originally put forward by a respected commentator prior to the campaigns. ✔
REVEALED: 19.5 – When to use capital letters

Many writers use capital letters in a seemingly random manner. Only proper
nouns such as names of places (see also 14.B and 14.2), companies, organizations,
titles, people, days, and months should really be given capitals—this includes
adjectives derived from people’s names and places.
Dr Wenja Wang Chinese the Red Cross Shakespearian

Shandong University Microsoft He Luting June
Punctuation 187
The following example demonstrates the casual use of capital letters that some
writers adopt:
This Study is going to build a new model based on the previous studies about
Consumer Value, motivation, and expectation to explore the differences. Initially,
Quantitative methods will be used to collect First-hand data in the uk and in
china. ✘
This should be rewritten so only the two countries have capital letters.
This study is going to build a new model based on the previous studies about
consumer value, motivation, and expectation to explore the differences. Initially,
quantitative methods will be used to collect first-hand data in the UK and in
China. ✔
Capital letters should come after full stops and question marks but not after
commas or semicolons. These next examples are typical mistakes that demon-
strate this point.
How can the company change the mentality of the employees? we will try to
answer this question by first analysing why . . . ✘
How can the company change the mentality of the employees? We will try to
answer this question by first analysing why . . . ✔
Similarly, The two Chinese companies also tried to attract foreign investment. ✘
Similarly, the two Chinese companies also tried to attract foreign investment. ✔
It was clear that most of the respondents had at least some exposure to this;
However, the distribution was slightly skewed to the left. ✘
It was clear that most of the respondents had at least some exposure to this;
however, the distribution was slightly skewed to the left. ✔
* * *
It is important to have a consistent format in the contents page of a paper. Often
the main chapter headings are capitalized and the subheadings lower case, but
some subject guidelines suggest all titles should have initial capitals for each
word. The following is a good example of inconsistent capital letter use.
188 English Exposed
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 Rationale of the research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Background of the Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Aims and objectives of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Structure of the Dissertation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Competitive Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Sustainable Competitive Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Perceptible and imperceptible assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Attributes of Sustainable Competitive Advantage . . . . . . . . . ✘
A more consistent format would be to capitalize the initial letter of all the words
(apart from prepositions and articles) except those in the subsections (2.3.1 and
2.3.2).
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 Rationale of the Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Background of the Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Structure of the Dissertation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Competitive Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Sustainable Competitive Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Perceptible and imperceptible assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Attributes of sustainable competitive advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . ✔
19.6 Exercises
A. Insert appropriate punctuation into these passages.
The dissertation is divided into five chapters in this chapter I introduced the ration-
ale and the aims of this study from which the research questions were drawn
The final objective is to understand learners perceptions of the text which ties in
with objective three
The authors would like to thank mr Michael morgan for his feedback on the model
we would also like to thank orion solutions for lending us the equipment to carry
out the experiments the first experiment used their original RH200 system the
second experiment required the upgrade
Punctuation 189
The uk and china are two other countries that have well established trading rela-
tionships Huang 2010 pp 23 45
The leverage is positively related to these tax shields in the real estate industry
although the outcome is not statistically significant
The participants are studying subjects at the Arts School primarily Graphics and
Illustration in the south of the district
B. Circle the capital letters that are not required.
When we were informed that there would only be four people in the Focus Group,
we were not expecting the group to be that informative. According to Chen
(1998), from his book Research Methods in Action, such a small group was unlikely
to generate the Group Dynamics necessary for an outstanding session; However,
the focus group actually turned out to be very informative, and all the questions
we prepared for the Discussion were fully answered with interesting insights from
the Participants.
20
REFERENCING
Focus on . . . In-text citing

Reporting verbs
Quotes
This chapter reveals the typical errors made when referencing other people’s work
in the main text and in the bibliography. The topics covered include formatting,
names of authors, subject-verb problems, and handling quotes.
Background / 20.1 Harvard and APA styles / 20.2 names /

20.3 verb agreement / 20.4 phrases and reporting verbs /
20.5 using quotes / 20.6 Exercises

according to (20.4) et al. (20.3)
by (20.4) of (20.4)
concern (20.4) say (20.4)
Referencing 191
BACKGROUND: There are two types of reference in a piece of

research: an in-text reference (usually containing an author and a year) that is
placed in the text, and a full reference (including also the title and publisher’s
details) that forms part of a list located at the end of a paper. It is important to
understand that even if a researcher is not being directly quoted, the study has
to be referenced if the ideas or evidence are being used. In this first example, the
author has been paraphrased but still has to be cited because the writer could not
have known this information before consulting the book.
The original objective of this policy was to improve the quality of education in
schools located in the north of the country (Lu 2012).
Unless it is a well-known fact or an obvious statement, an author’s work has to be

cited.
In the reference list at the end (also called a bibliography), all of the works that
have been referred to in the paper have to be listed (usually alphabetically, unless
the number system is being used). A separate list headed ‘works consulted’ can
be created for books and articles that served as background reading but were not
utilized in the paper.
REVEALED: 20.1 – How to format in-text references in

Harvard and APA styles
There are a number of different formats for referencing in-text. Writers following
the name system used by both Harvard and APA should take note of the following:
When directly mentioning an author’s study in the text, there should only be
brackets around the date.
Managers could also delegate, as suggested by (Lu 2003). ✘

Managers could also delegate, as suggested by Lu (2003). ✔
This was later modified by (Tan et al. 2000) to include impacts. ✘

This was later modified by Tan et al. (2000) to include impacts. ✔
The year must come directly after the author’s name.
Ross claims that this measure may well cause controversy (2000). ✘
Ross (2000) claims that this measure may well cause controversy. ✔
192 English Exposed
Brackets should be placed around the author’s name and date when the author’s
views are being expressed but the author is not being mentioned directly—and
the citation should be at the end of the sentence or quote.
Therefore, these values should not be regarded as absolute quantities (Tan et al.
2000).
If the author has not been mentioned directly, then they cannot be directly
referred to in the next sentence.
Individual difference is another factor that will need to be considered (Madsen et

al., 2005). They maintain that out of the five . . . ✘
Madsen et al. (2005) believe that individual difference is another factor that
should be considered. They maintain that out of the five . . . ✔
* * *
In Harvard style, page numbers are normally used for all in-text references, unless
an author is just referring generally to another study:
Hu (2001: 22) views Hunt’s (1999) work as crucial.
APA requires page numbers only for direct quotes.
HARVARD: Yokohama is a unique urban centre with elevated highways and sky-
scrapers but also a traditional and well-preserved centre (Kondo 2006: 25).
APA: Yokohama is a unique urban centre with elevated highways and skyscrapers
but also a traditional and well-preserved centre (Kondo, 2006).
The only other key difference between Harvard and APA is that the year is put in
brackets in the reference list in APA. Most Harvard versions omit the brackets.
Harvard: Leung, H. 2015. Reinventing maths. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

APA: Leung, H. (2015). Reinventing maths. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
REVEALED: 20.2 – How to use names correctly when

referencing
When a researcher or research is being cited, it is important to use the researcher’s
family name or surname. Often writers use the given (first) name by mistake.
Referencing 193
Michael Morgan
(first name/given name) (family name/surname)
Michael (2009) addresses this by looking at the influence these companies have
over the government-led committees. ✘
Morgan (2009) addresses this by looking at the influence these companies have
over the government-led committees. ✔
The surname will be written first in the reference list, but it will have a comma
after it to indicate that it is the surname and not the first name.
Morgan, M. 2014. Defining blood stem cells, Stem Cell Research 4, 15–23.
REVEALED: 20.3 – Which verb form to choose when

referencing
Subject-verb agreement (see 4) is a key ingredient of written English and can
become quite complex. An easily recognizable but frequent mistake occurs when
authors are being referred to.
In the following example, more than one author is being referred to so the verb
must have a plural form (one study with two authors is also considered plural).
Smith et al. states that this is true for bull markets. ✘

Smith et al. state that this is true for bull markets. ✔
! The correct form for multiple authors is et al.
The following are typical errors:

Smith at al. Smith et all. Smith etal. (See also 9.3.)
Morgan and Jones (2003) proposes focusing on the consumer. ✘

Morgan and Jones (2003) propose focusing on the consumer. ✔
In this next example, the study is the subject rather than the authors so the verb
is singular.
194 English Exposed
A study by Cheung and Park (2009) have located this weak point in the structure. ✘
A study by Cheung and Park (2009) has located this weak point in the structure. ✔
And here, more than one study is being referred to so the plural applies again.
Smith (2003) and Morgan (2010) also considers why this might affect efficiency. ✘
Smith (2003) and Morgan (2010) also consider why this might affect efficiency. ✔
REVEALED: 20.4 – Which terms to use when referencing a

study
When introducing a researcher and a study, there are certain phrases and report-
ing words that can be employed. The writer has used the wrong preposition in the
first example; in the second example, the subject has been needlessly repeated
and a verb unnecessarily added.
A study of Morgan (1998) tested the effectiveness of the algorithm. ✘

A study by Morgan (1998) tested the effectiveness of the algorithm. ✔
According to Cho (1989) he believes the situation will only improve if investment
is found from external sources. ✘
According to Cho (1989), the situation will only improve if investment is found from
external sources. ✔ (See also 17.3.)
Reporting verbs have specific meanings and therefore are prone to being used
incorrectly. When an author has a strong opinion, instead of employing a weak
verb such as ‘says’ the writer can use ‘asserts’ / ‘declares’ / ‘maintains’ . . .
Kim (2010) says that this had actually occurred the year before. ✘
Kim (2010) asserts that this had actually occurred the year before. ✔
Here are some other reporting verbs and their meanings.
When the author of the resource gives guidance or an opinion:
Kim (2010) proposes/recommends/predicts/projects/suggests . . .
When the author looks closely at something,
Kim (2010) analyses/focuses/theorizes . . .

Referencing 195
When the author uncovers something:
Kim (2010) discovers/finds/learns/reveals . . .
When the author does not believe in something:
Kim (2010) denies/questions/refutes/rejects . . .
(See also 5.7.)

Forms of the verb ‘to concern’ should be avoided when introducing a researcher’s
work or study. The verb is often used in the wrong way.
In his work, Leung (2003; 2005) is concerned with the inspiration behind the
designs of Commes des Garçons. ✘
In his work, Leung (2003; 2005) looks at/considers the inspiration behind the
designs of Commes des Garçons. ✔
Suto (2010) concerns about the artist’s technique in these three pieces and con-
cludes that . . . ✘
Suto (2010) considers/assesses the artist’s technique in these three pieces and
concludes that . . . ✔
(See also 12.1.)
REVEALED: 20.5 – How to use quotes effectively in essays

The main issues with quotes are failing to copy the quote correctly (which can be
easily avoided with better concentration), failing to close the quote with a quota-
tion mark, and failing to match the end of the introduction to the beginning of
the quote. In this first example, the quotation has not been closed.
Sandelowski (2000: 34) described this as ‘all inquiry entails description, and all
description entails interpretation. Another aspect of this is . . . ✘
Sandelowski (2000: 34) described this as ‘all inquiry entails description, and all
description entails interpretation’. Another aspect of this is . . . ✔
196 English Exposed
A common error is failing to match the beginning of the quote with the sentence
that introduces it. The writer has not achieved a smooth and continuous transi-
tion in either of these examples.
Structural change can be defined as ‘it is the different arrangements of produc-

tive activity in the economy . . . ✘
Structural change can be defined as ‘the different arrangements of productive
activity in the economy . . . ✔
As pointed out by Monroe (2009), ‘the extent to which countries differ in their
degree of investor protection.’ ✘
As pointed out by Monroe (2009), the rules determine ‘the extent to which
countries differ in their degree of investor protection.’ ✔
* * *
Lengthy quotes can be reduced by using the three-point ellipsis so only the
important points are presented. The first extract is the quote in full; in the second
extract, an ellipsis has been employed to make the quote shorter and more
relevant to the writer’s main argument or point.
1. ‘It is clear that the government is intent on directing polytechnics to

develop along the lines it prefers. It is hard to fault this approach, but there
is an inevitable conflict created between the expectations and needs of
the communities which the Polytechnic serves—as expressed in its charter,
mission statement and strategic plan objectives—and the directions of
central government. It would, in my view, be more honest if the government
was to state unequivocally that we are an agency of government and, as such,
expected to follow its directions. The present situation leaves the Polytechnic
to defend itself against accusations that it is not meeting its charter obliga-
tions, whilst enabling the government to deny any responsibility.’
2. ‘It is clear that the government is intent on directing polytechnics to

develop along the lines it prefers . . . It would, in my view, be more honest
if the government was to state unequivocally that we are an agency of gov-
ernment and, as such, expected to follow its directions. The present situa-
tion leaves the Polytechnic to defend itself against accusations that it is not
meeting its charter obligations, whilst enabling the government to deny any
responsibility.’
This three-point ellipsis can also be employed to ensure that the quote matches
its introduction (see point above).
Kimberly (1986) stated that: ‘. . . the situation will only worsen for these marginal
groups’.
Referencing 197
20.6 Exercises
A. Introduce these studies as concisely as possible and select an appropriate
reporting verb using the notes provided. The first one has been done for you.
Morgan and two other researchers year 1998 looking at housing market
mainly UK
Morgan et al. (1998) focus on the UK housing market.
Cho 2006 on page 61 disagrees with Tan’s study from 1998 about enterprise zones
michael smith and colleagues wonder whether feedback is of good enough

quality for students in universities in the UK. Research from 2014.
B. This quote needs to be reduced to about 20–25 words. Use three-point

ellipses to achieve this, ensuring that clarity is also maintained.
Johnson et al. (2007) reviewed 19 definitions of mixed-methods and concluded

that ‘mixed-methods research is the type of research in which a researcher or team of
researchers combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research approaches
(e.g., use of qualitative and quantitative viewpoints, data collection, analysis, infer-
ence techniques) for the purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and cor-
roboration. Mixed methods research provides the opportunity for triangulation,
where the phenomenon under study can be assessed using various techniques and
methods, and helps to develop a more complete understanding of the topic (p. 123).’
APPENDIX: Irregular Verbs
The past participle is used for the perfect tense (with ‘to have’), in passive sen-
tences (with ‘to be’) and as an adjective (before nouns and after linking verbs).
This has changed in the past few years . . .

This section was expanded so both programs could be included.
The expanded section has allowed the programmers to . . .

This appears reduced when the surface becomes moist.
For a regular verb, the past participle has the same form and spelling as the simple
(normal) past tense and that ending is always the same (–ed). For irregular verbs,
the endings can take on unusual forms. Here is an example.
Regular verb (smoke): He smoked He has smoked

Irregular verb (fall): He fell He has fallen
The first form is the past tense (smoked, fell). The second is the past participle
(smoked, fallen). Note how the irregular verb’s past participle has a different form
from the past simple form (some do have the same form). Many of these irregular
forms have no real pattern and must simply be learnt. For this reason, a list of key
irregular verbs in both forms is presented below (see also 5.6):
Appendix 199
Verb Past tense Past participle

to arise arose arisen
to awake awoke awoken
to be was / were been
to bear bore borne
to beat beat beaten
to become became become
to begin began begun
to bid bid bid
to break broke broken
to bring brought brought
to build built built
to buy bought bought
to catch caught caught
to choose chose chosen
to come came come
to deal dealt dealt
to do did done
to draw drew drawn
to drive drove driven
to eat ate eaten
to fall fell fallen
to find found found
to forbid forbade forbidden
to forget forgot forgot or forgotten
to forgive forgave forgiven
to freeze froze frozen
to get got got or gotten
to go went gone
to grow grew grown
to hide hid hidden
to know knew known
to lay laid laid
to lie (rest) lay lain
to prove proved proven
to ride rode ridden
to ring rang rung
to rise rose risen
200 Appendix
Verb Past tense Past participle

to run ran run
to see saw seen
to show showed shown
to speak spoke spoken
to steal stole stolen
to strive strove striven
to take took taken
to wear wore worn
to write wrote written
ANSWERS
Answers to Chapter 1 (1.6)

A. The issues related to healths (health) and safety are discussed in the next section along
with any informations (information) from the respondents of the employee survey. The
training schedule and transports advices (transport advice) for field trips are attached to
the Appendices to provide more details, to avoid any confusion. The believes (beliefs) of
the employees will be assessed, with a focus on whether they actually belief (believe) in
the new policy.
The economic development of this region of China has aroused the interest of research-
ers of late. By means of SWOT analysis (which stands for strengthens (strengths), weakness
(weaknesses), opportunities, and threats) I will assess the potential of the five SMEs from
the area, with a focus on competition between the five regarding their capabilities. Any
phenomena extracted from this analysis will form the basis for the second part of the
study. Any experiences detailed by the business managers will also join those phenom-
enon (phenomena) as evidence to inform policy.
B. Two (behaviour and development)

C. Countable:
Associating certain identities with certain behaviours can prove problematic.
Uncountable:
The two factors we will concentrate on are behaviour and change.
change
Countable:
They witnessed a number of new developments during this period.
period
Uncountable:
Personal development has been given plenty of attention by policymakers within higher
education.

A. It was important to contact employees from an SME in the region to see whether the
theory was correct that these workers were not getting the training opportunities that the
workers of larger corporations enjoyed. Contact was made first of all by zero email, and
then three visits were made to the chosen company to conduct zero formal interviews.
202 Answers
B. Most previous investigations have been based on non-Chinese students lacking

Chinese cultural values. Chinese learners have been greatly influenced by mainstream
Chinese culture in their perception and behaviour when participating in the communi-
cation inside and outside the classroom. ‘The Chinese learner’ is characterized as being
reticent in the class. Wen and Clément (2003) explain that a Chinese students are influ-
enced by classic Confucianism, in particular examination-oriented learning, shaping their
understanding and way of the learning.
C. Student attendance has dropped to 78% in the past three months at the college.
In case of an attack from another network user, three recommendations are given.
The quality of the products was also much higher.
It is possible that the author overlooked this peripheral region.

A. A manager must ensure that he listens to his staff at all times.
A manager must ensure that they listen to the staff at all times.
Other issue is that the software took too long to load.
Another issue is that the software took too long to load.
There have been few problems with attendance, so they decided to warn the pupils.
There have been a few problems with attendance, so they decided to warn the pupils.
We can then change this into another formats.
We can then change this into another format. / We can then change this into other formats.
B. Both/All of the models failed to produce satisfactory results, so we decided to create

our own.
(The fact that the author had to create their own model implies that none of the models was
satisfactory, so the answer is unlikely to be ‘one of the models’ or ‘some of the models’.)
It is important to make sure that with each draft fewer mistakes are made.
All/Some of the evidence points to the fact that these policies have failed to boost the
economy. (‘All’ is more likely.)
There is less risk involved, so these investors might be tempted.
(If the investors are risk-takers then ‘some risk’ is possible.)
This only worked for one/some of the regions, as revealed in Table 4.
There was one participant without knowledge of the procedure.

A. The assistance provided to these people is important because it is the only support
available to them.
Networking in groups is more effective than walking around as an individual is.
Educating these groups prevents them from getting involved in crime and anti-social
behaviour.
Answers 203
Workers who had enrolled in the scheme were more likely to have a positive attitude
towards their company.
Most of the students’ perceived speaking improvements are related to presentation skills.
B. We will also ask whether they have noticed an improvement in the past six months.
They can change this at any point during the process.
The teacher must decide if this is acceptable behaviour.
How can this system be changed to suit every department?
How these reports are assessed is another talking point.
What relationships can be formed when these two areas combine?

A. There seems to be an issue with extracting all the data from this program.
–ing form must follow a preposition (‘with’).
They should let the students think for themselves some of the time.
The verb ‘let’ is followed by a verb in the base form (no ‘to’).
They were allowed to change their minds and select a different object if they were not
happy.
The verb ‘allow’ is used with a verb in the infinitive form (to + verb) in this construction.
Despite this increasing the budget, the project was too expensive to carry out.
–ing form must follow a preposition (‘despite’).
B. Although three participants withdraw (withdrew) from the research, we had enough
to beginning (begin) the experiment. Group A were all meant to underwent (undergo)
the full experiment, but time constraints meant that they had to chose (choose) between
the partial and the full experiment. Whenever the liquid become (became) too cloudy, the
researcher asked an assistant to shaken (shake) the bottle, and when this happened the
clock was stopped. SIX
C. The following diagram demonstrates these connections and labels the stages.
We designed the logo and then presented the final product.
This allowed them to change the final design and submit their work on time.
D. The product was tested the following week.

The class was asked to quieten down on a number of occasions.
The number of participants was reduced for the next stage.

A. The next section would provide an evaluation of the three strategies. ✘
The next section will provide an evaluation of the three strategies.
We will also look at how they can improve their image? ✘
We will also look at how they can improve their image.
204 Answers
Different teachers should sets different projects to ensure there is variety. ✘

Different teachers should set different projects to ensure there is variety.
How does this affect their relationship with the staff? CORRECT
It could be essential for all students to register their interest beforehand. ✘
It is essential for all students to register their interest beforehand.
The reports does not include South America or Africa. ✘
The reports do not include South America or Africa.
B. The results will/should be available the following day if everything goes to plan.
Can they reduce their spending while retaining the quality of their product?
Tan (2003) rejected the claim that they could enter both markets successfully.
This will be discussed in the following chapter.
I could have selected managers but decided that the opinions of ordinary workers would
be more useful.

A. A discussion of these theories will take place in chapter seven.
Prior to becoming CEO, she worked in the public sector.
Only pupils that had a good disciplinary record could participate in the scheme.
Each participant was then assigned to one of five groups.
This could result in confusion, as the two departments would be dealing with the same
cases.
Hopefully, this will address the needs of the marginalized groups.
In most cases this leads to prosecution, so it is more than worthwhile.
B.
result in caused by rely on
likelihood of benefit from combine with

A. As Table 5 shows, the highest amount was recorded in Q2.
Less than 2% lost their jobs compared with 4% the year before.
These figures were lower than expected, considering many of their competitors had
improved their positions.
These findings reveal ‘InterTrain’ to be the strongest brand of the five companies.
It has proven to be the least effective with the lowest scores across all four tests.
B. Given the current global competitiveness in this industry, if companies can find a way to
conduct business effectively it will give them a clear advantage over their rivals. Similarly,
if negotiations can be carried out efficiently and promptly, then more time can be devoted
to research and development (R&D)—the focus of this paper. A highly regarded study on
Answers 205
R&D is Sheridan and Lo (2013), who looked at the frequent failure of three firms attempt-
ing to enhance their R&D output.

A. This could prove difficult for countries not signing up to this scheme.
I will focus on five Asian countries for answering question five.
I will also look at this country’s attitude towards consumer rights.
Most countries’ policies differ in this respect, so it will require a deep analysis.
B. A distinction should be made between this cohort and the native population.
The session was four hours long and covered the key topics.
A three-step framework is now proposed that seeks to resolve this issue.
This particular manager’s viewpoint is captured through a questionnaire and an interview.

A. The collaboration was fairly successful. INDEPENDENT
Since my colleagues were unwilling to change the topic DEPENDENT
I made a suggestion about allocating tasks. INDEPENDENT
Although there were times when the group fell silent DEPENDENT
Without a coordinator in place during the meeting DEPENDENT
B. Naturally, the greater the dose, the faster the medication will work.
Not only should the tutor get involved but also a member of the senior management.
It is clear there is a component that has not been fitted properly.
C. These employees worked in the department that was going to be restructured.

They knew that this was only a temporary measure.
The roles that they filled were quite varied.
The students were relieved that the exams were finally over.

A. There was no real difference between the two schemes.
Luo (1997) only looked at the figures that were important to the shareholders.
The presence of the senior management team seemed to affect the performance of the
sales team on this task.
In positivist research, the researcher is interested in gaining knowledge.
B. Six
When the degradation in the value of silver is combined with the diminution of the
quantity of it contained in the coin of the same denomination, the lose (loss) is fre-
quently still greater.
206 Answers
It was Adam Smith’s believe (belief) that striving for personal gain is a natural human
trait. Smith also proofed (proved) a number of other theories of the time, and the extend
(extent) of his influence is still apparent today. Given its economy (economic) relevance,
the argue (argument) put forward about the ‘invisible hand’ should be explored in more
detail, and therefore a discussion will take place in the chapter that follows.
C. The aim was to interview at least three men/women and two women/men from each
department.
One male/female rat was withdrawn from the process on account of its size.
Male/Female deaths were much lower for period four.
The number of women/men improving remained stable.
Women/Men are more likely to seek treatment early.

A. This will be explained in the following parts:
The advantages are described as follows:
The three recommendations follow a brief analysis.
An estimation of the cost will also follow.
The following are some suggestions:
B. This will also raise the price of the commodity in the short term.
The same finding was reported by Chen (2009) and Tran (2013).
Some of the teachers considered this measure and then agreed it could provide a solution
to the problem.
The accuracy and the relevance of the content cannot be guaranteed, and this also applies
to any links that are provided on their pages.
C. dehydrate dissimilar inconsistent nonspecific reassess uncomfortable

A. Returning back to the original design, it is very obvious that the brand new model
created by Smith Motors is definitely the best. We then ranked the companies in the order
Orion, Dubaki, Renton Spares. Last but not least is Spades, but they were hampered by
crazy misfortune when their mechanic was taken ill; their design team was also com-
paratively small in number. This proved to be very critical, as Wu (2007) suggests that five
members is optimal.
Based on the results that have been stated above, we conclude that . . .
B. majorly largely/greatly wildly widely reckon imagine/consider/suppose

couldn’t could not at last last/finally basically essentially/ultimately
Answers 207

A. We interviewed three German employees, two Korean employees, and the manager
of the company (who was born in Germany ) at the Japanese headquarters in Tokyo.
A number of Chinese firms have been studied, two from the north of China and three
from the south. We also discuss the findings of Yoshinaga (2009), who looked at the perfor-
mance of Japanese firms listed on Japan’s stock exchange.
B. Four
They identified how the China government can resolve this issue. (Chinese)
We focus on the UK, the US, Germany, and France. CORRECT
China economy is beginning to emerge from the crisis. (China’s/The Chinese)
France steel companies have not suffered the same fate as their counterparts in the UK.
(French)
We looked at the structure of the following languages: Korea, Japanese, Germany, English,
and French. (Korean . . . German)

A. Five
Since (From) 2020 the headquarters will be in Munich. This move has come about because
of nowaday’s (today’s) market, where production is centring on Germany. On (In) June the
company issued a statement detailing the move and that within three years they wanted
to streamline the business prior to relocation on (in) 2020. In recent years profits were
(have been) declining, so action needed to be taken.
B. The government has been discussing this since Tuesday.

This has only been happening since the new software was installed.
The measures will hopefully be in place from Tuesday.
The office is open from 9:00 until 12:00 noon at the weekend.
C. It is likely to take longer than six weeks.

It is likely to last six weeks.
It will start around six weeks’ time.
208 Answers

A. The 19th section of the report lists the occasions when this can occur. CORRECT
Brooks, C. 2014. Introductory Econometrics for Finance. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. CORRECT
The forth (fourth) reason is related to location, and the fifth reason is external investment.
19 out of 60 (Nineteen out of sixty) of the studies reviewed rejected the hypothesis put
forward by Klinger (2002).
The company came seven (seventh) in a list of the top ten companies in revenue.
Almost three-quarters of the respondents ‘strongly agreed’ with this statement. CORRECT
B. These are all written as a percentage.

Sixty-seven percent were absent on the final day.
At least 60% are in favour.
The percentage of people who then report this has decreased though.

A. Table 4 below shows the relationships among the four variables. CORRECT
This is shown in Table 7 below. CORRECT
According to the table below, the only support the scheme received was from Morgan
(2006). CORRECT
B. The following table (6.3) presents the findings of our study.
This is demonstrated in Figures 3.1–3.4 above.
The previous model (4.1) presented the four algorithms.
The diagram below (Figure 7) outlines these provisions.

A. Every project must go through different phases with different teams involved. This
next section identifies the phases in which the management team feature to form an
overall picture of their role and influence. Previously we looked at the design teams and
how they aligned their ideas with the production team. The aim is to create a product that
the customer identifies with. This is where feedback is also important, so the teams can
learn about what the customer desires.

A. The dissertation is divided into five chapters. In this chapter I introduced the rationale
and the aims of this study from which the research questions were drawn.
The final objective is to understand learners’ perceptions of the text, which ties in with
objective three.
Answers 209
The authors would like to thank Mr Michael Morgan for his feedback on the model. We
would also like to thank Orion Solutions for lending us the equipment to carry out the
experiments. The first experiment used their original RH200 system; the second experi-
ment required the upgrade.
The UK and China are two other countries that have well-established trading relationships
(Huang 2010, pp. 23–45).
The leverage is positively related to these tax shields in the real estate industry, although
the outcome is not statistically significant.
The participants are studying subjects at the Arts School—primarily Graphics and
Illustration—in the south of the district.
B. When we were informed that there would only be four people in the focus group, we
were not expecting the group to be that informative. According to Chen (1998), from his
book Research Methods in Action, such a small group was unlikely to generate the group
dynamics necessary for an outstanding session; however, the focus group actually turned
out to be very informative, and all the questions we prepared for the discussion were fully
answered with interesting insights from the participants.

A. Cho (2006: 61) rejects Tan’s (1998) view of enterprise zones.
Smith et al. (2014) question the quality of student feedback in UK universities.
B. Johnson et al. (2007) reviewed 19 definitions of mixed-methods and concluded that
‘mixed-methods research . . . combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research
approaches . . . and helps to develop a more complete understanding of the topic (p. 123).’
INDEX
By topic
1 = whole chapter (e.g., 1 = Chapter 1, 2 = Chapter 2)
1.1 = Chapter 1, section 1
B = Background section of a chapter (e.g., 1B = Background section of Chapter 1)
A = Appendix
adjectives 5.3, 5.5, 8, 11B, 11.1, 11.2, 13.3, 14.1, 14.2, 14.3, 15.5, 16.2, 16.4, 17.2
adverbs 8, 13.3, 16.4, 17.2, 19.3
articles 1.1, 2, 3.3, 14B, 14.1, 15,1, 16.4, 17.1, 19.5
capitalization 14.2, 19.5
clauses 8.6, 8.7, 10, 19.1, 19.3
compounds 2.3, 9.2, 9.3, 15.5
fixed phrases 1.5, 2.5
gender 3.1, 11.2
modals 6
negatives 3.5, 6.4, 10.7, 12.2
participles 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 8.3, A
passive voice 5.1, 5.8
phrasal verbs 7.4
possession 3B, 3.1, 9, 15.1, 15.6
prefixes 12.2, 13.4
prepositions 2.5, 5.5, 7, 15.2, 15.4, 16.6, 17.1
pronouns 3, 4.2, 6.1, 13.4
questions 4.4, 6.4
reporting verbs 5.7, 17.3, 20.4
tense 5.2, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 6.1, 6.3, 15.3, 17.3
uncountable nouns 1, 2B, 2.1, 2.3, 3.6, 9.2, 16.7
Index 211
By term
B = Background section of a chapter (e.g., 1B = Background section of Chapter 1)
1.1 = Chapter 1, section 1
A = Appendix
a few 3.4 apart from 12.1

a little 3.4 appear 5.4
ability 1.4 applied to 7.2
about 12.1 appreciate 5.3
above 17.2 approach 2.1
absence 1.4, 11B argue 11.3
absent 11B arise A
absolutely 13.3 arrange 5.4
access 7.2 as 5.2, 8.7, 12.1, 16.5
accompanied by 7.3 as a result 2.5
according to 17.3, 20.4 as follows 12.1
achievement 1.4 as mentioned 13.4
additional 8.6, 16.2 as shown 17.3
additionally 8.6 as well 12.1
adjust 11.3, 18.1 Asian 14.2, 14.3
admissions 9.2 ask 5.4
admit 5.3 assert 20.4
adolescent 11B assess 12.2, 18.2, 20.4
advice 1.1, 11.3 assigned to 7.2
advise 5.3, 5.4, 11.3 assistant 11B
affect 12.1 associated with 7.3
afford 5.4 at 15.4
after 5.5, 7B, 8B, 15.4 at last 13.2
afterwards 13.4 at length 2.5
again 12.2, 13.4 attempt 5.4, 12.1
agree 5.4 attention 1.1
align 18.1 author 2.1, 9B
all 3.3, 3.5, 12.2 avoid 5.3
allow 5.4 awake A
almost 12.1
also 10.4, 12.1 based on 7.1, 13.4
alternative to 7.2 basic 11.1
although 10.2, 19.1 basically 13.2
always 8B basis 11.1
amount 1.2 bear A
analyse 11.3, 20.4 beat A
analysis 11.3 become 5.6, A
and 10.6 been 5.2, 5.6, 15.3
another 3.6 before 8B
anticipate 5.3 begin 5.4, 5.6, 15.3, A
anyway 13.2 beginning 18.1
212 Index
behaviour 1.4 composed of 7.3

being 5.2, 5.6 concentrate 12.1
belief 1.3, 11.3 concentrate on 7.1
believe 1.3, 11.3 concern 12.1, 20.4
below 17.2 confidence 1.1, 11B
benefit from 7.3 confident 11B
bid A conflict of interest 9.3
both 3.2 confusion 1.1
brand new 13.4 consider 5.3, 12.1, 20.4
break A considerable 13.3
brief 13.4 consist of 7.3
bring A consistent 12.2
build A consistent with 7.3
but 10.2, 10.4, 19.2 consumer 18.1
buy 5.4, A contents 1.4
by 1.5, 7.3, 15.4, 20.4 continue 5.4, 13.4
by email 2.5 continues 13.4, 18.1
by interview 2.5 continuous 18.1
by means of 1.5 contrary 12.1
by name 2.5 control 1.4
by post 2.5 convince 5.4
convincing 13.2
called 12.1 could 6B, 6.3
can 4.4, 6B country 8B, 9B, 18.1
care 5.4 crisis 1.3
casual 12.1 critical 13.3
catch A crucial 13.3
causal 12.1 customer 18.1
caused by 7.3
caution 1.1 deal A
China 14.1, 14.2 decades 15.3
Chinese 14.1, 14.2 decide 5.4
choice 11.3 declare 20.4
choose 5.6, 11.3, A delay 5.3, 7.4
claim 5.4 demand 5.4
close 8.4 deny 5.3, 20.4
clothes 1.3 dependent on 7.1
combine with 7.3 depict 17.3
combining 18.1 deserve 5.4
come A despite 5.5
committee 4.3 detail 1.5
communication 1.4 development 1.2, 1.4
company 4.3 difference 11B, 11.1
compared with 8.4 different 2.4, 11B, 11.1
competition 1.4 difficult 12.2
complain 11.3 disappointed 8.3
composed by 7.3 discover 20.4
Index 213
discuss 5.3 extremely 8B, 13.3

dislike 5.3
display 17.3 fail 5.4, 12.1
distance 11B fall 12.1, A
distant 11B feel 5.4
diverse 18.1 female 11.2
divided 16.6 few 3.4, 13.4
do 4.4, 6.4, 10.4, A fewer 16.7
dominance 11B fill in/out 7.4
dominant 11B find 7.4, 20.4, A
don’t 13.1 find out 7.4
double 16.5 finish 5.3
draw A first 10.6, 16.2, 16.4
drive A focus 12.1, 20.4
focus on 7.1
each 3.2, 13.4 following 5.7, 12.1, 17.1
earnings 9.2 for 7.3, 15.4
eat A for example 1.5
economic 8.5, 11.1, 14.1 for instance 1.5
economy 11.1, 14.1 forbid A
effect 12.1 forget 5.4, A
effect on 7.1 forgive A
eighth 16.3 form 18.1
either 3.2 fortieth 16.3
eleventh 16.3 forty 16.3
embarrassed 8.3 fourteen 16.3
enable 5.4 fourth 16.3
encourage 5.4 freeze A
enjoy 5.3 from 7B, 15.4, 18.1
equal to 16.6
equals 16.6 German 14.2
essentially 13.2 get A
et al. 9.3, 20.3 go A
etc. 10.6 good 12.1
European 2.2 government 4.3
even though 10.2, 18.1 greatly 13.2
every 3.5 group 4.3
everywhere 8B grow 5.6, A
evidence 1.1
examine 11.3, 12.1 he 3.1, 4.2, 20.4
except for 7.3, 12.1 health 1.1
exhibit 17.3 hear 5.4
existence 12.2 held up 7.4
expect 5.4 help 1.1
experience 1.4 hesitate 5.4
extend 11.3 hide A
extent 11.3 high 8.1, 8.4
214 Index
highly 8.1 it 3.1, 4.2, 9.3, 17.3

Hong Kong 2B, 14B item 1.3
hope 5.4 its 3.1, 9.1
how 4.4
however 8.6, 13.2, 19.3, 19.5 Japanese 14.2
hundred 16.1
keep 5.3, 12.1
identify 18.1 key 13.3
if 6B, 19.1 kinds 1.1
imagine 13.2 know A
impact on 7.1 known as 12.1
importance 11B Korean 14.2
important 11B
in 5.5, 7.1, 8.5, 15.2, 15.4, 17.1, 17.3 lack 12.1
in case of 2.5 language 18.1
in conjunction with 7.3 large 13.3
in contrast 7.1, 12.1 largely 13.2
in (more) detail 1.5 last 10.6, 13.2, 16.2
in need of 7.3 lay A
in other words 8.7 leading to 7.2
in particular 8.5 learn 5.4, 20.4
in practice 1.5 learning 18.1
in reality 1.5 least 8.4
in regard to 8.7 left out 7.4
in the case of 2.5 less 8.2, 15.4, 16.7
in the long/short term 7.1 let 5.4
in the meantime 8.7 level of intensity 9.3
in theory 1.5 lie (rest) A
in this situation 7.1 like 5.4
in total 13.2 likelihood of 7.3
inaccessible 12.2 linear 18.1
incident 11B little 3.4
including 10.6 look 5.4, 12.1
inconsistent 12.2 look after 7.4
inconvenience 11B look at 20.4
inconvenient 11B loose 11.3
incredible 13.3 lose 11.3
Indian 14.2 loss 11.3
industry 1.4 loudly 8B
information 1.1 lowest 8.4
instruct 5.4
intend 5.4 magnificent 13.3
interconnected 13.4 main 16.2
invest in 7.1 maintain 20.4
investigate 12.1, 13.6 majorly 13.2
involved in 7.1 make 5.4, 12.1
isn’t 13.1 male 11.2
Index 215
manage 5.4 on occasion 7.1

manager 18.1 on one hand 8.7
many 1.1 on purpose 7.1
marked 13.3 on the basis 7.1
massive 13.3 on the contrary 12.1
may 6B on the Internet 7.1
mean 5.4 on the other hand 8.7
meanwhile 8.7 one 3.2
men 11.2 only if/with 10.4
mentioned 13.4 other 3.6, 12.1
merely 12.1 outside 8B
might 6B out of date 2.5
million 16.1 overall 8.5
miss 5.3
more 3.2, 8.2 paper 1.4
more details 1.5 participant 9B, 9.1, 11.3
most 3.3, 8.4 participate 11.3
much 1.1 participate in 7.1
must 6B, 10.4 particularly 8.5
pay attention to 7.2
named 12.1 per 13.4
nearby 8B percent 16.7
necessary 13.3 percentage 16.7
need 5.4 permit 5.4
need for 7.3 persistence 11B
needs 7.3 persistent 11B
never 8B phase 18.1
new 13.4 phenomenon 1.3
next 5.7, 16.2, 17.1, 17.3 phrase 18.1
no 10.7, 12.2 piece 1.1, 1.3, 3.6, 11.3
none 3.5, 12.2 plan 5.4
nonexistent 12.2 point of view 9.3
not 3.5, 6.4, 10.7, 12.2, 13.1 point to 7.2
not only 10.4 policy 1.4
notice 5.4 politically 8.5
nowadays 15.6 possess 18.2
number 1.2, 3.2 postpone 5.3
power 1.4
observe 5.4 practice 5.3
occasion 18.2 predict 20.4
occurrence 18.2 predominantly 8.2
of 7.3, 12.1, 20.4 prefer 5.4
offer 5.4 prepare 5.4
often 8B presence 11B
omit 7.4 present 11B, 17.3
on 7.1, 15.2, 17.1 pretend 5.4
on average 7.1 prevalence 11B
216 Index
prevalent 11B remember 5.4

previous 5.7, 8.6, 17.1, 18.1 remind 12.1
previously 8.6 renamed 13.4
prior to 7.2 research 1.1
project 20.4 researcher 2.1
prominence 11B resent 5.3
prominent 11B resist 5.3
promise 5.4 respond 11.3
proof 11.3 respondent 11.3
propose 5.4, 20.4 response 11.3
prove 11.3, A responsible for 7.3
pursue 11.3 responsible to 7.3
rest 12.1
quarters 16.5 result in 7.3
question 5.7, 20.4 retain 12.1
quickly 8B return 13.4
quit 13.2 reveal 20.4
quite 8B revise 13.4
ride A
raise 12.1 ring A
rank 16.3 rise 12.1, A
rarely 12.1 risk 5.3
rate 16.7 run A
rather 10.4, 12.1
rational 11.1 safety 1.1
rationale 11.1 same 12.1
reach 7.2 say 20.4
realistically 8.6 school of thought 9.3
reason for 7.3 second 16.3, 16.4
reassess 12.2 see 5.4, 17.3, A
recall 5.3 seem 5.4
recent years 15.3 seventeenth 16.3
recently 8B, 8.5 several 3.2
reckon 13.2 severe 18.1
recommend 5.3, 20.4 shake 5.6
refuse 5.4 shall 6B
refute 20.4 she 3.1
regarding 8.7, 12.1 should 6B, 6.4
regardless 13.2 show 17.3, A
regret 5.4 significance 11.1
reject 20.4 significant 11.1
relevance 11B silence 11B
relevant 11B silent 11B
rely on 7.1 similar 12.1
remain 12.1, 13.4 similar to 7.2
remaining 12.1 since 15.4
remark 12.1 smell 5.4
Index 217
society 1.4 transport 1.1

some 1.1, 3.3 trend 12.1
soon 8B trust 1.1
speak A try 5.4, 12.1
specifically 8.5 try out 7.4
start 5.4 twelfth 16.3
steal A twice 16.5
stop 5.3 type 1.1
strategic 11.1
strategy 11.1 UK 14B, 14.1
strength 1.4 ultimately 13.2
strengthen 1.4 unaffected 12.2
strive A undergo 5.6
struggle 5.4 underlining 12.1
study 2.1, 20.4 underlying 12.1
such 2.1 understand 5.3
such as 10.6 uneasy 12.2
suggest 5.3, 20.4 university 2.2
support 1.1 unless 19.2
systems 9.2 unsuitable 12.2
until 15.4
take A up to 15.4
teaching 1.4 US 14B
tend 12.1
termed 12.1 various 3.2
test 7.4 verified by 7.3
than 8.4, 12.1 very 8B, 13.3
that 10.1, 10.3 view 12.1
their 3B, 3.1 vulnerable to 7.2
then 12.1
theorize 20.4 wait 5.4
theory 1.4 want 5.4
there 3B watch 5.4
they 3.1, 4.2, 13.4, 20.1 we 3B, 5.8, 13.6
they’re 3B weaknesses 1.4
thirds 16.5 wear A
thought 18.1 weather 18.1
thousand 16.1 well 12.1, 19.4
threaten 5.4 what 4.4
tiring 8.3 where 10.1
to 7.2, 15.4 whereas 10.1, 19.2
today 15.6 whether 18.1
tolerance 11B which 10B, 10.1
tolerant 11B who 4.4
tolerate 5.3 why 4.4
totally 13.2 widely 18.1
training 1.1, 16.7 wildly 18.1
218 Index
will 6B, 6.2 women 11.2

wish 5.4 worth considering 5.5
with 5.2, 7.3, 8.7 worth mentioning 5.5
with regard to 8.7 would 4.4, 6B, 6.2, 6.3
withdraw 5.6, 13.2 write A
within 15.4

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Common Mistakes Made by Chinese Speakers

Steve Hart is an academic English tutor and dissertation supervisor at a higher

English Language Learning Steve Hart

Printed and bound in Hong Kong, China

Hart_Exposed_pb.indd 1 24/01/2017 11:33 AM

Common Mistakes Made by Chinese

© 2017 Hong Kong University Press

ISBN 978-988-8390-75-5 (Paperback)

All rights reserved. No portion of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Part A: Classes . . . to recognize

Part B: Choices . . . to remember

Part C: Components . . . to review

Appendix: Irregular Verbs 198

Focus on . . . Countable nouns

This chapter analyses the differences between countable and uncountable

Background / 1.1 ‘evidence’ and dividing uncountable nouns /

Usage errors exposed in 1:

BACKGROUND: If a noun can be counted, it will have a clear

There were several managers present at the meeting.

A manager can be counted because it is a person and is clearly a separate thing.

A few more models were developed to try to resolve this issue.

REVEALED: 1.1 – How to use ‘evidence’ properly and how to

First, an uncountable noun cannot have a plural form.

The evidence is useful, and it can be . . .

advice attention caution confidence confusion health help

advices attentions cautions . . .

The team has carried out a number of researches. ✘

A lot of attentions have been paid to this subject in recent years. ✘

They should therefore proceed with cautions. ✘

Sometimes it is necessary to divide the uncountable noun into individual parts or

Different evidences were required. ✘

Three pieces of advice I received were . . .

Much evidence has been found to link obesity . . .

(See Chapter 3 for more quantity phrases.)

REVEALED: 1.2 – When to use ‘number’ and when to use

In contrast, an amount of studies have investigated the efficiency of smaller

‘Amount’ is used with uncountable nouns. In the next example ‘development’ is

This should also result in a greater amount of development taking place.

REVEALED: 1.3 – How to form plural noun endings

subject, subjects design, designs approach, approaches

This phenomena is prevalent in the villages and remote areas. ✘

Or they add an ‘s’ to form the incorrect plural, phenomenons.

It is important to remember that a plural noun requires a plural verb form.

Research was also carried out on their traditions and believes. ✘

The cloth he wore was clearly authentic. ✘

Normally, to refer to particular clothes a phrase such as ‘piece of

REVEALED: 1.4 – That some nouns can be both countable

The company prefers the application to be written on paper.

Countable: a particular quality or ability (that is good or beneficial).

Uncountable: physical or mental power and energy; quality or state of being

❘➤ RELATED ERRORS:

There are a number of strengths and weakness. ✘

An evaluation of its strength and weakens must then follow. ✘

This is both a strength and a weakness.

This strengths the line sufficiently. ✘

Other nouns that can be either countable or uncountable are:

This will depend on their abilities to detect errors. ✘

In this framework, competitions occurring within the industry are targeted. ✘