Notes of Calculus and Analytic Geometry, MATHEMATICS 12 (Mathematics FSc Part 2 or HSSC-II)

Punjab Text Book Board Lahore, PAKISTAN.

Chapter#1. 2nd year Functions and Limits

Function:
If A and B be two non-empty sets then f is said to be a
ix) Logarithmic Functions:
function from set A to set B written as ;𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 𝑜, 𝑎
defined as
≠ 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑖)𝐷𝑓 = 𝐴 𝑖𝑖) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠.
𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 𝑠. 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓 *log10 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑤 𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚.
Domain: *log 𝑒 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚.
The set of all possible inputs of a function is called x) Hyperbolic Function:
domain. 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
*the domain of every function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 =
2 2
*the valves at which at 𝑓(𝑥) becomes undefined or 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥 = 𝑥 −𝑥
, 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑥 = 𝑥
complex valued will be excluded from real numbers. 𝑒 +𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥
*domain is also known as pre-images. 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑥 =
Range: 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
The set of all possible out puts of a function is called xi) Inverse Hyperbolic function:
range. sinh−1 𝑥 = ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) , ∀𝑥
*range is also known as images.
cosh−1 𝑥 = ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1) , 𝑥 ≥ 1
Types of functions:
1 1+𝑥
i) Algebraic function: tanh−1 𝑥 = ln ( ) , |𝑥| < 1
Any function generated by algebraic operations is known 2 1−𝑥
1 √1 + 𝑥 2
as algebraic function. Algebraic functions are classified as csch−1 𝑥 = ln ( + ),𝑥 ≠ 0
below. 𝑥 |𝑥|
ii) Polynomial function: 1 √1 − 𝑥 2
sech−1 𝑥 = ln ( + ),0 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
A function P of the form 𝑥 𝑥
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 1 𝑥+1
coth−1 𝑥 = ln ( ) , |𝑥| < 1
+ 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 2 𝑥−1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛−2 . 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 xii) Explicit function:
𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑛 If y is easily expressed in terms of x, then y is called
− 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 explicit function.
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠, 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
iii) Linear Function: xiii) Implicit function:
If the degree of polynomial function is 1. Then it is called If the two variables x and y are so mixed up such that y
linear function. cannot be expressed in terms of x, then this type of
iv) Quadratic Function: function. Symbolically𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
If the degree of polynomial function is 2. Then it is called xiv) Parametric function:
a quadratic function. If x and y are expressed in terms of third variable (say t)
v) Identity function: such as 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒
A function for which 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑥 is called identity Called parametric equations.
function. It is denoted by 𝐼 xv) Even function:
vi) Constants Function: A function 𝑓 is said to be an even if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for
A function for which 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑏 is called constant every 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓.
function. xvi) Odd function:
vii) Rational function: A function 𝑓 is said to be odd if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) for every
The quotient of two polynomials such as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)
𝑝(𝑥) number x in the domain of 𝑓
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𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑄(𝑥) ≠ 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
viii) Exponential Function: http://www.mathcity.org
A function in which the variable appears as exponent
these notes are written by Amir shehzad
(power) is called exponential function. http://www.mathcity.org/people/amir
𝑒. 𝑔; 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒. 𝑡. 𝑐
Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 1
 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎
Exercise 1.1 =
ℎ ℎ
Q1. Given that 1 𝑎+ℎ+𝑎 𝑎+ℎ−𝑎
= (−2𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ))
𝒂)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 ℎ 2 2
𝒃)𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙 + 𝟒 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒊)𝒇(−𝟐) 1 2𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑏
𝒊𝒊) 𝒇(𝒂) 𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝒇(𝒙 − 𝟏) 𝒊𝒗) 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒) (−2𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ))
ℎ 2 𝑎
Solution:
(𝑎)𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎+ℎ ℎ
(𝑖)𝑓(−2) = (−2)2 − (−2) = 4 + 2 = 6 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
ℎ 2 2
𝑖𝑖) 𝑓(0) = (0)2 − 0 = 0 Q3. Express the following (a) the perimeter P of square
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑓(𝑥 − 1) = (𝑥 − 1)2 − (𝑥 − 1) as a function of its area A.
= 𝑥 2 + 1 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1 Solution:
= 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑒 “𝑥” 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑖𝑣) 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 4) = ((𝑥 2 + 4)2 − (𝑥 2 + 4) Perimeter:
= 𝑥 4 + 16 + 8𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 − 4 𝑝 = 4𝑥 → (𝑖)
= 𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 2 + 12 Area:
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 4(𝑖)𝑓(−2) = √−2 + 4 = √2 𝑎 = 𝑥 × 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑥 = √𝐴
𝑖𝑖)𝑓(0) = √0 + 4 = √4 = 2 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 (𝑖)
𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑓(𝑥 − 1) = √𝑥 − 1 + 4 = √𝑥 + 3  𝑃 = 4√𝐴
𝑥𝑖𝑣) 𝑓(𝑥 2 + 4) = √𝑥 2 + 4 − 4 = √𝑥 2 + 8 b) The area A of a circle as a function of its
𝒇(𝒂+𝒉)−𝒇(𝒂) circumference C.
Q2. Find 𝒉
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒚 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
Solution:
𝒊) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟗 𝒊𝒊) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑟 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝒊𝒊𝒊)𝒇(𝒙)𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 (𝒊𝒗)𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙
Then
Solution:
Area = 𝜋𝑟 2 → (𝑖)
𝒊) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟔𝒙 − 𝟗
Circumference:
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎) {6(𝑎 + ℎ) − 9} − (6𝑎 − 9) 𝑐
= 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟 ⇒ 𝑟 = 2𝜋 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛(𝑖)
ℎ ℎ
(6𝑎 + 6ℎ − 9 − 6𝑎 + 9) 6ℎ 𝑐 2 𝑐2 𝑐2
= = =6  𝐴 = 𝜋 ( ) = 𝜋. ( ) =
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
ℎ ℎ
𝑐2
𝒊𝒊) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙  𝐴 = 2𝜋
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎 (𝑪)𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑽 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒆 𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆
=
ℎ ℎ 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆.
1 𝑎+ℎ+𝑎 𝑎+ℎ−𝑎
= {2𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )} 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:
ℎ 2 2 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑏𝑒 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒:
1 2𝑎 + ℎ ℎ
= {2𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) } 𝑉 = 𝑥×𝑥×𝑥
ℎ 2 2
𝑉 = 𝑥 3 → (𝑖)
1 ℎ ℎ Area of base:
={2𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑎 + ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) } 𝐴 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑥 = √𝐴 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 (𝑖)
ℎ 2 2 1
3
𝒊𝒊𝒊) (𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏  𝑉 = (√𝐴) ⇒ 𝑉 = 𝐴3
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = (𝑎 + ℎ)3 + 2(𝑎 + ℎ)2 − 1 Q4. Find the domain and range of the functions g
𝑎 + 𝑏 3 + 3𝑎2 ℎ + 3𝑎ℎ2 + 2𝑎2 + 2ℎ2 + 4𝑎ℎ − 1
3
defined below.
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎3 + 2𝑎2 − 1 (𝑖)𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝐷𝑦 = (−∞, +∞), 𝑅𝑦 = (−∞, +∞)
ℎ 𝑖𝑖)𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑎3 + ℎ3 + 3𝑎2 + 3𝑎ℎ2 + 2𝑎2 + 2ℎ2 + 4𝑎ℎ − 1 − 𝑎3 − 2𝑎2 + 1
=
ℎ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 2 − 4 < 0
ℎ(ℎ2 + 3𝑎2 + 3𝑎ℎ + 2ℎ + 4𝑎) 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 2 < 4 𝑜𝑟 − 2 < 𝑥 < 2
= 𝐷𝑦 = 𝑅 − (−2,2), 𝑅𝑦 = [0, +∞)
ℎ
= ℎ2 + 3𝑎2 + 3𝑎ℎ + 2ℎ + 4𝑎 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 1
𝒊𝒗) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 𝑔(𝑥)𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 + 1 < 0 𝑜𝑟

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 2

𝑥 < −1 𝑠𝑜 𝐷𝑔 = [−1, +∞)  𝑥2 = 4
𝑖𝑣) 𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥 − 3|  𝑥 = ±2
𝐷𝑦 = (−∞, +∞), 𝑅𝑦 = [0, ∞)  𝑥 = 2 , (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 − 2)
6𝑥 + 7 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ −2
𝑣) 𝑔𝑥 = {
4𝑥 − 3 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > −2
𝐷𝑦 = (−∞, −2] ∪ (−2, +∞)
𝑅𝑦 = (−∞, −5] ∪ (−11, +∞) Q7. Show that the parametric equation:
𝑣𝑖) 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 +3𝑥+2
, 𝑥 ≠ −1 𝒊) 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒕𝟐 , 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:
𝑥+1 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒂 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2
𝐷𝑦 = 𝑅 − {−1} ∵= Solution:
𝑥+1 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒕𝟐 → (𝟏)
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝒚
𝑅𝑦 = 𝑅 − {1} = 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒂𝒕 ⇒ 𝒕 = 𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒊𝒏 (𝒊)
𝑥+1 𝟐𝒂
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 𝒚 𝒚𝟐
𝑥 2 − 16  𝒙 = 𝒂 (𝟐𝒂) 𝟐 = 𝒂. 𝟒𝒂𝟐
𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑔(𝑥) = ,𝑥 ≠ 4 𝑔(−1) = −1 + 2 = 1 𝒚𝟐
𝑥−4  𝒙 = 𝟒𝒂 ⇒ 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙
𝑥 2 − 16
𝐷𝑦 = 𝑅 − { 4} ∵ (𝒊𝒊) 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽, 𝒚 = 𝒃𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆
𝑥−4 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 4) 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒑𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝟐
+ 𝒃𝟐 = 𝟏
𝑅𝑦 = 𝑅 − {8} =
𝑥−4 Solution:
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 4 𝒙 = 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 → (𝟏)
𝑔(𝑥) = 4 + 4 = 8 𝒚 = 𝒃𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 → (𝟐)
Q5. Given 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒇(𝟐) = −𝟑, From (1)
𝒇(−𝟏) = 𝟎 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 → (3)
Solution: 𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 1 From (2)
 𝑓(2) = (2)3 − 𝑎(2)2 + 𝑏(2) + 1 𝑦
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 → (4)
 −3 = 8 − 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 1 𝑏
 -4a+2b+12=0 Squaring and adding (3) and (4)
𝑥 2 𝑦 2
 −2𝑎 + 𝑏 + 6 = 0 → (𝑖) ( ) + ( ) = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 + (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 )2
 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 + 𝑏(−1) + 1 𝑎 𝑏
= cos2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃
 0 = −1 − 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 1 𝑥2 𝑦2
 −𝑎 − 𝑏 = 0 → (𝑖𝑖) 𝑎2
+ 𝑏2 = 1
 (𝑖) + (𝑖𝑖) − 2𝑎 + 𝑏 + 6 = 0
−𝑎 − 𝑏 = 0 𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 → (1)
−3 + 6 = 0 ⇒ −3𝑎 = −6 ⇒ 𝑎 = 2 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 → (2)
Put in 𝑖𝑖) − 2 − 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑏 = −2 From 1)
Q6. A stone falls from a height of h after 𝒙 second is 𝑥 𝑥2
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 ⇒ 2 = sec 2 𝜃 → (3)
approximately given by 𝒉(𝒙) = 𝟒𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟐 𝑎 𝑎
i) when is the height of the stone when (a)𝒙 = From 2)
𝟏 𝒔𝒆𝒄? 𝑦 𝑦2
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ⇒ 2 = tan2 𝜃 → (4)
𝒃)𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄 (𝒄)𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟕 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝑏 𝑏
𝒅) 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒅𝒐𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅. (3) − (4)
𝑥2 𝑦2
Solution:  𝑎2
− 𝑏2 = sec 2 𝜃 − tan2 𝜃
ℎ(𝑥) = 40 − 10𝑥 2 𝑥2 𝑦2
(𝑎) ℎ(1) = 40 − 10(1)2 = 40 − 10 = 30  − 𝑏2 = 1
𝑎2
𝑏) ℎ(1.5) = 40 − 10(1.5)2 = 40 − 22.5 = 17.5𝑚 Q8.prove the identities
𝑐) ℎ(1.7) = 40 − 10(1.7)2 = 40 − 28.9 = 11.1𝑚 𝒊) 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝟐𝒙 = 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒙
𝑖𝑖) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ℎ(𝑥) Solution:
=0 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥
ℎ(𝑥) = 40 − 10𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 −𝑒 −2𝑥
 2. . 2 =
2 2
 0 = 40 − 10𝑥 2
 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2𝑥 = 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆
 10𝑥 2 = 40
Hence 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝟐𝒙 = 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒙

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 3

𝑖𝑖𝑖) sech2 𝑥 = 1 − tanh2 𝑥  𝑓(−𝑥) =
(−𝑥)2 −(−𝑥)
=
−𝑥 3 +𝑥
(−𝑥)2 +1 𝑥 2 +1
Solution:
(𝑥 3 −𝑥)
𝑹. 𝑯. 𝑺 = 𝟏 − 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉𝟐 𝒙  =− = −𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 3 +1
2
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )2 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑𝑑.
=1−( 𝑥 ) = 1 −
𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
2𝑥 −2𝑥
(𝑒 + 𝑒 + 2) − (𝑒 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2)
2𝑥
=
(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
2𝑥 −2𝑥
(𝑒 + 𝑒 + 2) − 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 2) Composition of function:
= If f is a function from set A to set B and g is a function
(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
2 from set B to set C then composition of f and g is denoted
4 2
= 𝑥 = ( ) by
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
1 1 (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
2
= 𝑥 −𝑥 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑥 = 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 Inverse of a function:
𝑒 +𝑒
( ) Let 𝑓 be a bijective (1 −
2
1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 )𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑡
(iii) csch2 𝑥 = coth2 𝑥 − 1 𝐴 𝑟𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑏 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑓: 𝐴
Solution: → 𝐵 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑓 −1 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠
𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 = coth2 𝑥 − 1 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 (𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜)𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐵 𝑡𝑜 𝐴 𝑖. 𝑒
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) 𝑓 −1 : 𝐵 → 𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐷𝑓 : 𝑅𝑓 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑅𝑓 = 𝐷𝑓−1
=( 𝑥 ) − 1 = −1
𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )

=
𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 2 − 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 2 Exercise 1.2
(𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
2 Q1. The real valued functions 𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒈 are defined
4 2
= 𝑥 =( 𝑥 ) below. find
(𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )2 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥
2 (𝒂)𝒇𝒐𝒈(𝒙) (𝒃)𝒈𝒐𝒇(𝒙) (𝒄)𝒇𝒐𝒇(𝒙) (𝒅)𝒈𝒐𝒈(𝒙)
1 1 3
=( 𝑥 ) = = 𝑐𝑠𝑒ℎ2 𝑥 = 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1; 𝑔 = 𝑥−1 , 𝑥 ≠ 1
𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥 sinh2 𝑥
2 S0lution:
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 = coth2 𝑥 − 1 3
(𝑎)𝑓𝑜𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ( )
Q9. Determine whether the given function 𝒇 is even or 𝑥−1
odd. 3 6 6+𝑥−1
= 2( )+1= +1=
Solution: 𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1
5+𝑥
𝑖)𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 =
 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)3 + (−𝑥) = −𝑥 3 − 𝑥 𝑥−1
b) 𝑔𝑜𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(2𝑥 + 1)
 = −(𝑥 3 + 𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) 3 3
 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑. = =
2𝑥 + 1 − 1 2𝑥
 𝑖𝑖) 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)2 c) 𝑓𝑜𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(2𝑥 + 1)
 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥 + 2)2 ≠ ±𝑓(𝑥)
= 2(2𝑥 + 1) + 1 = 4𝑥 + 3
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑑𝑑. 3 3
d) 𝑔𝑜𝑔(𝑥)=𝑔(𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔 (𝑥−1) = 3
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥√𝑥 2 + 5 𝑥−1
−1

 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑥√(−𝑥)2 + 5 3 3(𝑥 − 1) 3(𝑥 − 1)

= = =
 = −𝑥√𝑥 2 + 5 = −𝑓(𝑥) 3 − (𝑥 − 1) 3 − 𝑥 + 1 4−𝑥
𝑥−1
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑑𝑑. 𝟏
1 𝒊𝒊)𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙 + 𝟏, 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐
v) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 6
1
Solution:
⇒𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 6 𝑎) 𝑓𝑜𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
[(−𝑥)2 ] + 6
1 1 1 1 + 𝑥 2 √1 + 𝑥 2
= (𝑥 2 )3 + 6 = 𝑓 ( 2) = √ 2 + 1 = √ 2 =
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1 2
( )
= (𝑥 2 ) 3 + 6 = 𝑥 3 + 6 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
𝒙𝟑 −𝒙
𝒗𝒊) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐+𝟏

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 4

 1 b)
𝑏)𝑔𝑜𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(√𝑥 + 1) = 2
(√𝑥 + 1) 𝒈𝒐𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒈(𝒇(𝒙)) = 𝒈(𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 )
1 = 𝒈(𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 )
= 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝑥+1
= = =
𝟒
√𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙 𝟐 √𝒙𝟐 (𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐) 𝒙√𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐
𝑐) 𝑓𝑜𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(√𝑥 + 1) = √√𝑥 + 1 + 1
c)
1 1 1
𝑑)𝑔𝑜𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑔 ( 2 ) = 2 = 1 =𝑥
4 𝒇𝒐𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒇(𝒙)) = 𝒇(𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 )
𝑥 1 𝟒 𝟐
( 2) 𝑥4 = 𝟑(𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 ) − 𝟐(𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 )
𝑥
𝟏 𝟐 d)
(𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝒇(𝒙) = , 𝒈(𝒙) = (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏)
√𝒙−𝟏 𝟏
−
Solution: 𝟐 𝟐
𝒈𝒐𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒈(𝒈(𝒙)) = 𝒈 ( )
a)𝑓𝑜𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) √𝒙
1 𝟏
−
𝑓((𝑥 2 + 1)2 ) = 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
√(𝑥 2 + 1)2 − 1 = = 𝟏
= 𝟐( )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 √𝒙
√ ( )
1 1 1 √𝒙 √𝟐
= = = 𝟏
√𝑥 4 +1+ 2𝑥 2 −1 √𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 √𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 + 2) √√𝟐
√𝒙 𝟐 √𝒙
𝟏 = 𝟐 ( ) = 𝟐√ = √𝟐. √𝟐
= 𝟐 𝟐 √𝟐
𝒙√𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐
𝟏
𝒃) 𝒈𝒐𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒈(𝒇(𝒙)) = 𝒈 ( )
√𝒙 − 𝟏 = √𝟐√𝒙
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝒙 𝟐
Q2.
= [( ) + 𝟏] = ( + 𝟏)
√𝒙 − 𝟏 𝒙−𝟏 For the real valued function f defined below, find
𝟐
𝟏+𝒙−𝟏 𝒙 𝟐 (𝒂)𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) (𝒃)𝒇−𝟏 (−𝟏) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒇𝒚
=( ) =( )
𝒙−𝟏 𝒙−𝟏 𝒇 (𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙)) = 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒇(𝒙)) = 𝒙
𝒄)
𝒊) 𝒇(𝒙) = −𝟐𝒙 + 𝟖
𝟏
𝒇𝒐𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒇(𝒙)) = 𝒇 ( ) Solution:
√𝒙 − 𝟏 𝑓(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 8
𝟏 𝟏
= = 𝟏
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝟏 𝟏 − √𝒙 − 𝟏 𝟐 𝑦−8
√ −𝟏 ( ) 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 8 ⇒ =𝑥
√𝒙 − 𝟏 √𝒙 − 𝟏 −2
𝑦−8
−𝟏\𝟐  𝑥 = −2
𝟏 − √𝒙 − 𝟏 𝑦−8
=( )  𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = ⇒∵ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
√𝒙 − 𝟏 −1 (𝑦)
−2
𝟏  𝑓 =𝑥
𝟐
√𝒙 − 𝟏 √𝒙 − 𝟏 Replace y by x we have
=( ) =√ 𝑥−8
𝟏 − √𝒙 − 𝟏 𝟏 − √𝒙 − 𝟏𝟔  𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = −2
d) −1−8 9
 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = −1, 𝑓 −1 (−1) = −2
=2
𝒈𝒐𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒈(𝒈(𝒙))
= 𝒈(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏)
ii) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟕
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
= ((𝒙 + 𝟏) + 𝟏) Solution:
(iv) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕
𝟐 𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟒 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 , 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒚−𝟕
√𝒙  = 𝒙𝟑
Solution: 𝟑
𝟏
𝒂) 𝒇𝒐𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒈(𝒙))  𝒙=(
𝒚−𝟕 𝟑
)
𝟑
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟐
= 𝒇( ) = 𝟑( ) − 𝟐( )  ∵ 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) ⇒ 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒚) = 𝒙
√𝒙 √𝒙 √𝒙 𝟏
𝒚−𝟕 𝟑
𝟐
𝟖 𝟒𝟖 𝟖 𝟒𝟖 − 𝟖𝒙  𝒇−𝟏 (𝒚) = ( )
= 𝟑(𝟏𝟔/𝒙 ) − = 𝟐 − = 𝟑
𝒙 𝒙 𝒙 𝒙𝟐

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 5

 Replace y by x we have Verification:
𝟏 𝟏+𝒙
 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) = (
𝒙−𝟕
)
𝟑 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝟐 (𝒙 − 𝟐) + 𝟏
𝟑 𝒇 (𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙)) = 𝒇 ( )=
𝟏 𝒙−𝟐 𝟏+𝒙
−𝟖 𝟑 −𝟏
Put 𝒙 = −𝟏 𝒇 −𝟏 (−𝟏)
= (𝟑) 𝒙−𝟐
𝟐(𝟏 + 𝒙) + 𝒙 + 𝟐
Verification: 𝒙−𝟐 𝟑𝒙 𝟑𝒙
= =
1 1 2 𝟏 + 𝒙 − (𝒙 − 𝟐) 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐 𝟑
𝑥−7 3 𝑥−7 2 𝒙−𝟐
𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑓 [( ) ] = 3 [( ) ] +7
3 3 Hence 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥
𝑥−7 Q3.
= 3( )+7=𝑥−7+7=𝑥 Without finding the inverse, state the domain and range
3 𝒙−𝟏
2
1 of 𝒇−𝟏 ) 𝒊) 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙 + 𝟐 𝒊𝒊) 𝒇(𝒙) = ,𝒙 ≠ 𝟒
−1 −1 (3𝑥 3
3𝑥 + 7 − 7 3
𝟏
𝒙−𝟒
𝑓 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 + 7) = ( ) 𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝒇(𝒙) = ,𝒙 ≠ −𝟑
3 𝒙+𝟑
1
3𝑥 3 3
=( ) =𝑥
3 𝒊𝒗) 𝒇(𝒙) = (𝒙 − 𝟓)^𝟐 , 𝒙 ≥ 𝟓
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 Solution:
iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = (−𝑥 + 9)3 i) 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙 + 𝟐
 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = (−𝑥 + 9)3 ∵ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒙 + 𝟐 < 𝟎
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = (−𝑥 + 9)3 𝒐𝒓 𝒙 < −𝟐
1
𝑦 3 = −𝑥 + 9 𝑫𝒇 = [−𝟐, +∞), 𝑹𝒇 = [𝟎, +∞)
 𝑦 5 − 9 = −𝑥 By definition of inverse function,
1 𝑫𝒇−𝟏 = 𝑹𝒇 = [𝟎, +∞)
 𝑥 = 9 − 𝑦5
1 By definition of inverse function,
 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 9 − 𝑦 3 𝑫𝒇−𝟏 = 𝑹𝒇 = [𝟎, +∞), 𝑹𝒇−𝟏 = 𝑫𝒇 = [−𝟐, +∞)
(∵ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥
ii)
𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝒙−𝟏
1 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙−𝟒 , 𝒙 ≠ 𝟒
−1 (𝑥)
𝑓 =9− 𝑥3 𝒙−𝟏
−1 (−1)
1 𝑫𝒇 = 𝑹 − {𝟒}, ∵ 𝒇(𝒙) = ,𝒙 ≠𝟒
Put 𝑥 = −1, 𝑓 = 9 − (−1)3 = 9 − (−1) = 0 𝒙−𝟒
𝒙−𝟏
Verification: 𝑹𝒇 = 𝑹 − {𝟏} 𝒚= 𝒙−𝟒
𝟏 𝟏 𝟑  𝒚𝒙 − 𝟒𝒚 = 𝒙 − 𝟏
𝒇 (𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙)) = 𝒇 (𝟗 − 𝒙𝟑 ) = [− (𝟗 − 𝒙𝟑 ) + 𝟗] 𝒙𝒚 − 𝒙 = 𝟒𝒚 − 𝟏
𝟏 𝟑  𝒙(𝒚 − 𝟏) = 𝟒𝒚 − 𝟏
= (−𝟗 + 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟗) = 𝒙 𝟒𝒚−𝟏
 𝒙= 𝒚−𝟏
𝒇−𝟏 (𝒇(𝒙)) = 𝒇−𝟏 ((−𝒙 + 𝟗)𝟑 ) 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟏
𝟏 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) = ,𝒙 ≠ 𝟏
= 𝟗 − ((− − 𝒙 + 𝟗)𝟑 )𝟑
= 𝟗 − (−𝒙 + 𝟗) 𝒙−𝟏
By def. of inverse function.
=𝟗+𝒙−𝟗=𝒙
𝐷𝑓−1 = 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅 − {1}
Hence 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥
𝟐𝒙+𝟏
𝑅𝑓−1 = 𝐷𝑓 = 𝑅 − {4}
iv) 𝒇(𝒙) = iii)
𝒙−𝟏
𝟐𝒙+𝟏
Let 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒚 = 1
𝒙−𝟏 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑥 ≠ −3
 (𝒙 − 𝟏)𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝑥+3
1
 𝒙𝒚 − 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 𝐷𝑓 = 𝑅 − {−3} ∵ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+3 , 𝑥 ≠ −3
 𝒙𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙 = 𝒚 + 𝟏 1
𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅 − {0} 𝑦 = 𝑥+3
 𝒙(𝒚 − 𝟐) = 𝟏 + 𝒚 1
𝟏+𝒚 By def. of inverse 𝑥+3=𝑦
 𝒙 = 𝒚−𝟐
1
 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒚 𝒃𝒚 𝒙 𝒘𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝐷𝑓−1 = 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅 − {0} 𝑥= −3
𝟏+𝒙
𝑦
 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) = 1
𝒙−𝟐
𝟏+(−𝟏)
𝑅𝑓−1 = 𝐷𝑓 = 𝑅 − {−3} 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = − 3, 𝑥 ≠ 0
 𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒙 = −1, 𝒇 −𝟏 (−𝟏)
= =𝟎 𝑥
−𝟏−𝟐 𝑅𝑓−1 = 𝐷𝑓 = 𝑅 − {−3}

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 6

iv)
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)2 , 𝑥 ≥ 5 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒙−𝒎 − 𝒂−𝒎 ) . = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝒎 . 𝒏 ) =
𝐷𝑓 = [5, +∞) , 𝑅𝑓 = [0, +∞) 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 − 𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 𝒂 𝒙−𝒂
By definition of inverse function. 𝒂𝒎 − 𝒙𝒎 𝟏
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝒎 𝒎 ) .
𝐷𝑓−1 = 𝑅𝑓 = [0, +∞), 𝑅𝑓−1 = 𝐷𝑓 = [5, +∞) 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 𝒂 𝒙−𝒂
𝒙𝒎 − 𝒂𝒎 −𝟏
Limits of functions: = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝒎 𝒎 ) ( )
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 𝒂 𝒙−𝒂
𝒎 𝒎
Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function then a number L is said to be limit 𝒙 −𝒂 −𝟏
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝒎 𝒎 ) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
of 𝑓(𝑥) when 𝑥 approaches to a from both left and right 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 − 𝒂
−𝟏
hand side of a , symbolically it is written as; lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝒎𝒂𝒎−𝟏 ( 𝟐𝒎 )
𝑥→𝑎 𝒂
And read as “limit of 𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 as approaches to a is equal to −𝒎𝒂𝒎−𝟏−𝟐𝒎 = −𝒎𝒂(−𝒎−𝟏) = 𝒏𝒂(𝒏−𝟏)
𝒙𝒏 −𝒂𝒏
L” Thus 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝒏𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ∵ 𝒏 = −𝒎
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙−𝒂

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Theorem:
Theorems on limits of functions:
√𝒙+𝒂−√𝒂 𝟏
Prove that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒂
=𝟐
i) lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝒙→𝒂 √𝒂
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇:
=𝐿+𝑀
√𝑥 + 𝑎 − √𝑎 0
ii) lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = lim ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→0 𝑥 0
=𝐿−𝑀 √𝑥 + 𝑎 − √𝑎 √𝑥 + 𝑎 + √𝑎
iii) lim [𝑘, 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑘 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝐿 = lim ( × )
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→0 𝑥 √𝑥 + 𝑎 + √𝑎
iv) lim 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑘 lim 𝑓(𝑥) . lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿𝑀 𝑥+𝑎−𝑎
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 = lim
lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→0 𝑥(√𝑥 + 𝑎 + √𝑎)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
v) lim ( ) = 𝑥→𝑎
=𝑀 1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
𝑛
= lim
𝑥→0 (√𝑥 + 𝑎 + √𝑎)
vi) lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝐿𝑛
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 1
Theorem: = lim
𝑥→0 (√𝑎 + √𝑎)
𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛
Prove that lim = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 = lim
And 𝑎 > 0 𝑥→0 (2√𝑎)
Proof: √𝑥 + 𝑎 − √𝑎
Case 1: 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 lim = 1/2√𝑎
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟. Theorem:
𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 0 𝟏 𝒏
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = lim ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 Prove that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + 𝒏) = 𝒆
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 0 𝒙→+∞
(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑎 + 𝑥 (𝑛−3) 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑎𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−1 Using Binomial theorem we have
= lim 1 𝑛 1 𝑛(𝑛−1) 1 2 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2) 1 3
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 (1 + ) = 1 + 𝑛 ( ) + ( ) + ( ) +⋯
𝑛 𝑛 2! 𝑛 3! 𝑛
1 𝑛−1 1 𝑛−1 𝑛−2
=1+1+ ( )+ ( )( )+….
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦( 𝑥𝑛−1 + 𝑥𝑛−2 𝑎 + 𝑥(𝑛−3) 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑎𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−1 ) 2! 𝑛 3! 𝑛 𝑛
𝒙→𝒂 1 1 1 1 2
=𝒂 𝒏−𝟏
+ 𝒂𝒏−𝟐 . 𝒂 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟑 . 𝒂𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒙𝒂𝒏−𝟐 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 2 + (1 − ) + (1 − ) (1 − ) + ⋯
2! 𝑛 3! 𝑛 𝑛
= 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 1 2 3
= 𝒏𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 → ∞, , , . . 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝒙𝒏 − 𝒂𝒏 Thus,
𝒕𝒉𝒖𝒔 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝒏𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 − 𝒂 1 𝑛 1 1 1
Case 11: lim (1 + ) = 2 + + + + ⋯
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 2! 3! 4!
Suppose n is +ve. = 2 + 0.5 + 0.16667+..
𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 − 𝒗𝒆 = 2.718281
(𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒎 𝒊𝒔 + 𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒆𝒓) Thus,
𝒙𝒏 − 𝒂𝒏 𝒙−𝒎 − 𝒂−𝒎 1 𝑛
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 lim (1 + ) = 𝑒
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙 − 𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙−𝒂 𝑥→+∞ 𝑛

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 7

Deduction: Theorem:
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
lim (1 + 𝑥)𝑥 =𝑒 If 𝜃 is measured in radian, then lim =1
𝑥→0 𝜃→0 𝜃
We know that Proof:
1 𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 1)𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ
lim (1 + ) = 𝑒 → (1)
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
1 1
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑛 = ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑛(𝑖)
𝑥 𝑛
A
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 → ∞, 𝑥 → 0
So (i) 𝜃
𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟏 + 𝒙)𝒙 = 𝒆 O
Theorem:
𝒙→𝟎
C B D
Prove that
𝒂𝒙 − 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝒂
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 1
Proof: Area of △ 𝑂𝐴𝐵 = (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒)(𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑎𝑙)
2
𝑎𝑥 − 1 1 |𝐴𝐶|
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = lim = |𝑂𝐵||𝐴𝐶| 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 2 |𝑂𝐴|
𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒂𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝒚 ⇒ 𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏 + 𝒚 1
= (1)(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) |𝐴𝐶| = |𝑂𝐴|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
So 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 (𝟏 + 𝒚) 2
As 𝒙 → 𝟎 , 𝒚 → 𝟎 𝒔𝒐 1
𝒚
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 |𝐴𝐶| = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑳. 𝑯. 𝑺 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝟏+𝒚) 2
𝒚→𝟎 𝒂 ∵ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = |𝑂𝐴| = |𝑂𝐵| = 1
𝒚 1
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 Area of sector 𝑂𝐴𝐵 = 2 𝑟 2 𝜃
𝒚→𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 (𝟏 + 𝒚)
𝟏 𝟏 1 1
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = (1)2 𝜃 = 𝜃
𝒚→𝟎 𝟏 𝒚→𝟎 𝟏 2 2
𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 (𝟏 + 𝒚) 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 (𝟏 + 𝒚)𝟑 1
Area of △ 𝑂𝐴𝐷 = (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒)(𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑎𝑙)
2
𝟏 𝟏
1 |𝐴𝐷|
= = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝒂 ∵ 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟏 + 𝒚)𝒚 = 𝒆 = |𝑂𝐴||𝐴𝐷| 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 𝒆 𝒚→𝟎 2 |𝑂𝐴|
𝑹. 𝑯. 𝑺 1
𝒂𝒙 −𝟏 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 |𝐴𝐷| = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
Thus 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝒂 2
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 Now by (1)
Deduction: 1 1 1
𝒆𝒙 − 𝟏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 < 𝜃 < 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝒆 = 𝟏 2 2 2
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 < 𝜃 < 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
Since we know that 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1
𝒂𝒙 − 𝟏 𝑜𝑟 < < × (÷ 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝒂 → (𝒊) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝜃 1
𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒂 = 𝒆 𝒊𝒏(𝟏)𝒘𝒆 𝒈𝒆𝒕 𝑜𝑟 1 < <
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝒆𝒙 −𝟏 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝜃 → 0
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝒆 = 𝟏
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Important results to remember: lim (1) > lim > lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜃→0 𝜃→0 𝜃 𝜃→0
𝒊) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒆𝒙 ) = ∞ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝒙→+∞
𝟏 1 > lim >1
𝜃→0 𝜃
𝒊𝒊) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒆𝒙 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( −𝒙 ) = 𝟎 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑚
𝒙→−∞ 𝒙→−∞ 𝒆
𝒂 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝟎 𝒆𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔. lim =1
𝒙→±∞ 𝒙 𝜃→0 𝜃
The Sandwich theorem: Hence proved.
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑓, 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑠. 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) For all numbers 𝑥 in some open Exercise 1.3
interval containing "c" itself .𝑖𝑓 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑥→𝑐
lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑔(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑏/𝑤 Q1. Evaluate each limit by using theorems of limits.
𝑥→𝑐
𝑓(𝑥)𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ(𝑥)𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑖) lim (2𝑥 + 4)
𝑥→3
𝑥→𝑐

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 8

Solution: (𝑥 − 1)3
= lim ∵ (𝑥 − 1)3 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1
lim (2𝑥 + 4) 𝑥→1 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 1)
𝑥→3
= lim 2𝑥 + lim 4 = 2(3) + 4 = 10 (𝑥 − 1)3 (𝑥 − 1)2
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 lim = lim
𝑥→1 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥→1 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
𝑖𝑖) lim (3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4)
𝑥→1 (1 − 1)2
Solution: = =0
1(1 + 1)
= 3(1)2 − 2(1) + 4 = 3 − 2 + 4 = 5 𝑣)
𝑖𝑖𝑖) lim √𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 4 𝑥3 + 𝑥
𝑥→3
lim ( )
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: √(3)2 + 3 + 4 = √16 = 4 𝑥→−1 𝑥2 − 1
𝑖𝑣) lim 𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 4 Solution:
𝑥→2 𝑥 3 +𝑥 0
lim ( ) ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: (2)√(2)2 −4=0 𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 −1 0
𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥2 (−1)2 1
𝑣) lim (√𝑥 3 + 1 − √𝑥 2 + 5)) lim ( ) lim = =
𝑥→2 𝑥→−1 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥→−1 𝑥 − 1 −1 − 1 −2
√(2)3 + 1 − √(2)3 + 5 = 3 − 3 = 0 𝑣𝑖)
2𝑥 3 +5𝑥
(𝑣𝑖) lim 2𝑥 2 − 32
𝑥→−2 3𝑥−2 lim
3
2(−2) + 5(−2) −16 − 10 26 13 𝑥→4 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2
= =− = Solution:
3(−2) − 2 −8 −8 4
2𝑥 2 − 32 0
Q2. Evaluate each limit by using algebra techniques. lim ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
3
𝑥−4 𝑥 − 4𝑥 2 0
𝑥3 − 𝑥
𝑖) lim 2(𝑥 2 − 16) 2(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 4)
𝑥→−1 𝑥 + 1 = lim 2 = lim
Solution: 𝑥→4 𝑥 (𝑥 − 4) 𝑥→4 𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 4)
𝑥 3 −𝑥 0
2(𝑥 + 4) 2(4 + 4)
lim (0) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 lim = =1
𝑥→−1 𝑥+1 𝑥→4 𝑥2 42
𝑥(𝑥 2 − 1) 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑣𝑖𝑖)
= lim = lim
𝑥→−1 𝑥 + 1 𝑥→−1 𝑥+1 √𝑥 − √2 √𝑥 + √2
lim ×
= lim 𝑥(𝑥 − 1) = (−1)(−1 − 1) = 2 𝑥→2 𝑥 − 2 √𝑥 + √2
𝑥→−1
2 2
𝑖𝑖) (√𝑥) − (√2)
3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 = lim
𝑥→2 (𝑥 − 2)√𝑥 + √2
lim ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥2 + 𝑥 𝑥−2 1 1
Solution: lim = lim =
𝑥→2 (𝑥 − 2)(√𝑥 − √2 𝑥→2 √𝑥 + √2 √2 + √2
3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 0 1
lim ( 2 ) ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 =
𝑥→0 𝑥 +𝑥 0 2√2
𝑥(3𝑥 2 + 4) 3𝑥 2 + 4 𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖)
= lim = lim
𝑥→0 𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥→0 𝑥 + 1 √𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥
3(0)2 + 4 4 lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
= = =4
0+1 1 Solution:
𝑖𝑖𝑖) √𝑥+ℎ−√𝑥 0
lim (0) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥 3 −8 0 ℎ→0 ℎ
lim (0) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 √𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥 √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥
(𝑥)3 − (2)3 = lim ×
= lim 2 ℎ→0 ℎ √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥
𝑥→2 𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 6 𝑥+ℎ−𝑥
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 4 + 2𝑥) = lim
= lim ℎ→0 ℎ(√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥)
𝑥→2 𝑥(𝑥 + 3) − 2(𝑥 + 3)
1
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 4 + 2𝑥) = lim
= lim ℎ→0 √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥)
𝑥→2 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2)
1 1
𝑥 + 4 + 2𝑥 (2)2 + 4 + 2(2) 12
2
= =
= lim = = √𝑥 + √𝑥 2√𝑥
𝑥→2 𝑥+3 2+3 5
𝑖𝑥)
𝑖𝑣)
3 2 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛
𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 1 0 lim
lim ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝜃→𝑎 𝑥 𝑚 − 𝑎𝑚
𝑥→1 𝑥3 − 𝑥 0 Solution:

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 9

 𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 → 𝜋 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 → 𝑜
lim ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝜃→𝑎 𝑥 𝑚 −𝑎𝑚 0
So
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 sin(𝜋 − 𝑡)
𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 lim = lim
lim 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑥→𝜋𝜋−𝑥 𝑡→0 𝑡
= lim ( 𝑚 𝑥 − 𝑎 ) = 𝑥→𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 − 𝑎𝑚
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎 = lim ∵ sin(𝜋 − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑥−𝑎 lim 𝑡→0 𝑡
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎
𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 =1
= (∵ lim = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1 ) 𝑣)
𝑚𝑎𝑚−1 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎
𝑛 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
= 𝑎𝑛−1−𝑚+1 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑚 lim
𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥
𝑚 𝑚
Q3. Evaluate the following limits. Solution:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛7𝑥 lim (0) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑖) lim 𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
× 𝑎𝑥
lim ( 𝑎𝑥
Solution:
)
𝑠𝑖𝑛7𝑥 0 𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥
lim ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 × 𝑏𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 0 𝑏𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛7𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑥
lim × 𝑎𝑥 1 × 𝑎𝑥 𝑎
= 7 (lim ) = 7(1) = 7 𝑎𝑥
𝑥→0 7𝑥 = (𝑥→0 )= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥 1 × 𝑏𝑥 𝑏
lim × 𝑏𝑥
∵ lim =1 𝑥→0 𝑏𝑥
𝜃→0 𝜃
vi)
𝑖𝑖) 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 0 lim
𝑥→0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 Solution:
Solution: 𝑥 0
lim (0) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 0 0 = lim 𝑥. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 ∵ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 =
lim (0) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑥→0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑥𝑥
lim
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜋
= lim 𝑥.
= 𝑥→0𝑥180 ∵ 10 = 180 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑥
𝜋𝑥 = lim . lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑠𝑜 𝑥 0 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑥→0
180 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 −1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋𝑥 = (lim ) . lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
lim 180 π 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0
= 𝑥→0𝜋𝑥 × = (1)−1 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1.1 = 1
180
180 vii)
π π
1× = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
180 180 lim
Iii) 𝑥→0 𝑥2
Solution:
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
lim 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 0
𝜃→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 lim 2
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
Solution:
𝑥→0 𝑥 0
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0
2 sin2 𝑥 𝜃
lim (0) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 = lim 2
∵ 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 2 sin ( )
𝜃→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑥→0 𝑥 2
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃  1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 2 sin2 𝜃
= lim × 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 2
𝜃→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃  = 2 (lim ( ) = 2(1)2 = 2
1 − cos2 𝜃 𝑥→0 𝑥
= lim (viii)
0→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
1 − cos2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 lim ( )
= lim = lim 𝑥→0 sin2 𝜃
𝜃→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝜃→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
Solution:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0
= lim = = =0 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 0
𝜃→0 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 + 1 lim ( 2
) ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→0 sin 𝜃 0
iv) 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 0 lim ∵ sin 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1
2
lim ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑥→0 1 − cos 2 𝑥
𝑥→𝜋 𝜋 − 𝑥 0  sin2 𝜃 = 1 − cos 2 𝜃
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝜋 − 𝑥 = 𝑡 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
 lim (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)(1 +
 𝑥 = 𝜋−𝑡 𝑥→0
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 10
 1 1 1
 = lim 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1+cos(0) = 1+1 = 2
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜃→0 = lim (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = lim 1/ sin2 𝜃 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝜃→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝜃 𝜃→0
ix) 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= lim 2
= lim
𝜃→0 1 − cos 𝜃 𝜃→0 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
sin2 𝜃 1 1 1
lim = = =
𝜃→0 𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 + 1 2
Solution: Q4.express each limit in terms of 𝒆
sin2 𝜃 𝑜 𝟏 𝟐𝒏
lim ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 i) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + )
𝜃→0 𝜃 𝑜 𝒏→∞ 𝒏
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 Solution:
lim lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 1.0 = 0
𝜃→0 𝜃 𝜃→0 𝟏 𝟐𝒏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + )
𝑥) 𝒏→∞ 𝒏
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝟏 𝒏
𝟐
lim = [𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + ) ] = 𝒆𝟐
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝒏→∞ 𝒏
Solution: 𝒏
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐 0 ii) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 +
𝟏 𝟐
)
lim ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝒏→∞ 𝒏
𝑥→0 𝑥 0
1 1 1 − cos2 𝑥 Solution:
= lim ( − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) = lim ( ) 𝟏
𝒏 𝟐
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝟏
1 sin2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = [ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + ) ] = 𝒆𝟐
= lim ( ) ( ) = lim . lim
𝒏→∞ 𝒏
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝟏 𝒏
= lim . lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 = 1. 𝑡𝑎𝑛0 = 0 iii) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + 𝟑𝒏)
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝒏→∞
xi) Solution:
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑝𝜃 𝟑𝒏 𝟏
lim 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟑
𝜃→0 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑞𝜃 [ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + ) ] = [ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + )]
𝒏→∞ 𝟑𝒏 𝒏→∞ 𝟑𝒏
Solution:
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑝𝜃 𝑜 𝟏
lim 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑞𝜃 (𝑜) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 = 𝒆𝟑
𝜃→0
𝑝𝜃 𝜃 2 𝒊𝒗)
2 sin2 ( ) (lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) )
2 𝟏 𝒏
= lim 2 = 𝜃→0
𝑞𝜃 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 − )
𝜃→0
2 sin2 2 𝑞𝜃 2 𝒏→∞ 𝒏
(lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2 ) ) Solution:
𝜃→0
2 −𝒏 −𝟏
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝 𝟏
𝒏
𝟏
(lim 𝑝𝜃 2 × 𝑝𝜃 ) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + (− )) = [𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + (− )) ]
𝜃→0 2 𝑝𝜃 2 𝒏→∞ 𝒏 𝒏→∞ 𝒏
(1 × 2 )
= 2 = 𝒆−𝟏
2 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑞 𝑞𝜃 2 𝒗)
2 × ) 𝑞𝜃 (1 × 2)
(lim 𝑞𝜃 2 𝟒 𝒏
𝜃→0 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + )
2 𝒏→∞ 𝒏
𝑝2 𝜃 2 Solution:
= 24 2 = 𝑝2 /𝑞2 𝟒 𝒏
𝑞 𝜃 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + )
𝒏→∞ 𝒏
4 𝟒𝒏 𝒏 𝟒
xii) 𝟒 𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + ) = [ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + ) ] = 𝒆𝟒
lim 𝒏→∞ 𝒏 𝒏→∞ 𝒏
𝜃→0 sin3 𝜃
Solution: 𝑣𝑖)
2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0
lim (0) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 lim (1 + 3𝑥)𝑥
𝜃→0 sin3 𝜃 𝑥→0
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 Solution:
= lim ( − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ) 2
𝜃→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
lim (1 + 3𝑥)𝑥
𝑥→0
2 3 6
1 = lim (1 + 3𝑥)𝑥×3 = lim (1 + 3𝑥)3𝑥
= lim 3 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
𝜃→0 sin 𝜃
1 6
6
= [lim (1 + 3𝑥) ] = 𝑒3𝑥
𝑥→0

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 11

𝑣𝑖𝑖) 𝟏
𝒆𝒙 − 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟏
1 𝒙→𝟎
lim (1 + 2𝑥 2 )𝑥2 𝒆𝒙 + 𝟏
𝑥→0 𝟏 𝟏
Solution: 𝒆𝒙 (𝟏 − 𝟏)
1
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒆𝒙
lim (1 + 2𝑥 2 )𝑥2 𝒙→𝟎 𝟏
𝑥→0 𝟏
2 1 2 𝒆𝒙 (𝟏 + 𝟏)
= lim (1 + 2𝑥 2 )2𝑥2 = [lim (1 + 2𝑥 2 )2𝑥2 ] = 𝑒2 𝒆𝒙
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝟏
(𝟏 − 𝟏) 𝟏 𝟏
1 𝟏−
∞ 𝟏−∞ 𝟏−𝟎
lim (1 − 2ℎ)ℎ = 𝒆𝟎= 𝒆 = = =𝟏
ℎ→0 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏+𝟎
𝟏 𝟏 + ∞ 𝟏 +
Solution: (𝟏 + 𝟏 ) 𝒆 ∞
1 1 𝒆𝟎
= lim (1 − 2ℎ)ℎ = lim (1 + (−2ℎ))ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ→0
−2 1 −2
= lim (1 + (−2ℎ))−2ℎ = [lim (1 + (−2ℎ))−2ℎ ]
ℎ→0 ℎ→0
−2
=𝑒

𝑖𝑥)
𝑥 𝑥
lim ( )
𝑥→0 1 + 𝑥 For updates and news visit
Solution:
𝑥 𝑥 http://www.mathcity.org
lim ( )
𝑥→0 1 + 𝑥 these notes are written by Amir shehzad
−𝑥 𝑥(−1)
1+𝑥 1 http://www.mathcity.org/people/amir
= lim ( ) = lim ( + 1)
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥 −1
1
= [lim ( + 1) ] = 𝑒 −1
𝑥→0 𝑥
(𝑥)
1
𝑒𝑥 − 1
lim ( 1 ),𝑥 < 0 The left hand limit:
𝑥→0
𝑒𝑥 + 1 𝑖𝑓 lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑓(𝑥)𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑥
Solution: 𝑥→𝑎
1 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 a𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 "𝑎"
𝑒𝑥 −1 (𝑖. 𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 − ∞ 𝑡𝑜 𝑎)𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
lim ( 1 ) 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→0
+1 𝑒𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡.
Since 𝑥 < 0, 𝑠𝑜 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = −𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡 > 𝑜 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕:
𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 0 , 𝑡 → 0 𝑖𝑓 lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑓(𝑥)𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎
1 1 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 a𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 a(𝑖. 𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚
𝑒𝑥 −1 𝑒𝑡 −1
𝑠𝑜 lim ( 1 ) = lim ( 1 ) 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 ∞) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑥→0 𝑡→0 𝑥→𝑎
𝑒𝑥 +1 𝑒𝑡 +1 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡.
1 1
1 1 11 𝑬𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑳𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂 )
( )
−1
𝑒𝑡 −1 𝑒0 −1 𝑒 ∞∞ −1 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓
= lim = = 1 = 𝑥→𝑎
𝑡→0 1 1 1 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑒∞ + 1 ∞+1
1 1
𝑥→𝑎 − 𝑥→𝑎
𝑒𝑡 + 1)
( + 1)
𝑒0
( 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
0−1 1 Continuous Function:
= = − = −1
0+1 1 A function f is said to be continuous at a number 𝑥 =
𝒙𝒊)
𝟏 𝑜 𝑖𝑓
𝒆𝒙 − 𝟏 𝑖) 𝑓(𝑎)𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑖) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡. 𝑖𝑖𝑖) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ,𝒙 > 𝟎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝒙→𝟎 𝟏 Discontinuous function:
𝒆𝒙 +𝟏
Solution:

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 12

A function 𝑓(𝑥)is said to be discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→5
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑎) Q2. 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒖𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝒄
𝑥→𝑎
i)
 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≤ 𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) = { ,𝒄 = 𝟐
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 > 𝟐
 Any function which does not satisfied at least one Solution:
of three conditions of continuous is called 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆
discontinuous. lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim−(2𝑥 + 5) = 2(2) + 5 = 9
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
R.H.S
Exercise 1.4 lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+(4𝑥 + 1) = 4(2) + 1 = 9
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 2
Q1. Determine the left hand limit and the right hand 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 5
limit and then find the limit of the following functions  𝑓(2) = 2(2) + 5 = 9
when 𝒙 → 𝒄 As 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 𝑠𝑜
𝒊) 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟓, 𝒄 = 𝟏 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 9
𝑥→2
Solution:
 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2
𝑳. 𝑯. 𝑺 𝑥→2
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim−(2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5) = 2(1)2 + 1 + 5 = −2 ii)
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
3𝑥 − 1𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 1
𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
𝑓(𝑥) = {4 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 1, 𝑐 = 1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+(2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5) = 2(1)2 + 1 + 5 = −2
𝑥→+ 𝑥→1 2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1
𝐴𝑠 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 Solution:
So, L.H.S
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −2 lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim−(3𝑥 − 1) = 3(1) − 1 = 2
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1
𝑖𝑖) R.H.S
𝑥 2 −9
𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑐 = −3 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+(2𝑥) = 2(1) = 2
𝑥−3 𝑥→1+ 𝑥→1
Solution: 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1, 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 ⇒ 𝑓(1) = 4
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 𝑎𝑠 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 𝑠𝑜 lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡.
𝑥→1
𝑥2 − 9 But lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(1)hence f(x) is discontinuous.
lim − 𝑓(𝑥) = lim − 𝑥→1
𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3 𝑥−3
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) 𝟑𝒙 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≤ −𝟐
lim − = lim − 𝑥 + 3 = −3 + 3 = 0 Q3.if 𝒇(𝒙) = {𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 𝒊𝒇 − 𝟐 < 𝒙 < 𝟐
𝑥→−3 (𝑥 − 3) 𝑥→−3
𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 𝟑 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟐
𝑥2 − 9 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒖𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 = −𝟐
lim + 𝑓(𝑥) = lim + Solution:
𝑥→−3 𝑥→−3 𝑥 − 3
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) i)
lim = lim + 𝑥 + 3 = −3 + 3 = 0 𝑥=2
𝑥→−3+ (𝑥 − 3) 𝑥→−3
𝐴𝑠 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆; . lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim−(𝑥 2 − 1)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
So, = (2)2 − 1 = 3
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 3 = 3
𝑥→−3 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2, 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 ⇒ 𝑓(2) = 3
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 − 5|, 𝑐 = 5 ∵ 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 𝑠𝑜 lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡.
𝑥→2
Solution:
𝑠𝑜 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(2)
L.H.S 𝑥→2

lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim−|𝑥 − 5| = 5 − 5 = 0 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2

𝑥→5 𝑥→5 ii) 𝑥 = −2
R.H.S 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆; . lim + 𝑓(𝑥) = lim +(𝑥 2 − 1)
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+|𝑥 − 5| = 5 − 5 = 0 𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2
𝑥→5+ 𝑥→5 = (−2)2 − 1 = 3
As 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 lim − 𝑓(𝑥) = lim − 3 𝑥 = 3(−2) = −6
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2

So 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −2, 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓(−2) = 3(−2) = −6

∵ 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 ≠ 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 𝑠𝑜 .

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 13

 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −2 2𝑥 + 5 − 𝑥 − 7
𝒙 + 𝟐, 𝒙 ≤ −𝟏 = lim
𝑥→2 (𝑥 − 2)(√2𝑥 + 5 + √𝑥 + 7)
Q4. If 𝒇(𝒙) = { 𝒊𝒇𝒂𝒏𝒅 "𝒄"
𝒄 + 𝟐, 𝒙 > −𝟏 𝑥−2
𝒔𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕. = lim
𝒙→−𝟏 𝑥→2 (𝑥− 2)(√2𝑥 + 5 + √𝑥 + 7)
𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 1
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = lim
𝑥→2 (√2𝑥 + 5 + √𝑥 + 7)
lim − 𝑓(𝑥) = lim +(𝑥 + 2) = −1 + 2 = 1
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 1 1
𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 = lim + 𝑓(𝑥) = lim +(𝑐 + 2) = 𝑐 + 2 =
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 (√2(2) + 5 + √2 + 7) 6
Given that lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 . 𝑠𝑜 ∵ 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2so
𝑥→−1
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(2)
𝑥→2
 1+𝑐+2 1
 = 𝑘 ⇒ 𝑘 = 1/𝟔
 1−2=𝑐 6

 𝑐 = −1
Q5. Find the value of m and n, so that given function 𝒇 is
continuous 𝒂𝒕 𝒙 = 𝟑
𝑚𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 3
{ 𝑛 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 3
−2𝑥 + 9 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 3
Solution: For updates and news visit
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim−(𝑚𝑥) = 3𝑚 http://www.mathcity.org
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+(−2𝑥 + 9)
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 these notes are written by Amir shehzad
= −2(3) + 9 = 3 http://www.mathcity.org/people/amir
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 3 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑓(3) = 𝑛
Given that 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑜 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
 3𝑚 = 3
 𝑚=1
We know that for a continuous function
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(3)
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
3𝑚 = 3 = 𝑛
 𝑛 = 3, 𝑚 = 1
For updates and news visit
i)
𝒎𝒙 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 < 𝟑 http://www.mathcity.org
𝒇(𝒙) = { 𝟐
𝒙 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 ≥ 𝟑
these notes are written by Amir shehzad
Solution: http://www.mathcity.org/people/amir
= lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim−(𝑚𝑥) = 3𝑚
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆 = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+(𝑥 2 )
𝑥→3 𝑥→3
= (3)2 = 9
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 3 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑓(3) = (3)2 = 9
Given that 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑜 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
 3𝑚 = 9
 𝑚=3
√𝟐𝒙+𝟓−√𝒙+𝟕
Q6. If 𝒇(𝒙) = { ,𝒙 ≠𝟐
𝒙−𝟐
𝒌 ,𝒙 = 𝟐
Find value of 𝒌 𝒔𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒇 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒔.
Solution:
𝑎𝑡𝑥 = 2 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 ⇒ 𝑓(2) = 𝑘
√2𝑥+5−√𝑥+7 0
Now lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim (0) 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2
√2𝑥 + 5 − √𝑥 + 7 √2𝑥 + 5 + √𝑥 + 7
= lim ×
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 √2𝑥 + 5 + √𝑥 + 7

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 14

 (c) Leibniz (d) Newton
3. A function P(x) = 6x4 + 7x3 + 5x + 1 is called a
polynomial function of degree __________ with
leading coefficient ------------.
(a) 4 ,6 (b) 2,7

(c) 2 ,3 (d) 2,5

4. If a variable y depends on a variable x in such
a way that each value of x determines
exactly one value of y, then y is a ------------ of x.
(a) Independent variable
(b) 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(c) 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑑) None of these
5. A function, in which the variables are
------------ numbers, then function is called a real
valued function of real numbers.
(a) complex (b) rational

(c) 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 (d) None of these

1 𝟏
6. 𝑳𝒆𝒕 (𝒙) = 𝒙 + x , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇 (𝒙) =
For updates and news visit
(a)  (𝑥 2 + 1) (b) (x)
http://www.mathcity.org 1
(c) (d) (x2 )
(x)
these notes are written by Amir shehzad
http://www.mathcity.org/people/amir 1x
7. 𝑰𝒇 (𝒙) = 1 + x , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙) 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒔:
x 𝑥
(a) 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛22 (b) tan2
2

x
(c) tan2 𝑥 (d) 𝑐𝑜𝑡 22
P(x)
8. Domain of the rational function y = Q(x) is:

(a) Q(x) > 0 (b) Q(x) < 0

(c) Q(x) = 0 (d) Q(x)  0
2
x –1
9. For the function (x) = , f(1) is:
x–1
(a) x+1 (b) undefined
(c) 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑑)𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

Chapter#1. 2nd year Functions and Limits (MCQs)

 Each question has four possible answers. Select
the correct answer and encircle it.
1. The term function was introduced by: 10. If a function f is from a set X to a set Y, then set X is
(a) Euler (b) Newton called the ------------ of f.
(c) Lagrange (d) Leibniz (a) domain (b) range
2. The symbol y = f(x) i.e. y is equal to f of x, (c) co-domain (d) None of these
invented by Swiss mathematician x
11. Let (x) = then domain of  is the set of all real
---------. x2
(a) Euler (b) Cauchy numbers except:
(a) 0 (b) 1

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 15

 (c) 2 (d) 3 (c) a 0 (d) a 0
n1 n
12. Let (x) = x , real valued function then domain of 
2
22. A function, in which the variable appears as
is the set of all: exponent (power), is called a\an ------------ function.
(a) real numbers (b) integers
(c) complex numbers (a) constant (b) explicit
(d) natural numbers (c) exponential (d) inverse
x
13. Let (x) = 2 , then domain of  is the set of all 23. Let (x) = x2  9 , then range of  is the set:
x 4
real numbers except:
(a) ]  ,  [ (b) [0, )
(a) 4,  4 (b) 0
(c) [3, ] (d) [ 3, 3]
(c) 2,  2 (d) 0, 4
24. Which of the following functions is a polynomial
14. If (x)= x + 1 , then domain of (x) is: function?
(a) [ 0, ) (b) [ – 1, )
x3 1
(c) [ 1, ] (d) [ 1, ) (a) ,x2
15. If (x) = x + 1 , then range of (x) is: x 2
(a) (– , ) (b) [ – ,  ] (b) x5 + 6x4 + 7x3 + x2 + x + 4
2x2 + 7x + 4
(c)
(c) [ 0, ) [ – 1, )
(d) 10
|x + 2| 2
(d) ax + b x + c
16. The domain of the function (x)= is:
x+2 25. If the degree of a polynomial function is ----------,
then it is called a linear function.
(a) R (b) R – { 2}
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) R – {2 , –2} (d) R – {– 2}
17. The range of the function (x) = |x| is: (c) 2 (d) 3
(a) (–  , ) (b) [0, ) 26. Let X and Y be the set of real numbers, a function C
(c) (– , 0] (d) (0, ) : X  Y defined by C(x) = a  x  X , a  Y and a
18. Let (x) = x2 , then range of  is the set of all: is a constant number. Then C is called a\an
------------ function.
(a) real numbers (a) constant (b) implicit
(b) non-negative real numbers (c) identity (d) inverse
(c) non-negative integers 27. Which of the following is a rational function?
(d) complex numbers
19. Let (x) = x2 + 3, then domain of  is the: 1 + x + x2
(a) ,x2
2+x
(a) Set of all integers 2x3 + 7x2 + 8x + 1
(b) Set of natural numbers (b) ,x>0
x3/2
(c) Set of real numbers
1
(d) Set of rational numbers (c) 2x2 + 3x + 7
2
20. Domain f -1 = Range f and Range 2x3 + 3x2 + 7
(d) ,x5
f -1 = ------------. x5
(a) Domain f (b) Range f 28. Which one is a constant function?
(a) f(x) = x2 (b) f(x) = x
(c) f (x) = x + 1 (d) f(x) = 14
(c) Domain f 1 (d) None of these

21. A function P(x) = anxn + an1xn1

+a xn2 + … + a x2 + a x + a is called a 29. A function I : X  X for any set X, of the form I(x)
n2 2 1 0
polynomial function of degree n, with leading = x  x  X is called a\an
coefficient a . ------------ function.
n
(a) a =0 (b) a =0 (a) constant (b) implicit
n1 n
(c) identity (d) inverse

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 16

 e  e  e  e 
30. If x and y are so mixed up and y cannot be expressed 1 x x 1 x x
in terms of the independent variable x, then y is (c) (d)
called a\an ------------ function of x.
4 4
(a) constant (b) explicit 41. tanh x =
e x  e x
 
(c) implicit (d) inverse 1 x x
(a) x x
(b) e e
31. Which one is an identity function? e e 2
1
(a) f(x) =
x
(b) f(x) = g(x) 2 e x  e x
(c) (d)
(c) f (x) = x (d) f(x) = 1 e x  e x e x  e x
32. Which one is not an exponential function? 42. sech x =
2 e x  e x
(a) x (b)
(a) 3x (b) nx e  e x 2
(c) ex/2 (d) xn 2 e  e x
x
(c) x (d)
33. Which one is an exponential function? e  e x e x  e x
(a) 2x (b) x2 43. csch x =
(c) log x
2
(d) xe
(a)
2
 e  e  (b) x  x
1 x x
e e
2
34. If (x) = ax + b, where a  0 , a and b are real
x
numbers, then (x) is a: e e
x
2
(c) x (d) x
(a) constant function e e x
e  e x
(b) absolute linear function 44. coth x =
(c) linear function e x  e x e x  e x
(d) quadratic function (a) (b)
e x  e x e x  e x
35. y = logax, where a > 0 and a  1 is called a ----------- 2 2
(c) x
(d)
-- function of x. e e
x
e  e x
x

(a) implicit (b) explicit

(c) exponential (d) logarithmic
45. cosh2 x  sinh2 x =
(a) 1 (b)  1
36. y = log x is known as the --------- of
10 (c) 2 (d)  2
(a) common logarithmic
46. cosh2 x+ sinh2 x =
(b) natural logarithmic
(c) exponential (d) None of these (a) coshx2 (b) cosh2x
37. If f(x) = |x| , f(x) is a (c) sinh2x (d) tanh2x
(a) constant function 47. sinh–1x =
(b) absolute function (a) n (x + x2  1 ) x > 1
(c) linear function
(d) quadratic function (b) n (x + x2 + 1 ) for all x
38. If x = e y , Then y = logex = ln x, is known as the ------ 1  x 1 
(c) ln   , | x| 1
------ of x. 2  x 1 
(a) common logarithmic
1 + 1  x2 
(b) natural logarithmic n  
(c) exponential
(d)
 x  0<x<1

(d) None of these 48. cosh–1x =

39. sinh x = (a) n (1 + x2  1 ) x > 1

(a)
2

1 x x
e e  (b)
2
e  e 
1 x x (b) n (x + x 2  1 ) x 1

x x
 1 1 x2 
(c) e  e (d) e  e ln   0<x<1
x x
(c)
 x 
 
40. cosh x =
(a)
2
e  e 
1 x x
(b)
2
e  e 
1 x x

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 17

 1  x 1  (d) xy2 + y3 + x2 y = 4
(d) ln   , | x| 1
2  x 1 
49. tanh–1x =
55. y = x  1 is a\an ------------ function of x.
(a) n 
1 1 + x
|x| < 1
2  1  x
1 x + 1
(b) n |x| < 1
2 x  1 (a) constant (b) implicit
 1 1 x 2 
(c) n   0<x<1 (c) explicit (d) inverse
 x 
  56. Which one is an implicit function?
 1 1 x 2  (a) y = (x) (b) (x, y) = c
(d) n  x 0 (c) x = (u), y = g(u)
 x 
  (d) y = (u), u = g(x)
50. sech–1x = 57. Which one is an implicit function?
(a) n 
1 x + 1 (a) xy + xy2 + x2 + y = 2
|x| < 1
2 x  1
(b) y = x2 + 1
1 + 1 + x2  (c) x3 + x2 + x + 1 = y
(b) n   x 0
 x  (d) y = f(x)
1 + 1  x2  58. Which one is an explicit function?
(c) n   0<x<1
 x  (a) y = (x)
(b) (x, y) = 0
(d) n 
1 + x
|x|< 1 (c) x = (t), y = g(t)
1  x
(d) none of these
51. csch–1x =
59. Every relation, which can be represented by a
 1 + x2 + 1 
(a) n   x 0 linear equation in two variables, represents a:
 x 
1 + 1  x2 
n   0<x<1 (a) graph
(b)
 x 
 1 1 x2  (b) function
(c) n   x  0
 x  (c) cartesian product
 
1 x + 1 (d) relation
(d) n |x| < 1
2 x  1
52. coth–1x = 60. A function from set X to set Y is denoted by:

(a) n 
x + 2
|x| < 2 (a)  : X  X (b) :YY
x  2
(c)  : X  Y (d) :YX
1 1 + x
(b) n |x| < 1 61. If y is an image of x under the function f, we denote it
2 1  x
by:
1 x + 1
n |x|  0 (a) x = (y)
2  x 
(c) (b) x=y
(c) y = (x) (d) (x, y) = c
1 x + 1
(d) n x>1 62. The value of the parameter , for which the function
2  x  1
(x) = 1 + x,   0 is the inverse of itself is:
53. Inverse hyperbolic functions are expressed in terms of
natural:
(a) 1 (b) 1
(a) numbers (b) exponentials
(c) 2 (d) 2
(c) logarithms (d) sines
63. The curves y = |x|3 + 2|x|2 + 1 and
54. Which one is an explicit function?
y = x3+ 2x2+ 1 have the same graph for:
(a) x2 + 2xy + y3 + 7 = 0
(a) x > 0 (b) x0
(b) xy + x3 y + xy2 + 1 = 0 (c) x  0 (d) all x
(c) y = x3 + x2 + x + 10

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 18

64. Parametric equations x = a cos t, 73. If f(x) = f(x) for all x in the domain of f, then f is :
y = a sin t represent the equation of:
(a) line (b) circle (a) constant function
(c) parabola (d) ellipse (b) identity function
65. Parametric equations: x = a cos , (c) even function
y = b sin  represent the equation of: (d) odd function
(a) Parabola (b) hyperbola 74. If f( x) =  f(x) for all x in the domain of f, then f is:
(c) ellipse (d) circle (a) linear function
(b) identity function
66. Parametric equations x = a sec ,
(c) odd function
y = b tan  represent the equation of:
(d) even function
(a) Line (b) parabola
(c) Ellipse (d) hyperbola 75. If f (x) is odd function. If and only if:
x (a) f(– x) = – f(x) (b) f(– x) = f(x)
67. If f(x) = x – 1 , x 1 then f–1 (x) equals
(c) f(x) = 3f( – x) (d) f(x)= – 3f( – x)
x x–1
(a) x – 1 (b) x 76. f(x) is even function. If and only if:
(a) f(– x) = – f(x)
x 1–x
(c) 1 – x (d) x (b) f(– x) = f(x)

68. Inverse of (x) = x + 1 is: (c) f(x) = 3f(– x)

2
(a) –1 (x) = x  1 (d) f(x) = – 3f(– x)
1
(b) –1 (x) =
x+1 f(x) + f(– x)
77. If f is any function, then 2
is always:
2
(c) –1 (x) = 1  x
2 (a) even (b) odd
(d) –1 (x) = x + 1
69. Let (x) = 4  x, g(x) = 2x + 1, then (c) one-one (d) zero
og (x) is:
(a) 5 + 2x (b) 3  2x 78. f(x) = sin x + cos x is ------------ function.
(c) 2 + 3x (d) 2  3x
70. The perimeter P of square as a function of its area A is: (a) even (b) odd

(c) composite
(a) A (b) 2 A
(d) neither even nor odd function
1
(c) 4 A (d) 2 A 79. Let f(x) = cos x, then f(x) is an: 12801079
(a) even function (b) odd function
71. The area A of a circle as a function of its circumference (c) power function (d) none of these
C is:
80. Let f(x) = x3 + sin x, then f(x) is: 12801080
C2 C2 (a) even function (b) odd function
(a) (b)
2 4 (c) power function (d) none of these
81. Let f(x)= x3 + cos x, then f(x) is: 12801081
C2 C (a) an odd function (b) an even function
(c) (d)
 4 (c) neither even nor odd
(d) a constant function
72. The volume V of a cube as a function of the area A of 82. If f(x) = x2 + 1, then the value of fof is equal to:
its base is:
(a) A2 (b) A3 (a) x4 + 2x2 + 1 (b) x4 – 2x2 + 2

3 (c) x4 + 2x2 + 2 (d) x4 + 2x2 – 2

(c) A3 (d) A3
83. If a relation is given by:

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 19

R  10, 6  , 10, 4  , 10, 2  then Dom of R is Lim Lim
(a) f(x)  g(x)
xa xa
(a) { 2, 4, 6 ,10 } (b) { 2, 4, 6 }
Lim Lim
(c) { } (d) { 10 } (b) xa f(x)  xa g(x)

84. x2 + y 2 = 4 is: Lim Lim

(c) xa f(x) + xa g(x)
(a) Function (b) Not a Function

(c) Ellipse (d) Line Lim Lim

(d) xa f(x)  xa g(x)
85. f(x) = xsecx, then f(0)=
Lim
(a) –1 (b) 0 94. xa [f(x)]n = ------------.

(c) 1 (d)  Lim Lim

(a) xa f(x) (b) n  [xa f(x)]
86. The linear function f(x) = ax+b is an identity
Lim
function if: (c) [ f(x)]n (d) None of these
xa
(a) a = 0, b = 1 (b) a = 1, b = 0
95. If k is any real number, then
(c) a = 1, b = 1 (d) a = 0, b = 1 Lim
xa [k.f(x)] = ------------.
87. Let f(x) = 4  x, then f
2
 x = Lim Lim
(a) k xa f(x) (b) k x xa f(x)
(a) x (b)
x
Lim
(c) 4+x (d) x 4 (c) xa f(x) (d) None of these
88. Let (x) = x + 4 , g(x) = 4  x, then og (x) =
x3 - a3
Lim =
(a) x (b) 16  x 96. x a x-a
(c) 8x (d) 2 x+4 +1 (a) undefined (b) 3a2
89. Let (x) =  2, g(x) = 2x + 1, then fog(x) = (c) a2 (d) 0
97. Lim x tan 1
x0 x
(a) 2x + 1 (b)  2x (a) equals 0 (b) equals 1
(c) 4x + 3 (d) 2 (c) equals  (d) does not exist.
90. Let f(x) = 4  x, g(x) =  2, then f(x)
fog (x) = 98. If Lim g(x) exists, then:
x0
(a) both Lim f(x) and Lim g(x) exist
(a) 2 (b) 6 x0 x0

(c) 8 (d) 5 (b) Lim f(x) exist but Lim g(x) need not exist
x0 x0
91. The function y = ex.ln2 = 2x is a\an
------------- function of x. (c) Lim f(x) need not exist but Lim g(x) exist
x0 x0
(a) constant (b) explicit
(d) neither Lim f(x) nor Lim g(x) may exist.
(c) exponential (d) logarithmic x0 x0

92. If y = f(x), then the variable x is called ------------ 99. Lim f(x) = if and only if: 12801099
xa
variable of a function f.
(a) Lim f(a + h) = 
(a) dependent (b) independent h0
(c) image of y (d) None of these
(b) Lim f(a + h) = 
ha
Lim
93. xa [f(x)  g(x)] = ------------.
(c) Lim f(a + h) = 0
xa

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 20

 (d) Lim f(a + h) = 0 5 3
h0 (c) 3 (d) 4
2–1
100. lim x is: x  1 1
x 1 x – 1 108. Lim
x0 
x
(a) x + 1 (b) 2
1
(a) 3 (b) 1
(c) indeterminate (d) 0
1 1
101. Lim (2x2 – 5x + 3) = (c) (d)
x2 2 5
(a) 1 (b) 2

(c) 3 (d) 4
Lim
(1 + x)3 – 1
109. =
x2 + 1 x0 x
102. xLim
3 x+3 = (a) 1 (b) 5
3 1
(a) 5 (b) 4 1
(c) 3 (d) 2
1 5
(c) 2 (d) 3 2
110. Lim x – 5x + 6 =
x3 x – 3
x –a n n
Lim
103. x (a) 1 (b) 3
a x – a = --------------
(a) n an (b) n an – 1 1
(c) 4 (d) None of these.
(c) 0 (d) does not
2
exist
111. Lim x + 1 =
x 2x3 – x
x2 – 16 1
104. Lim
x 4 x – 4 = (a) 2 (b) 1
(a) 8 (b) 3
(c) 2 (d) 0
(c) 10 (d) 0
x2 - 9
x–2 112. f(x) = ; x  3 is discontinuous because:
105. Lim x-3
x4 x – 4 =
(a) Lim f (x)  f (3)
1 1 x 3
(a) 2 (b) 4
(b) f (3) does not exist
1 1
(c) 3 (d) 5 (c) Lim f (x) does not exist
x 3

x – 16 (d) None of these

106. Lim
x16 x – 4 =
(a) 2 (b) 5 113. Let the function (x) be defined by
1
(c) 8 (d) 7 (x) = x , x  0 and (0) = 0. Then: 12801113
Lim (x) exists and is equal to (0)
(a) x0
x3 + 2x + 4
107. Lim =
x2 x2 + 5 Lim (x) exists but is not equal to (0)
(b) x0
4 2
(a) 3 (b) 3
(c) (x) is continuous at x = 0
Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 21
 (d) None of these.

114. Let (x) = sin x. Then 8 x x 8

(a) (b)
(a) (x) is continuous for all values of x 2 2
(b) (x) is continuous for all values 8 x 2
(c) (d)
 2 8 x
except x = 2
119. If f (x) = x2 –x then f (–2) is equal to:
(c) (x) is discontinuous at x = 0 (a) 2 (b) 6

(d) None of these. (c) 0 (d) –6

115. The value of f(0) so that 1

 x x
f(x) = (x+1)1/x is continuous at x = 0 is: lim 1  
120.
x 
 2  equals :
1
(a) 0 (b) e (a) e (b) e–1

(c) e–2 (d) e

(c) e (d) e2
f ( x)  1
116. x = 3cos t, y = 3 sin t represent: lim  na; a  o,
x 0 x
(a) Line (b) Circle 121. If then:

(c) Parabola (d) Hyperbola

(a) a–x (b) ax
1  cospθ
117. lim equals: (c) e–x (d) e
θ0 1  cosqθ

p
(a) 0 (b)
q

p2 q2
(c) (d)
q2 p2

f  x  = -2x + 8 f -1  x  =:
118. If then

Written by Amir Shehzad 0343-4443214 22

 1. d 2. a 3. a 4. c 5. c
6. b 7. b 8. d 9. c 10 a
11. c 12. a 13 c 14. b 15 c
16. d 17 b 18. b 19 c 20 a
21. d 22. c 23. b 24. c 25. b
26. a 27. d 28. d 29 c 30 c
31. c 32 d 33. a 34. c 35 d
36. a 37. b 38. b 39. a 40 b
41. d 42. c 43 d 44. b 45. a
46. b 47. b 48. b 49. a 50 c
51. a 52. d 53. c 54. c 55. c
56. b 57. a 58. a 59. b 60. c
61. c 62. b 63. b 64. b 65. c
66. d 67. a 68. a 69. b 70. c
71. b 72. d 73. c 74. c 75. a
76. b 77. c 78. d 79. a 80 b
81. c 82. a 83. d 84 b 85 b
86. b 87. a 88. c 89. d 90 b
91. c 92. b 93. a 94. c 95 a
96. b 97. a 98. a 99 a 100 b
101. a 102. d 103. b 104. a 105. b
106. c 107. a 108. c 109. c 110. a
111. d 112. b 113. d 114. a 115. c
116. b 117. c 118. c 119. b 220 d
121. b
Answer Sheet

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