Number and Algebra

52 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA

6  is 22 then: a + (n − 1)d = 22

Hence if the n’th term
i.e. 2 21 + (n − 1) 1 21 = 22
 1
4. Find the 15th term of an arithmetic progres-
sion of which the first term is 2.5 and the tenth
A (n − 1) 1 2 = 22 − 2 21 = 19 21 . term is 16. [23.5]
Arithmetic and geometric progressions 19 21
5. Determine the number of the term which is
29 in the series 7, 9.2, 11.4, 13.6, . . .
n−1= = 13 and n = 13 + 1 = 14 [11]
1 21
6. Find the sum of the first 11 terms of the series
i.e. the 14th term of the AP is 22. 4, 7, 10, 13, . . . [209]
6.1 Arithmetic progressions 6.2 Worked problems on arithmetic 7. Determine the sum of the series 6.5, 8.0, 9.5,
progressions Problem 4. Find the sum of the first 12 terms 11.0, . . ., 32 [346.5]
When a sequence has a constant difference between of the series 5, 9, 13, 17, . . .
successive terms it is called an arithmetic progres-
sion (often abbreviated to AP). Problem 1. Determine (a) the ninth, and (b) the
sixteenth term of the series 2, 7, 12, 17, . . . 5, 9, 13, 17, . . . is an AP where a = 5 and d = 4.
Examples include: The sum of n terms of an AP, 6.3 Further worked problems on
(i) 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, . . . where the common differ- n arithmetic progressions
ence is 3 and 2, 7, 12, 17, . . . is an arithmetic progression with a Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
common difference, d, of 5. 2
(ii) a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . . where the common Problem 6. The sum of 7 terms of an AP is 35
difference is d. (a) The n’th term of an AP is given by a + (n − 1)d Hence the sum of the first 12 terms,
and the common difference is 1.2. Determine the
If the first term of an AP is ‘a’ and the common Since the first term a = 2, d = 5 and n = 9 12 first term of the series.
difference is ‘d’ then then the 9th term is: S12 = [2(5) + (12 − 1)4]
2 + (9 − 1)5 = 2 + (8)(5) = 2 + 40 = 42 2
= 6[10 + 44] = 6(54) = 324 n = 7, d = 1.2 and S7 = 35
the n’th term is: a + (n − 1)d (b) The 16th term is: Since the sum of n terms of an AP is given by
2 + (16 − 1)5 = 2 + (15)(5) = 2 + 75 = 77.
n
In example (i) above, the 7th term is given by 1 + Problem 5. Find the sum of the first 21 terms Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d], then
of the series 3.5, 4.1, 4.7, 5.3, . . . 2
(7 − 1)3 = 19, which may be readily checked. Problem 2. The 6th term of an AP is 17 and
The sum S of an AP can be obtained by multi- 7 7
the 13th term is 38. Determine the 19th term. 35 = [2a + (7 − 1)1.2] = [2a + 7.2]
plying the average of all the terms by the number of 3.5, 4.1, 4.7, 5.3, . . . is an AP where a = 3.5 and 2 2
terms. d = 0.6.
a+l The n’th term of an AP is a + (n − 1)d 35 × 2
The average of all the terms = , where ‘a’ Hence = 2a + 7.2
2 The sum of the first 21 terms, 7
is the first term and l is the last term, i.e. l = a + The 6th term is: a + 5d = 17 (1) 10 = 2a + 7.2
(n − 1)d, for n terms. 21
S21 = [2a + (n − 1)d] 2a = 10 − 7.2 = 2.8,
Hence the sum of n terms, The 13th term is: a + 12d = 38 (2) 2 Thus
  21 21 2.8
a+l Equation (2) − equation (1) gives: 7d = 21, from = [2(3.5) + (21 − 1)0.6] = [7 + 12] from which a= = 1.4
Sn = n 2 2 2
2 21 21 399
which, d = = 3. = (19) = = 199.5 i.e. the first term, a = 1.4
n 7 2 2
= {a + [a + (n − 1)d]} Substituting in equation (1) gives: a + 15 = 17, from
2
which, a = 2. Now try the following exercise.
Problem 7. Three numbers are in arithmetic
progression. Their sum is 15 and their product
n Hence the 19th term is: is 80. Determine the three numbers.
i.e. Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
2 a + (n − 1)d = 2 + (19 − 1)3 = 2 + (18)(3) = Exercise 28 Further problems on arith-
2 + 54 = 56. metic progressions
Let the three numbers be (a − d), a and (a + d)
For example, the sum of the first 7 terms of the series 1. Find the 11th term of the series 8, 14, 20,
1, 4, 7, 10, 13, . . . is given by 26, . . . [68] Then (a − d) + a + (a + d) = 15, i.e. 3a = 15, from
Problem 3. Determine the number of the term which, a = 5
whose value is 22 in the series 2 21 , 4, 5 21 , 7, . . . 2. Find the 17th term of the series 11, 10.7, 10.4,
7
S7 = [2(1) + (7 − 1)3], since a = 1 and d = 3 10.1, . . . [6.2] Also, a(a − d)(a + d) = 80, i.e. a(a2 − d 2 ) = 80
2
3. The seventh term of a series is 29 and the
7 7 2 21 , 4, 5 21 , 7, . . . is an AP where a = 2 21 and eleventh term is 54. Determine the sixteenth Since a = 5, 5(52 − d 2 ) = 80
= [2 + 18] = [20] = 70 d = 1 21 . term. [85.25] 125 − 5d 2 = 80
2 2
 ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 53 54 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA

125 − 80 = 5d 2 The last term is a + (n − 1)d 5. Insert four terms between 5 and 22.5 to form Subtracting equation (2) from equation (1) gives:
  an arithmetic progression.
45 = 5d 2 i.e. 4 + (n − 1) 2 21 = 376 21
A [8.5, 12, 15.5, 19]
45 √ 376 21 − 4 Sn − rSn = a − ar n
d2 =
= 9. Hence d = 9 = ±3. 6. The first, tenth and last terms of an arithmetic
from which, (n − 1) = progression are 9, 40.5, and 425.5 respect- i.e. Sn (1 − r) = a(1 − r n )
5 2 21
The three numbers are thus (5 − 3), 5 and (5 + 3), ively. Find (a) the number of terms, (b) the
i.e. 2, 5 and 8. sum of all the terms and (c) the 70th term.
372 21
= = 149 [(a) 120 (b) 26070 (c) 250.5]
2 21 a(1 − r n )
Problem 8. Find the sum of all the numbers 7. On commencing employment a man is paid Thus the sum of n terms, Sn = which
between 0 and 207 which are exactly divisible Hence the number of terms in the series, (1 − r)
a salary of £7200 per annum and receives
by 3. n = 149 + 1 = 150 annual increments of £350. Determine his is valid when r < 1.
salary in the 9th year and calculate the total Subtracting equation (1) from equation (2) gives
(b) Sum of all the terms, he will have received in the first 12 years.
The series 3, 6, 9, 12, . . . , 207 is an AP whose first n
S150 = [2a + (n − 1)d] [£10 000, £109 500]
term a = 3 and common difference d = 3
2 a(r n − 1)
   8. An oil company bores a hole 80 m deep. Esti- Sn = which is valid when r > 1.
The last term is a + (n − 1)d = 207 150 1 mate the cost of boring if the cost is £30 (r − 1)
= 2(4) + (150 − 1) 2 for drilling the first metre with an increase
i.e. 3 + (n − 1)3 = 207, 2 2
in cost of £2 per metre for each succeeding
   metre. [£8720]
207 − 3 1 For example, the sum of the first 8 terms of the GP
from which (n − 1) = = 68 = 75 8 + (149) 2 1(28 − 1)
3 2 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . is given by S8 = , since
Hence n = 68 + 1 = 69 (2 − 1)
= 85[8 + 372.5] 6.4 Geometric progressions a = 1 and r = 2
The sum of all 69 terms is given by 1
= 75(380.5) = 28537 When a sequence has a constant ratio between suc-
n 2 cessive terms it is called a geometric progression 1(256 − 1)
S69 = [2a + (n − 1)d] i.e. S8 = = 255
2 (c) The 80th term is: (often abbreviated to GP). The constant is called the 1
  common ratio, r.
69 a + (n − 1)d = 4 + (80 − 1) 2 21 Examples include
= [2(3) + (69 − 1)3]
2   When the common ratio r of a GP is less than unity,
= 4 + (79) 2 21 (i) 1, 2, 4, 8, . . . where the common ratio is 2 and a(1 − r n )
69 69 the sum of n terms, Sn = , which may be
= [6 + 204] = (210) = 7245 (1 − r)
2 2 = 4 + 197.5 = 201 21 (ii) a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , . . . where the common ratio is r. a ar n
written as Sn = − .
If the first term of a GP is ‘a’ and the common ratio (1 − r) (1 − r)
Now try the following exercise. is r, then Since r < 1, r n becomes less as n increases, i.e.
Problem 9. The first, twelfth and last term of r n → 0 as nn→ ∞.
an arithmetic progression are 4, 31 21 , and 376 21 ar a
respectively. Determine (a) the number of terms
Exercise 29 Further problems on arith- the n’th term is: ar n−1 Hence → 0 as n → ∞. Thus Sn →
metic progressions (1 − r) (1 − r)
in the series, (b) the sum of all the terms and as n → ∞.
(c) the ‘80’th term. a
1. The sum of 15 terms of an arithmetic progres- which can be readily checked from the above The quantity is called the sum to infinity,
sion is 202.5 and the common difference is 2. examples. (1 − r)
Find the first term of the series. [−0.5] S∞ , and is the limiting value of the sum of an infinite
(a) Let theAP be a, a + d, a + 2d, . . . , a + (n − 1)d, For example, the 8th term of the GP 1, 2, 4, 8, . . . is number of terms,
where a = 4 2. Three numbers are in arithmetic progression. (1)(2)7 = 128, since a = 1 and r = 2.
The 12th term is: a + (12 − 1)d = 31 21 Their sum is 9 and their product is 20.25. a
Determine the three numbers. [1.5, 3, 4.5] i.e. S∞ = which is valid when −1 < r < 1.
Let a GP be a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , . . ., ar n−1 (1 − r)
i.e. 4 + 11d = 31 21 , then the sum of n terms,
3. Find the sum of all the numbers between 5
and 250 which are exactly divisible by 4. Sn = a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + · · · + ar n−1 · · · (1) For example, the sum to infinity of the GP
from which, 11d = 31 21 − 4 = 27 21 [7808] 1 + 21 + 41 + · · · is
Multiplying throughout by r gives:
27 21 4. Find the number of terms of the series 5, 8, 1
Hence d = = 2 21 rSn = ar + ar 2 + ar 3 + ar 4 S∞ = , since a = 1 and r = 21 , i.e. S∞ = 2.
11 11, . . . of which the sum is 1025. [25] 1− 1
+ · · · + ar n−1 + ar n + · · · (2) 2
 ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 55 56 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA

 n−1 4. Find the sum of the first 7 terms of the series The net gain forms a series:
6.5 Worked problems on geometric 1 1 1
from which = = 2 7 2, 5, 12 21 , . . . (correct to 4 significant figures)
progressions 3 (9)(2187) 3 3 A [812.5] £400 + £400 × 0.9 + £400 × 0.92 + · · · ,
 9
1 1 5. Determine the sum to infinity of the series 4,
Problem 10. Determine the tenth term of the = 9 = 2, 1, . . . [8] which is a GP with a = 400 and r = 0.9.
3 3 The sum to infinity,
series 3, 6, 12, 24, . . . 6. Find the sum to infinity of the series 2 21 , −1 41 ,
Thus (n − 1) = 9, from which, n = 9 + 1 = 10 2

8, . . .
5 a 400
13
i.e. 91 is the 10th term of the GP S∞ = =
3, 6, 12, 24, . . . is a geometric progression with a (1 − r) (1 − 0.9)
common ratio r of 2. The n’th term of a GP is ar n−1 ,
where a is the first term. Hence the 10th term is: = £4000 = total future profits
(3)(2)10−1 = (3)(2)9 = 3(512) = 1536. Problem 14. Find the sum of the first 9 terms
of the series 72.0, 57.6, 46.08, . . . 6.6 Further worked problems on
geometric progressions Problem 18. If £100 is invested at compound
Problem 11. Find the sum of the first 7 terms interest of 8% per annum, determine (a) the value
of the series, 21 , 1 21 , 4 21 , 13 21 , . . . ar 57.6
The common ratio, r = = = 0.8 Problem 16. In a geometric progression the
after 10 years, (b) the time, correct to the nearest
a 72.0 year, it takes to reach more than £300.
sixth term is 8 times the third term and the sum
  of the seventh and eighth terms is 192. Deter-
1
2, 1 21 , 4 21 , 13 21 , . . . is a GP with a common ratio ar 2 46.08
also = = 0.8 mine (a) the common ratio, (b) the first term,
r =3 ar 57.6 (a) Let the GP be a, ar, ar 2 , . . ., ar n
and (c) the sum of the fifth to eleventh terms, The first term a = £100
a(r n − 1) inclusive.
The sum of n terms, Sn = The sum of 9 terms, The common ratio r = 1.08
(r − 1) Hence the second term is
2 (3 − 1)
1 7
2 (2187 − 1)
1
1 a(1 − r n ) 72.0(1 − 0.89 ) (a) Let the GP be a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , . . . , ar n−1
Hence S7 = = = 546 S9 = = ar = (100) (1.08) = £108,
(3 − 1) 2 2 (1 − r) (1 − 0.8) The 3rd term = ar 2 and the sixth term = ar 5
72.0(1 − 0.1342) The 6th term is 8 times the 3rd. √ which is the value after 1 year,
= = 311.7 Hence ar 5 = 8ar 2 from which, r 3 = 8, r = 3 8 the third term is
Problem 12. The first term of a geometric pro- 0.2 i.e. the common ratio r = 2.
gression is 12 and the fifth term is 55. Determine ar 2 = (100) (1.08)2 = £116.64,
the 8’th term and the 11’th term. (b) The sum of the 7th and 8th terms is 192. Hence
Problem 15. Find the sum to infinity of the ar 6 + ar 7 = 192. which is the value after 2 years, and so on.
series 3, 1, 13 , . . . Thus the value after 10 years
The 5th term is given by ar 4 = 55, where the first Since r = 2, then 64a + 128a = 192
term a = 12 192a = 192, = ar 10 = (100) (1.08)10 = £215.89
55 55 3, 1, . . . is a GP of common ratio, r =
1
3,
1
3
from which, a, the first term, = 1. (b) When £300 has been reached, 300 = ar n
Hence r4 = = The sum to infinity,
a 12 i.e. 300 = 100(1.08)n
  (c) The sum of the 5th to 11th terms (inclusive) is
55 a 3 3 9 1 given by: and 3 = (1.08)n
and r= 4 = 1.4631719 . . . S∞ = = = = =4
12 1−r 1− 1 2 2 2 a(r 11 − 1) a(r 4 − 1) Taking logarithms to base 10 of both sides gives:
3 3 S11 − S4 = −
(r − 1) (r − 1) lg 3 = lg (1.08)n = n lg(1.08),
The 8th term is ar 7 = (12)(1.4631719 . . . )7 = 172.3
The 11th term is ar 10 = (12)(1.4631719 . . . )10 Now try the following exercise. 1(211 − 1) 1(24 − 1) by the laws of logarithms
= 539.7 = − lg 3
(2 − 1) (2 − 1) from which, n = = 14.3
Exercise 30 Further problems on geometric lg 1.08
= (211 − 1) − (24 − 1)
Problem 13. Which term of the series 2187, progressions Hence it will take 15 years to reach more than
729, 243, . . . is 19 ? 1. Find the 10th term of the series 5, 10, 20, = 211 − 24 = 2048 − 16 = 2032 £300.
40, . . . [2560]
2187, 729, 243, . . . is a GP with a common ratio 2. Determine the sum of the first 7 terms of the Problem 17. A hire tool firm finds that their net Problem 19. A drilling machine is to have
r = 13 and first term a = 2187 series 41 , 43 , 2 41 , 6 43 , . . . [273.25] return from hiring tools is decreasing by 10% per 6 speeds ranging from 50 rev/min to 750 rev/
The n’th term of a GP is given by: ar n−1 3. The first term of a geometric progression is annum. If their net gain on a certain tool this year min. If the speeds form a geometric progres-
is £400, find the possible total of all future profits sion determine their values, each correct to the
1  n−1 4 and the 6th term is 128. Determine the 8th
from this tool (assuming the tool lasts for ever).
Hence = (2187) 13 and 11th terms. [512, 4096] nearest whole number.
9
 Number and Algebra
ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS 57

ar 2 , . . .,
Let the GP of n terms be given by a, ar,
ar n−1 .
2. Which term of the series 3, 9, 27, . . . is
59049? [10th ] 7
The first term a = 50 rev/min A
The 6th term is given by ar 6−1 , which is 750 rev/min,
i.e., ar 5 = 750
3. The value of a lathe originally valued at
£3000 depreciates 15% per annum. Calculate The binomial series
its value after 4 years. The machine is sold
750 750 when its value is less than £550. After how
from which r 5 = = = 15
a 50 many years is the lathe sold?
√ [£1566, 11 years] Table 7.1
Thus the common ratio, r = 15 = 1.7188
5
7.1 Pascal’s triangle
The first term is a = 50 rev/min 4. If the population of Great Britain is 55 million
A binomial expression is one which contains two
the second term is ar = (50) (1.7188) = 85.94, and is decreasing at 2.4% per annum, what
terms connected by a plus or minus sign. Thus
will be the population in 5 years time?
the third term is ar 2 = (50) (1.7188)2 = 147.71, [48.71 M] (p + q), (a + x)2 , (2x + y)3 are examples of binomial
the fourth term is ar 3 = (50) (1.7188)3 = 253.89, expressions. Expanding (a + x)n for integer values
of n from 0 to 6 gives the results as shown at the
the fifth term is ar 4 = (50) (1.7188)4 = 436.39, 5. 100 g of a radioactive substance disintegrates bottom of the page.
at a rate of 3% per annum. How much of the
the sixth term is ar 5 = (50) (1.7188)5 = 750.06 From these results the following patterns emerge:
substance is left after 11 years? [71.53 g]
Hence, correct to the nearest whole number, the (i) ‘a’decreases in power moving from left to right.
6 speeds of the drilling machine are 50, 86, 148, 6. If £250 is invested at compound interest of (ii) ‘x’ increases in power moving from left to right.
254, 436 and 750 rev/min. 6% per annum determine (a) the value after (iii) The coefficients of each term of the expansions
15 years, (b) the time, correct to the nearest are symmetrical about the middle coefficient
Now try the following exercise. year, it takes to reach £750. when n is even and symmetrical about the two as shown in (2) below.
[(a) £599.14 (b) 19 years] middle coefficients when n is odd.
Exercise 31 Further problems on geometric (iv) The coefficients are shown separately in
progressions 7. A drilling machine is to have 8 speeds ran- Table 7.1 and this arrangement is known as
ging from 100 rev/min to 1000 rev/min. If the Pascal’s triangle. A coefficient of a term may
1. In a geometric progression the 5th term is speeds form a geometric progression deter- be obtained by adding the two adjacent coeffi- The first and last terms of the expansion of (a + x)7
9 times the 3rd term and the sum of the 6th and mine their values, each correct to the nearest cients immediately above in the previous row. are a7 and x 7 respectively. The powers of ‘a’decrease
7th terms is 1944. Determine (a) the common whole number. This is shown by the triangles in Table 7.1, and the powers of ‘x’ increase moving from left to
ratio, (b) the first term and (c) the sum of the [100, 139, 193, 268, 373, 518, where, for example, 1 + 3 = 4, 10 + 5 = 15, right.
4th to 10th terms inclusive. 720, 1000 rev/min] and so on. Hence
[(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 59022] (v) Pascal’s triangle method is used for expansions
of the form (a + x)n for integer values of n less (a + x)7 = a7 + 7a6 x + 21a5 x2 + 35a4 x3
than about 8. + 35a3 x4 + 21a2 x5 + 7ax6 + x7

Problem 1. Use the Pascal’s triangle method

to determine the expansion of (a + x)7 . Problem 2. Determine, using Pascal’s triangle
method, the expansion of (2p − 3q)5 .
From Table 7.1, the row of Pascal’s triangle corres-
ponding to (a + x)6 is as shown in (1) below. Adding Comparing (2p − 3q)5 with (a + x)5 shows that
adjacent coefficients gives the coefficients of (a+x)7 a = 2p and x = −3q.

(a + x)0 = 1
(a + x)1 =a+x a+x
(a + x)2 = (a + x)(a + x) = a + 2ax + x 2
2

(a + x)3 = (a + x)2 (a + x) = a3 + 3a2 x + 3ax 2 + x 3

(a + x)4 = (a + x)3 (a + x) = a4 + 4a3 x + 6a2 x 2 + 4ax 3 + x 4
(a + x)5 = (a + x)4 (a + x) = a5 + 5a4 x + 10a3 x 2 + 10a2 x 3 + 5ax 4 + x 5
(a + x)6 = (a + x)5 (a + x) = a6 + 6a5 x + 15a4 x 2 + 20a3 x 3 + 15a2 x 4 + 6ax 5 + x 6
 THE BINOMIAL SERIES 59 60 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA

 
Using Pascal’s triangle method: For any term in a binomial expansion, say the  5 1 10 p5
r’th term, (r − 1) is very evident. It may therefore 1 Hence the middle term of 2p − is −252 5
(a + x) = a + 5a x + 10a x + 10a x + · · ·
5 5 4 3 2 2 3
be reasoned that the r’th term of the expansion A Problem 4. Expand c − using the bino- 2q q
c
Hence (a + x)n is: mial series.
(2p − 3q)5 = (2p)5 + 5(2p)4 (−3q) n(n − 1)(n − 2) . . . to (r − 1) terms n−(r−1) r−1 Problem 7. Evaluate (1.002)9 using the bino-
a x  5   mial theorem correct to (a) 3 decimal places and
+ 10(2p) (−3q)
3 2 (r − 1)! 1 1 (b) 7 significant figures.
c− = c5 + 5c4 −
+ 10(2p)2 (−3q)3 c c
If a = 1 in the binomial expansion of (a + x)n then:  
(5)(4) 3 1 2 n(n − 1) 2
+ 5(2p)(−3q)4 + (−3q)5 + c − (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x
n(n − 1) 2 (2)(1) c 2!
i.e. (2p − 3q)5 = 32p5 − 240p4 q + 720p3 q2  
(1 + x) = 1 + nx +
n
x (5)(4)(3) 2 1 3 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
− 1080p2 q3 + 810pq4 − 243q5 2! + c − + x + ···
n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3 (3)(2)(1) c 3!
+ x +···  
3! (5)(4)(3)(2) 1 4
Now try the following exercise. + c − (1.002)9 = (1 + 0.002)9
(4)(3)(2)(1) c
which is valid for −1 < x < 1.   Substituting x = 0.002 and n = 9 in the general
(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) 1 5
Exercise 32 Further problems on Pascal’s When x is small compared with 1 then: + − expansion for (1 + x)n gives:
triangle (5)(4)(3)(2)(1) c
  (9)(8)
1. Use Pascal’s triangle to expand (x − y)7 (1 + x)n ≈ 1 + nx 1 5 10 5 1 (1 + 0.002)9 = 1 + 9(0.002) + (0.002)2
i.e. c − = c5 − 5c3 + 10c − + 3− 5 (2)(1)
 7  c c c c (9)(8)(7)
x − 7x 6 y + 21x 5 y2 − 35x 4 y3 + (0.002)3 + · · ·
+ 35x y − 21x y + 7xy − y
3 4 2 5 6 7
7.3 Worked problems on the binomial (3)(2)(1)
series Problem 5. Without fully expanding (3 + x)7, = 1 + 0.018 + 0.000144
2. Expand (2a + 3b)5 using Pascal’s triangle determine the fifth term.
  + 0.000000672 + · · ·
32a5 + 240a4 b + 720a3 b2
+ 1080a2 b3 + 810ab4 + 243b5 Problem 3. Use the binomial series to deter- = 1.018144672 . . .
The r’th term of the expansion (a + x)n is given by:
mine the expansion of (2 + x)7 .
n(n − 1)(n − 2) . . . to (r − 1) terms n−(r−1) r−1 Hence (1.002) = 1.018, correct to 3 decimal
9
a x places
(r − 1)!
The binomial expansion is given by: = 1.018145, correct to
7.2 The binomial series Substituting n = 7, a = 3 and r − 1 = 5 − 1 = 4
n(n − 1) n−2 2 gives: 7 significant figures
(a + x)n = an + nan−1 x + a x
The binomial series or binomial theorem is a 2! (7)(6)(5)(4) 7−4 4
formula for raising a binomial expression to any n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3 (3) x Problem 8. Evaluate (0.97)6 correct to 4 sig-
power without lengthy multiplication. The general + a x + ··· (4)(3)(2)(1)
nificant figures using the binomial expansion.
3!
binomial expansion of (a + x)n is given by: i.e. the fifth term of (3 + x)7 = 35(3)3 x 4 = 945x4
When a = 2 and n = 7:
n(n − 1) n−2 2 (7)(6) 5 2 (0.97)6 is written as (1 − 0.03)6
(a + x) =n
+
an +
nan−1 x a x (2 + x)7 = 27 + 7(2)6 x + (2) x Problem
 6. Find the middle term of
Using the expansion of (1 + x)n where n = 6 and
2! (2)(1) 1 10
n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3 2p − x = −0.03 gives:
+ a x +
(7)(6)(5) 4 3 (7)(6)(5)(4) 3 4
(2) x + (2) x 2q
3! (3)(2)(1) (4)(3)(2)(1) (6)(5)
+ ··· (1 − 0.03)6 = 1 + 6(−0.03) + (−0.03)2
(7)(6)(5)(4)(3) 2 5 (2)(1)
+ (2) x In the expansion of (a + x)10 there are 10 + 1, i.e. 11
where 3! denotes 3×2×1 and is termed ‘factorial 3’. (5)(4)(3)(2)(1) (6)(5)(4)
terms. Hence the middle term is the sixth. Using the + (−0.03)3
With the binomial theorem n may be a fraction, a (7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2) general expression for the r’th term where a = 2p, (3)(2)(1)
decimal fraction or a positive or negative integer. + (2)x 6 1
(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) x = − , n = 10 and r − 1 = 5 gives: (6)(5)(4)(3)
When n is a positive integer, the series is finite, i.e., (7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) 7 2q + (−0.03)4 + · · ·
it comes to an end; when n is a negative integer, or a + x (4)(3)(2)(1)
(7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)  
fraction, the series is infinite. (10)(9)(8)(7)(6) 1 5 = 1 − 0.18 + 0.0135 − 0.00054
In the general expansion of (a + x)n it is noted that (2p)10–5 −
n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3 i.e. (2 + x)7 = 128 + 448x + 672x2 + 560x3 (5)(4)(3)(2)(1) 2q
  + 0.00001215 − · · ·
the 4th term is: a x . The number + 280x4 + 84x5 + 14x6 + x7 1
3! = 252(32p5 ) − ≈ 0.83297215
3 is very evident in this expression. 32q5
 THE BINOMIAL SERIES 61 62 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA

   
(0.97) = 0.8330, correct to 4 significant
6
2 5 x 
i.e. (−3)(−4) √
4. Determine the expansion of 2x + . = 1 + (−3)(2x) + (2x)2
figures x 2! 4+x = 4 1+
⎡ A 4
320 ⎤ (−3)(−4)(−5) 
32x 5 + 160x 3 + 320x + + (2x)3 + · · · √  x  x 2
1
Problem 9. Determine the value of (3.039)4 , ⎢ x ⎥ 3! = 4 1+ =2 1+
⎣ ⎦ 4 4
correct to 6 significant figures using the binomial 160 32
+ 3 + 5 = 1 − 6x + 24x − 80x + · · ·
2 3
theorem. x x Using the expansion of (1 + x)n ,
(b) The expansion is valid provided |2x| < 1,
5. Expand ( p + 2q)11 as far as the fifth term. 1 1 1  x 2
1
(3.039)4 may be written in the form (1 + x)n as:  11  i.e. |x| < or − < x < 2 1+
p + 22p10 q + 220p9 q2 2 2 2 4    
(3.039)4 = (3 + 0.039)4
+ 1320p8 q3 + 5280p7 q4 1 x (1/2)(−1/2)  x 2
   =2 1+ +
0.039 4  2 4 2! 4
q 13 Problem 11. 
= 3 1+ 6. Determine the sixth term of 3p + . 1 (1/2)(−1/2)(−3/2)  x 3
3 3 (a) Expand in ascending powers of x + + ···
(4 − x)2 3! 4
= 34 (1 + 0.013)4 [34749 p q5 ]
8  
as far as the term in x 3 , using the binomial x x2 x3
(1 + 0.013)4 = 1 + 4(0.013) theorem. =2 1+ − + − ···
7. Determine the middle term of (2a − 5b)8 . 8 128 1024
(b) What are the limits of x for which the
(4)(3) [700000 a4 b4 ] expansion in (a) is true? x x2 x3
+ (0.013)2 =2+ − + −···
(2)(1) 8. Use the binomial theorem to determine, 4 64 512
(4)(3)(2) correct to 4 decimal places: x
+ (0.013)3 + · · · (a) (1.003)8 (b) (1.042)7 1 1 1  
=  =  This is valid when  <1,
x 2 x 2
(3)(2)(1) (a)
(4 − x)2 4
= 1 + 0.052 + 0.001014
[(a) 1.0243 (b) 1.3337] 4 1− 42 1 − i.e. |x| < 4 or −4 < x < 4
4 4
1  x −2
9. Use the binomial theorem to determine,
+ 0.000008788 + · · · correct to 5 significant figures: = 1−
(a) (0.98)7 (b) (2.01)9 16 4 1
= 1.0530228 Problem 13. Expand √ in ascending
correct to 8 significant figures [(a) 0.86813 (b) 535.51] Using the expansion of (1 + x)n (1 − 2t)
3
powers of t as far as the term in t .
Hence (3.039)4 = 34 (1.0530228) 10. Evaluate (4.044)6 correct to 3 decimal 1 1  x −2
= 85.2948, correct to places. = 1− State the limits of t for which the expression is
(4 − x)2 16 4 valid.
6 significant figures [4373.880]   x
1
= 1 + (−2) −
Now try the following exercise. 16 4 1
√
(−2)(−3)  x 2 (1 − 2t)
Exercise 33 Further problems on the bino- 7.4 Further worked problems on the + −
2! 4 1
mial series binomial series  = (1 − 2t)− 2
(−2)(−3)(−4)  x 3  
1. Use the binomial theorem to expand + − + ··· 1 (−1/2)(−3/2)
(a + 2x)4 . Problem 10. 3! 4 =1+ − (−2t) + (−2t)2
  2 2!
 4  1 1 x 3x2 x3
a + 8a3 x + 24a2 x 2 (a) Expand in ascending powers = 1+ + + +··· (−1/2)(−3/2)(−5/2)
(1 + 2x)3 + (−2t)3 + · · · ,
+ 32ax + 16x
3 4 16 2 16 16
of x as far as the term in x 3, using the x 3!
binomial series.  
2. Use the binomial theorem to expand (b) The expansion in (a) is true provided   < 1, using the expansion for (1 + x)n
(b) State the limits of x for which the expan- 4
(2 − x)6 .
  sion is valid. i.e. |x| < 4 or −4 < x < 4 3 5
64 − 192x + 240x 2 − 160x 3 = 1 + t + t2 + t3 + · · ·
2 2
+ 60x − 12x + x
4 5 6

(a) Using the binomial expansion of (1 + x)n , where

Problem√12. Use the binomial theorem to The expression is valid when |2t| < 1,
3. Expand (2x − 3y)4 expand 4 + x in ascending powers of x to
n = −3 and x is replaced by 2x gives: 1 1 1
 4  four terms. Give the limits of x for which the i.e. |t| < or − < t <
16x − 96x 3 y + 216x 2 y2 1 expansion is valid. 2 2 2
− 216xy + 81y
3 4 = (1 + 2x)−3
(1 + 2x)3
 THE BINOMIAL SERIES 63 64 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA

√ √ = 1 + x + 2x 2 + · · · which is valid for 5. √

1
(1 − 3x) (1 + x)
3 Problem 16. The radius of a cylinder is
 1 + 3x
x 3
Problem 14. Simplify ⎡ ⎤ reduced by 4% and its height is increased by 2%.
1+ |3x| < 1, i.e. |x| <
1 A 3 27 2 135 3 Determine the approximate percentage change
2 3 ⎢ 1 − x + x − x + · · · ⎥ in (a) its volume and (b) its curved surface area,
given that powers of x above the first may be ⎢ 2 8 16 ⎥
Hence ⎣ 1 ⎦ (neglecting the products of small quantities).
neglected. |x| <
√
(1 + 2x) 1 1 3
√ √ √ = (1 + 2x) 2 (1 − 3x)− 3 Volume of cylinder = πr 2 h.
3
(1 − 3x) (1 + x)
3
(1 − 3x) 6. Expand (2 + 3x)−6 to three terms. For what
 Let r and h be the original values of radius and
x 3   values of x is the expansion valid?
x2 ⎡  ⎤ height.
1+ = 1+x− + · · · (1 + x + 2x 2 + · · · ) 1 189 2 The new values are 0.96r or (1 − 0.04)r and 1.02h
2 2 ⎢ 64 1 − 9x + 4 x ⎥ or (1 + 0.02)h.
1  x −3 ⎢ ⎥
1
= (1 − 3x) 3 (1 + x) 2 1 + x2 ⎣ 2 ⎦
2 = 1 + x + 2x + x + x 2 − ,
2
|x| < (a) New volume = π[(1 − 0.04)r]2 [(1 + 0.02)h]
2 3
        x  = πr 2 h(1 − 0.04)2 (1 + 0.02)
1 1 neglecting terms of higher power than 2, 7. When x is very small show that:
≈ 1+ (−3x) 1 + (x) 1 + (−3)
3 2 2 5 1 5 Now (1 − 0.04)2 = 1 − 2(0.04) + (0.04)2
= 1 + 2x + x2 (a) √ ≈1+ x = (1 − 0.08),
when expanded by the binomial theorem as far as 2 (1 − x)2 (1 − x) 2
neglecting powers of small terms.
the x term only, (1 − 2x)
  1 1 (b) ≈ 1 + 10x Hence new volume
 x 3x The series is convergent if − < x < (1 − 3x)4
= (1 − x) 1 + 1− 3 3 √ ≈ πr 2 h(1 − 0.08)(1 + 0.02)
2 2 1 + 5x 19
  (c) √ ≈1+ x
x 3x when powers of x higher Now try the following exercise. 3
1 − 2x 6 ≈ πr 2 h(1 − 0.08 + 0.02), neglecting
= 1−x+ − than unity are neglected products of small terms
2 2 8. If x is very small such that x 2 and higher pow-
Exercise 34 Further problems on the bino- ers may be
= (1 − 2x) mial series √neglected,
√ determine the power ≈ πr 2 h(1 − 0.06) or 0.94πr 2 h, i.e. 94%
x+43 8−x
series for  of the original volume
In problems 1 to 5 expand in ascending powers 5
(1 + x)3
√ of x as far as the term in x 3 , using the binomial   Hence the volume is reduced by approxi-
(1 + 2x) 31
Problem 15. Express √ as a power theorem. State in each case the limits of x for 4− x mately 6%.
3
(1 − 3x) which the series is valid. 15 (b) Curved surface area of cylinder = 2πrh.
series as far as the term in x 2 . State the range of 1 9. Express the following as power series in New surface area
values of x for which the series is convergent. 1. ascending powers of x as far as the term in
(1 − x) = 2π[(1 − 0.04)r][(1 + 0.02)h]
x 2 . State in each case the range of x for which
√ [1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + · · · , |x| < 1] the series is valid. = 2πrh(1 − 0.04)(1 + 0.02)
  
(1 + 2x) 1 1
√ = (1 + 2x) 2 (1 − 3x)− 3 1 1−x (1 + x) 3 (1 − 3x)2 ≈ 2πrh(1 − 0.04 + 0.02), neglecting
3
(1 − 3x) 2. (a) (b) 
  (1 + x)2 1+x (1 + x 2 ) products of small terms
1 1
[1 − 2x + 3x 2 − 4x 3 + · · · , |x| < 1] ⎡ ⎤
(1 + 2x) 2 = 1 + (2x) 1
≈ 2πrh(1 − 0.02) or 0.98(2πrh),
2 (a) 1 − x + x 2 , |x| < 1
⎢ 2 ⎥
1 ⎢ ⎥ i.e. 98% of the original surface area
(1/2)(−1/2) 3. ⎣ 7 2 1⎦
+ (2x)2 + · · · (2 + x)3 (b) 1 − x − x , |x| <
2! ⎡  Hence the curved surface area is reduced by
⎤ 2 3
1 3x 3x 2 5x 3 approximately 2%.
x2 ⎣8 1 − 2 + 2 − 4 + · · · ⎦
=1 + x − + · · · which is valid for
2 |x| < 2
1 Problem 17. The second moment of area of
|2x| < 1, i.e. |x| < √ 7.5 Practical problems involving the
2 bl3
1 4. 2+x binomial theorem a rectangle through its centroid is given by .
(1 − 3x)− 3 = 1 + (−1/3)(−3x) ⎡  ⎤ 12
√ x x2 x3 Determine the approximate change in the second
⎣ 2 1 + − + − · · · ⎦ Binomial expansions may be used for numerical moment of area if b is increased by 3.5% and
(−1/3)(−4/3) 4 32 128
+ (−3x)2 + · · · |x| < 2
approximations, for calculations with small vari- l is reduced by 2.5%.
2! ations and in probability theory (see Chapter 57).
 THE BINOMIAL SERIES 65 66 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA

New values of b and l are (1 + 0.035)b and 1 1 1 1 1 5. The radius of a cone is increased by 2.7% 1
= (1 + 0.04) 2 k 2 (1 − 0.02)− 2 I − 2 frequency is given by: fr = √ . If the
(1 − 0.025)l respectively. 2π and its height reduced by 0.9%. Determine 2π LC
New second moment of area A the approximate percentage change in its values of L and C used in the calculation are
1 1 −1 1 1 volume, neglecting the products of small 2.6% too large and 0.8% too small respect-
1 = k 2 I 2 (1 + 0.04) 2 (1 − 0.02)− 2 terms. [4.5% increase] ively, determine the approximate percentage
= [(1 + 0.035)b][(1 − 0.025)l]3 2π
12 error in the frequency.
1 1 6. The electric field strength H due to a magnet
[0.9% too small]
bl3 i.e. f1 = f (1 + 0.04) 2 (1 − 0.02)− 2 of length 2l and moment M at a point on its
= (1 + 0.035)(1 − 0.025)3
12 axis distance x from the centre is given by 10. The viscosity η of a liquid is given by:
3         
bl 1 1 M 1 1 kr 4
≈ (1 + 0.035)(1 − 0.075), neglecting ≈f 1 + (0.04) 1 + − (−0.02) H= − η= , where k is a constant. If there is
12 2 2 2l (x − l)2 (x + l)2 νl
powers of small terms an error in r of +2%, in ν of +4% and l of
≈ f (1 + 0.02)(1 + 0.01) Show that if l is very small compared with −3%, what is the resultant error in η?
bl 3
≈ (1 + 0.035 − 0.075), neglecting Neglecting the products of small terms, 2M [+7%]
12 x, then H ≈ .
products of small terms x3
f1 ≈ (1 + 0.02 + 0.01)f ≈ 1.03f 11. A magnetic pole, distance x from the plane
bl 3 bl 3 7. The shear stress τ in a shaft of diameter of a coil of radius r, and on the axis of the
≈ (1 − 0.040) or (0.96) , i.e. 96% kT coil, is subject to a force F when a cur-
12 12
Thus the percentage error in f based on the D under a torque T is given by: τ = .
measured values of k and I is approximately πD3 rent flows in the coil. The force is given
of the original second moment of area Determine the approximate percentage error
[(1.03)(100) − 100], i.e. 3% too large. kx
in calculating τ if T is measured 3% too by: F =  , where k is a constant.
Hence the second moment of area is reduced by small and D 1.5% too large. (r 2 + x 2 )5
approximately 4%. [7.5% decrease] Use the binomial theorem to show that when
Now try the following exercise.
x is small compared to r, then
8. The energy W stored in a flywheel is given kx 5kx 3
Problem 18. The resonant frequency  of a Exercise 35 Further practical problems by: W = kr 5 N 2 , where k is a constant, r F≈ 5 −
1 k is the radius and N the number of revolu- r 2r 7
involving the binomial theorem
vibrating shaft is given by: f = , where tions. Determine the approximate percent-
2π I 1. Pressure p and volume v are related by 12. The flow
k is the stiffness and I is the inertia of the age change in W when r is increased by  of water through a pipe is given by:
shaft. Use the binomial theorem to determine pv3 = c, where c is a constant. Determine the 1.3% and N is decreased by 2%. (3d)5 H
the approximate percentage error in determin- approximate percentage change in c when p [2.5% increase] G= . If d decreases by 2% and H
is increased by 3% and v decreased by 1.2%. L
ing the frequency using the measured values of by 1%, use the binomial theorem to estimate
k and I when the measured value of k is 4% [0.6% decrease] 9. In a series electrical circuit containing the decrease in G. [5.5%]
too large and the measured value of I is 2% too inductance L and capacitance C the resonant
small. 2. Kinetic energy is given by 21 mv2 . Deter-
mine the approximate change in the kinetic
energy when mass m is increased by 2.5%
Let f , k and I be the true values of frequency, stiffness
and the velocity v is reduced by 3%.
and inertia respectively. Since the measured value of
stiffness, k1 , is 4% too large, then [3.5% decrease]

104 3. An error of +1.5% was made when meas-

k1 = k = (1 + 0.04)k uring the radius of a sphere. Ignoring the
100
products of small quantities determine the
The measured value of inertia, I1 , is 2% too small, approximate error in calculating (a) the vol-
hence ume, and (b) the surface area.
 
98 (a) 4.5% increase
I1 = I = (1 − 0.02)I (b) 3.0% increase
100
The measured value of frequency, 4. The power developed by an engine is given
 by I = k PLAN, where k is a constant. Deter-
1 k1 1 21 − 21
f1 = = k I mine the approximate percentage change in
2π I1 2π 1 1 the power when P and A are each increased
1 1 1 by 2.5% and L and N are each decreased by
= [(1 + 0.04)k] 2 [(1 − 0.02)I]− 2 1.4%. [2.2% increase]
2π
 Number and Algebra
68 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA

8 on; thus cos x meets this condition. However,

if f (x) = ln x, f  (0) = 01 = ∞, thus ln x does not
Replacing x with 2θ in the series obtained in Prob-
lem 1 gives:
A meet this condition. (2θ)2 (2θ)4 (2θ)6
cos 2θ = 1 − + − + ···
Maclaurin’s series (c) The resultant Maclaurin’s series must be
convergent
2! 4! 6!
4θ 2 16θ 4 64θ 6
In general, this means that the values of the =1− + − + ···
terms, or groups of terms, must get progres- 2 24 720
sively smaller and the sum of the terms must 2 4
Differentiating equation (3) with respect to x gives: reach a limiting value. i.e. cos 2θ = 1 − 2θ 2 + θ 4 − θ 6 + · · ·
8.1 Introduction 3 45
f  (x) = (3)(2)a3 + (4)(3)(2)a4 x For example, the series 1 + 21 + 41 + 18 + · · · is
Some mathematical functions may be represented as convergent since the value of the terms is getting
power series, containing terms in ascending powers + (5)(4)(3)a5 x + · · ·
2
(4) smaller and the sum of the terms is approaching
Problem 3. Determine the power series for
of the variable. For example, a limiting value of 2. tan x as far as the term in x 3 .
f  (0)
x2 x3 When x = 0, f  (0) = (3)(2)a3 = 3!a3 , i.e. a3 =
ex = 1 + x + + + ··· 3! f (x) = tan x
2! 3! f iv (0) f (0) = tan 0 = 0
Continuing the same procedure gives a4 = , 8.4 Worked problems on Maclaurin’s
x3 x5 x7 4! f  (x) = sec2 x
sin x = x − + − + ··· f v (0) series
3! 5! 7! a5 = , and so on. 1
5! f  (0) = sec2 0 = =1
x2 x4 Substituting for a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . in equation (1) gives: cos2 0
and cosh x = 1 + + + ··· Problem 1. Determine the first four terms of

2! 4! the power series for cos x. f (x) = (2 sec x)( sec x tan x)
f  (0) 2
(as introduced in Chapter 5) f (x) = f (0) + f  (0)x + x = 2 sec2 x tan x
2!
Using a series, called Maclaurin’s series, mixed The values of f (0), f  (0), f  (0), . . . in the 
f (0) = 2 sec2 0 tan 0 = 0
f  (0) 3 Maclaurin’s series are obtained as follows:
functions containing, say, algebraic, trigonometric + x + ···
and exponential functions, may be expressed solely 3! f  (x) = (2 sec2 x)( sec2 x)
f (x) = cos x f (0) = cos 0 = 1
as algebraic functions, and differentiation and inte- + (tan x)(4 sec x sec x tan x),
gration can often be more readily performed.
x2  f  (x) = −sin x f  (0) = −sin 0 = 0
f (x) = f (0) + xf  (0) + f (0) by the product rule,
2! f  (x) = −cos x f  (0) = −cos 0 = −1
i.e. (5) = 2 sec4 x + 4 sec2 x tan2 x
8.2 Derivation of Maclaurin’s theorem x3 f  (x) = f  (0) = sin 0 = 0
+ f  (0) + · · · sin x 
3! f (0) = 2 sec4 0 + 4 sec2 0 tan2 0 = 2
Let the power series for f (x) be f iv (x) = cos x f iv (0) = cos 0 = 1 Substituting these values into equation (5) gives:
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 Equation (5) is a mathematical statement called f v (x) = −sin x f v (0) = −sin 0 = 0 x2 x3
Maclaurin’s theorem or Maclaurin’s series. f (x) = tan x = 0 + (x)(1) + (0) + (2)
+ a5 x 5 + · · · (1) f vi (x) = −cos x f vi (0) = −cos 0 = −1 2! 3!
where a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . are constants. Substituting these values into equation (5) gives: 1
i.e. tan x = x + x3
When x = 0, f (0) = a0 . 8.3 Conditions of Maclaurin’s series 3
x2 x3
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to x gives: f (x) = cos x = 1 + x(0) + (−1) + (0)
Maclaurin’s series may be used to represent any 2! 3! Problem 4. Expand ln(1 + x) to five terms.
f  (x) = a1 + 2a2 x + 3a3 x 2 + 4a4 x 3 function, say f (x), as a power series provided that
at x = 0 the following three conditions are met: x4 x5 x6
+ 5a5 x 4 + · · · (2) + (1) + (0) + (−1) + · · ·
(a) f (0) = ∞ 4! 5! 6! f (x) = ln(1 + x) f (0) = ln(1 + 0) = 0
When x = 0, f  (0) = a1 .
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to x gives: For example, for the function f (x) = cos x, x2 x4 x6 1 1
f (0) = cos 0 = 1, thus cos x meets the condition. i.e. cos x = 1 − + − + ··· f  (x) = f  (0) = =1
 (1 + x) 1+0
f (x) = 2a2 + (3)(2)a3 x + (4)(3)a4 x 2 However, if f (x) = ln x, f (0) = ln 0 = −∞, 2! 4! 6!
−1 −1
thus ln x does not meet this condition. f  (x) = f  (0) = = −1
+ (5)(4)a5 x 3 + · · · (3) (1 + x)2 (1 + 0)2
(b) f  (0), f  (0), f  (0), . . . = ∞
Problem 2. Determine the power series for 2 2
f  (0) For example, for the function f (x) = cos x, f  (x) = f  (0) = =2
When x = 0, f  (0) = 2a2 = 2!a2 , i.e. a2 = f  (0) = −sin 0 = 0, f  (0) = −cos 0 = −1, and so
cos 2θ.
(1 + x)3 (1 + 0)3
2!
 MACLAURIN’S SERIES 69 70 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA

−6 −6 f (x) = (2 + x)4 f (0) = 24 = 16 1

f iv (x) = f iv (0) = = −6 Problem 9. Develop a series for sinh x using Thus cos2 2x = (1 + cos 4x)
(1 + x)4 (1 + 0)4 Maclaurin’s series.  2 
f  (x) = 4(2 + x)3 f  (0) = 4(2)3 = 32 A 1 32 256 6
24 24 = 1 + 1 − 8x 2 + x 4 − x + ···
f v (x) = f v (0) = = 24
(1 + x)5 (1 + 0)5 f  (x) = 12(2 + x)2 f  (0) = 12(2)2 = 48 e0 − e−0
2 3 45
f (x) = sinh x f (0) = sinh 0 = =0 16 128 6
Substituting these values into equation (5) gives: f  (x) = 24(2 + x)1 f  (0) = 24(2) = 48 2 i.e. cos2 2x = 1− 4x2 + x4 − x +···
−0
3 45
x2 f iv (x) = 24 f iv (0) = 24 e +e
0
f (x) = ln(1 + x) = 0 + x(1) +(−1) f  (x) = cosh x f  (0) = cosh 0 = =1
2! 2
Substituting in equation (5) gives: f  (x) = sinh x f  (0) = sinh 0 = 0 Now try the following exercise.
x3 x4 x5
+ (2) + (−6) + (24) f  (x) = cosh x f  (0) = cosh 0 = 1
3! 4! 5! (2 + x) 4
Exercise 36 Further problems on
x2 x3 x4 x5  x 2  x 3  x 4 iv f iv (x) = sinh x f iv (0) = sinh 0 = 0 Maclaurin’s series
i.e. ln(1 + x) = x − + − + − ··· = f (0) + xf (0) + f (0) + f (0) + f (0)
2 3 4 5 2! 3! 4! f v (x) = cosh x f v (0) = cosh 0 = 1 1. Determine the first four terms of the power
series for sin 2x using Maclaurin’s series.
x2 x3 x4 Substituting in equation (5) gives: ⎡ ⎤
Problem 5. Expand ln(1 − x) to five terms. = 16 + (x)(32) + (48) + (48) + (24) 4 3 4 5
⎢sin 2x = 2x − 3 x + 15 x ⎥
2! 3! 4!
x 2  x 3  ⎣ ⎦
= 16 + 32x + 24x2 + 8x3 + x4 sinh x = f (0) + xf  (0) + f (0) + f (0) 8 7
Replacing x by −x in the series for ln(1 + x) in 2! 3! − x + ···
Problem 4 gives: 4 5
315
(This expression could have been obtained by apply- x x v
ing the binomial theorem.) + f iv (0) + f (0) + · · · 2. Use Maclaurin’s series to produce a power
(−x)2 (−x)3 4! 5!
ln(1 − x) = (−x) − + series for cosh 3x as far as the term in x 6 .
2 3 x 2 x 3 x4  
( − x)4 (−x)5 Problem 8.
x
Expand e 2 as far as the term in x 4 . = 0 + (x)(1) + (0) + (1) + (0) 9 27
1 + x2 + x4 + x6
81
− + − ··· 2! 3! 4! 2 8 80
4 5 x5
x2 x3 x4 x5 x + (1) + · · · 3. Use Maclaurin’s theorem to determine the
i.e. ln(1 − x) = −x − − − − − ··· f (x) = e 2 f (0) = e0 = 1 5!
2 3 4 5 first three terms of the power
 series for

x3 x5 x x2
f  (x) =
1 x
e2 f  (0) =
1 0
e =
1 i.e. sinh x = x + + + ··· ln(1 + ex ). ln 2 + +
2 2 2 3! 5! 2 8
Problem
 6. Determine the power series for

1+x 1 x 1 1 (as obtained in Section 5.5)
ln . f  (x) = e 2 f  (0) = e0 = 4. Determine the power series for cos 4t as far
1−x 4 4 4
as the term in t 6 .
1 x 1 1  
  f  (x) = e 2 f  (0) = e0 = Problem 10. Produce a power series for 32 256 6
1+x 8 8 8 1 − 8t 2 + t 4 − t
ln = ln(1 + x) − ln(1 − x) by the laws of 1 x 1 0 1 cos2 2x as far as the term in x 6 . 3 45
1−x f iv (x) = e2 f iv (0) = e =
logarithms, and from Problems 4 and 5, 16 16 16 3
5. Expand e 2 x in a power series as far as the
From double angle formulae, cos 2A = 2 cos2 A − 1  
    Substituting in equation (5) gives: 3 9 9
1+x x2 x3 x4 x5 (see Chapter 18). 3
term in x . 1 + x + x2 + x3
ln = x− + − + − ··· x 2 
2 8 16
1−x 2 3 4 5 x
e 2 = f (0) + xf  (0) +
1
  f (0) from which, cos2 A = (1 + cos 2A) 4
2 3 4
2! 2 6. Develop, as far as the term
 in x , the power

x x x x5 10
− −x − − − − − ··· x3 x4 1 series for sec 2x. 1 + 2x 2 + x 4
2 3 4 5 + f  (0) + f iv (0) + · · · and cos2 2x = (1 + cos 4x) 3
3! 4! 2
2 2      
= 2x + x 3 + x 5 + · · · 1 x2 1 x3 1 From Problem 1, 7. Expand e2θ cos 3θ as far as the term in θ2
  3  5 3  = 1 + (x) + + 5
1+x x x5 2 2! 4 3! 8 x2 x4 x6 using Maclaurin’s series. 1 + 2θ − θ 2
i.e. ln = 2 x+ + + ···   cos x = 1 − + − + ··· 2
1−x 3 5 x4 1 2! 4! 6!
+ + ··· (4x)2 (4x)4 (4x)6
8. Determine the first three terms of the series
4! 16 hence cos 4x = 1 − + − + ··· for sin2 x by applying Maclaurin’s theorem.
1 1 1 1 4 2! 4! 6!  
Problem 7. Use Maclaurin’s series to find the x 1 2
i.e. e 2 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x + ··· 32 256 x2 − x4 + x6 · · ·
expansion of (2 + x)4 . 2 8 48 384 = 1 − 8x 2 + x 4 − x6 + · · · 3 45
3 45
 MACLAURIN’S SERIES 71 72 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA

 1√
9. Use Maclaurin’s series to determine the  0.4  0.4 2
θ
 1 3. Determine the value of 0 θ cos θ dθ, cor-
expansion of (3 + 2t)4 . Thus 2 esin θ dθ = 2 1+θ+ dθ θ3 θ5 θ7

2 = θ− + − + ··· rect to 2 significant figures, using Maclaurin’s
81 + 216t + 216t 2 + 96t 3 + 16t 4
0.1
 0.4
0.1 A 18 600 7(5040)
0
series. [0.53]
= (2 + 2θ + θ 2 )dθ 1 1 1 4. Use
√ Maclaurin’s theorem to expand
=1− + − + ···
0.1
18 600 7(5040) x ln(x + 1) as a power series. Hence
 3 0.4
2θ 2 θ = 0.946, correct to 3 significant figures evaluate, correct to 3 decimal
 0.5 √
places,
= 2θ + + x ln(x + 1) dx. [0.061]
8.5 Numerical integration using 2 3 0.1 0
Maclaurin’s series    0.4
(0.4)3 Problem 13. Evaluate 0 x ln(1 + x) dx using
= 0.8 + (0.4) + 2
The value of many integrals cannot be determined 3 Maclaurin’s theorem, correct to 3 decimal
  places.
8.6 Limiting values
using the various analytical methods. In Chapter (0.1)3
45, the trapezoidal, mid-ordinate and Simpson’s − 0.2 + (0.1)2 + It is 
sometimes necessary to find limits of the form
3 
rules are used to numerically evaluate such inte- From Problem 4, f (x)
grals. Another method of finding the approximate = 0.98133 − 0.21033 lim , where f (a) = 0 and g(a) = 0.
x→a g(x)
value of a definite integral is to express the func- = 0.771, correct to 3 significant figures x2 x3 x4 x5
ln(1 + x) = x − + − + − ··· For example,
tion as a power series using Maclaurin’s series, and
then integrating each algebraic term in turn. This is  2 3 4 5  2 
sin θ 1 x + 3x − 4 1+3−4 0
demonstrated in the following worked problems. Problem 12. Evaluatedθ using  lim = =
θ 0.4 x→1 x − 7x + 6
2 1−7+6 0
Maclaurin’s series, correct to 3 significant
0
Hence x ln(1 + x)dx
 0.4 0 and 0
is generally referred to as indeterminate.
Problem 11. Evaluate 0.1 2 esin θ dθ, correct figures.
   0
0.4 x2 x3 x4 x5
to 3 significant figures. For certain limits a knowledge of series can some-
= x x− + − + − · · · dx times help.
Let f (θ) = sin θ f (0) = 0 0 2 3 4 5
A power series for esin θ is firstly obtained using f  (θ) = cos θ f  (0) = 1  0.4  3 4 5
 For example,
 
x x x x6 tan x − x
Maclaurin’s series.
f  (θ) = −sin θ f  (0) = 0 = x2 − + − + − · · · dx lim
0 2 3 4 5 x→0 x3
f  (θ) = −cos θ f  (0) = −1 ⎧ ⎫
f (θ) = esin θ f (0) = esin 0 = e0 = 1  0.4 1
f iv (θ) = sin θ f iv (0) = 0 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 ⎪
⎨ x + x3 + · · · − x ⎪
⎬
f  (θ) = cos θ esin θ f  (0) = cos 0 esin 0 = (1)e0 = 1 = − + − + − ··· ≡ lim 3 from Problem 3
f v (θ) = cos θ f v (0) = 1 3 8 15 24 35 x→0 ⎪ 3 ⎪
0 ⎩ x ⎭
f (θ) = (cos θ)(cos θ esin θ ) + (esin θ )(−sin θ),

Hence from equation (5): 
(0.4)3 (0.4)4 (0.4)5 (0.4)6 ⎧ ⎫
⎪ 1
by the product rule, θ 2  θ 3  = − + − ⎨ x3 + · · · ⎪⎬  
sin θ = f (0) + θf  (0) + f (0) + f (0) 3 8 15 24
= lim 3 3 = lim
1
=
1
sin θ
=e (cos θ − sin θ);
2 2! 3!
 x→0 ⎪⎩ x ⎪
⎭ x→0 3 3
θ 4 iv θ5 v (0.4)7
f  (0) = e0 (cos2 0 − sin 0) = 1 + f (0) + f (0) + · · · − · · · − (0)
+
4! 5! 35
f  (θ) = (esin θ )[(2 cos θ(−sin θ) − cos θ)] θ2 θ3 = 0.02133 − 0.0032 + 0.0006827 − · · · Similarly,
= 0 + θ(1) + (0) + (−1)  
2! 3! = 0.019, correct to 3 decimal places sinh x
+ (cos2 θ − sin θ)(cos θ esin θ ) lim
θ4 θ5 x→0 x
=e sin θ
cos θ[−2 sin θ − 1 + cos2 θ − sin θ] + (0) + (1) + · · · Now try the following exercise. ⎧ ⎫
4! 5! ⎪
⎪ x3 x5 ⎪
θ3 θ5 ⎨x + + +⎪⎬
f  (0) = e0 cos 0[(0 − 1 + 1 − 0)] = 0 i.e. sin θ = θ − + − ··· ≡ lim 3! 5! from Problem 9
Exercise 37 Further problems on numerical x→0 ⎪ ⎪
3! 5!
integration using Maclaurin’s series ⎪
⎩
x ⎪
⎭
Hence  0.6
Hence from equation (5):   1. Evaluate 0.2 3esin θ dθ, correct to 3 decimal  
θ3 θ5 θ7 x2 x4
places, using Maclaurin’s series. [1.784] = lim 1 + + + ··· = 1
 1  1 θ − 3! + 5! − 7! + · · · x→0 3! 5!
θ 2  θ3 sin θ 2. Use Maclaurin’s theorem to expand cos 2θ
esin θ = f (0) + θf  (0) + f (0) + f  (0) + · · · dθ = dθ
2! 3! 0 θ 0 θ and hence
 1 evaluate, correct to 2 decimal However, a knowledgeof series doesnot help with
 1  cos 2θ
θ2 θ 2 θ 4 θ 6
places, dθ. [0.88] x 2 + 3x − 4
=1+θ+ +0 = 1− + − + · · · dθ 1 examples such as lim
2 0 6 120 5040 0
θ3 x→1 x 2 − 7x + 6
 MACLAURIN’S SERIES 73 74 NUMBER AND ALGEBRA
   
L’Hopital’s rule will enable us to determine such Applying L’Hopital’s rule again gives x − sin x 1 x 2 − sin 3x
Hence lim =− 4. lim [−1]
limits when the differential coefficients of the numer-     x→0 x − tan x 2 x→0 3x + x 2
ator and denominator can be found. cos x − 1 −sin x A
lim = lim =0    
L’Hopital’s rule states: x→0 2x x→0 2 Now try the following exercise. sin θ − θ cos θ 1
     5. lim
f (x) f (x) θ→0 θ3 3
lim = lim     
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)   Exercise 38 Further problems on limiting ln t 1
x − sin x values 6. lim 2
provided g (a) = 0 Problem 16. Determine lim
x→0 x − tan x
t→1 t − 1 2
  Determine the following limiting values    
f  (x) 0 sinh x − sin x 1
It can happen that lim is still ; if so, the     7. lim
x→a g (x) 0 Substituting x = 0 gives x 3 − 2x + 1 1 x→0 x3 3
numerator and denominator are differentiated again   1. lim  
x→1 2x 3 + 3x − 5 9 sin θ − 1
(and again) until a non-zero value is obtained for the x − sin x 0 − sin 0 0
denominator. lim = =   8. limπ [1]
x→0 x − tan x 0 − tan 0 0 sin x θ→ 2 ln sin θ
The following worked problems demonstrate how 2. lim [1]
x→0 x    
L’Hopital’s rule is used. Refer to Chapter 27 for Applying L’Hopital’s rule gives   sec t − 1 1
methods of differentiation.     ln(1 + x) 9. lim
x − sin x 1 − cos x 3. lim [1] t→0 t sin t 2
  lim = lim x→0 x
x 2 + 3x − 4 x→0 x − tan x x→0 1 − sec2 x
Problem 14. Determine lim
x→1 x 2 − 7x + 6 Substituting x = 0 gives
 
1 − cos x 1 − cos 0 1−1 0
The first step is to substitute x = 1 into both numer- lim = = = again
x→0 1 − sec2 x 1 − sec2 0 1−1 0
ator and denominator. In this case we obtain 00 . It is
only when we obtain such a result that we then use Applying L’Hopital’s rule gives
L’Hopital’s rule. Hence applying L’Hopital’s rule,    
 2    1 − cos x sin x
x + 3x − 4 2x + 3 lim = lim
lim 2 = lim x→0 1 − sec x
2 x→0 (−2 sec x)(sec x tan x)
x→1 x − 7x + 6 x→1 2x − 7  
sin x
= lim
i.e. both numerator and x→0 −2 sec x tan x
2
denominator have
been differentiated Substituting x = 0 gives
5 sin 0 0
= = −1 = again
−5 −2 sec2 0 tan 0 0
Applying L’Hopital’s rule gives
 
sin x − x  
Problem 15. Determine lim sin x
x→0 x2 lim
x→0 −2 sec2 x tan x
⎧ ⎫
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
Substituting x = 0 gives ⎨ cos x ⎬
  = lim
sin x − x sin 0 − 0 0 x→0 ⎪
⎪
2 2
x) ⎪ ⎪
lim = = ⎩ (−2 sec x)(sec ⎭
x→0 x 2 0 0 + (tan x)(−4 sec2 x tan x)
Applying L’Hopital’s rule gives using the product rule
   
sin x − x cos x − 1 Substituting x = 0 gives
lim = lim
x→0 x2 x→0 2x cos 0 1
=
Substituting x = 0 gives −2 sec4 0 − 4 sec2 0 tan2 0 −2 − 0
cos 0 − 1 1−1 0 1
= = again =−
0 0 0 2
 Number and Algebra

Assignment 2 A

10. Expand the following in ascending powers of t

This assignment covers the material contained
in Chapters 6 to 8. as far as the term in t 3
1 1
The marks for each question are shown in (a) (b) √
brackets at the end of each question. 1+t (1 − 3t)

For each case, state the limits for which the

1. Determine the 20th term of the series 15.6, 15, expansion is valid. (12)
14.4, 13.8, ... (3)
11. When x is very small show that:
2. The sum of 13 terms of an arithmetic progres-
sion is 286 and the common difference is 3. 1 3
√ ≈1− x (5)
Determine the first term of the series. (4) (1 + x)2 (1 − x) 2
3. An engineer earns £21000 per annum and receives R4 θ
annual increments of £600. Determine the salary 12. The modulus of rigidity G is given by G = L
in the 9th year and calculate the total earnings in where R is the radius, θ the angle of twist and
the first 11 years. (5) L the length. Find the approximate percentage
error in G when R is measured 1.5% too large,
4. Determine the 11th term of the series 1.5, 3, 6,
θ is measured 3% too small and L is measured
12, . . . (2)
1% too small. (7)
5. Find the sum of the first eight terms of the series
13. Use Maclaurin’s series to determine a power
1, 2.5, 6.25, . . . , correct to 1 decimal place. (4)
series for e2x cos 3x as far as the term in x 2 .
6. Determine the sum to infinity of the series (10)
5, 1, 15 , . . . (3)
14. Show, using Maclaurin’s series, that the first four
7. A machine is to have seven speeds ranging from terms of the power series for cosh 2x is given by:
25 rev/min to 500 rev/min. If the speeds form
a geometric progression, determine their value, 2 4
cosh 2x = 1 + 2x 2 + x 4 + x 6 (11)
each correct to the nearest whole number. (8) 3 45
8. Use the binomial series to expand (2a − 3b)6 15. Expand the function x 2 ln(1 + sin x) using
(7) Maclaurin’s series and hence evaluate:
   1
1 18 2
9. Determine the middle term of 3x − x 2 ln(1 + sin x) dx correct to 2 significant
3y 0
(6) figures. (13)