RADIATION PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS

“THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER”

NAME: Shara V. Rafisura DATE: July 17, 2019

TASK 1: Definition of terms.

Terminology Definition
1. Atom The smallest particle of a substance that can exist by itself or be combined with other atoms to form a
molecule.

2. Nucleus The central part of an atom that is made up of protons and neutrons.
3. Ionization Any process by which electrically neutral atoms or molecules are converted to electrically charged
atoms or molecules (ions).
4. Ion pair A pair of oppositely charged ions held together by Coulomb attraction without formation of a covalent
bond. Experimentally, an ion pair behaves as one unit in determining conductivity, kinetic behavior,
osmotic properties, etc.

5. Electron A very small particle of matter that has a negative charge of electricity and that travels around the
nucleus of an atom.
6. Proton A very small particle of matter that is part of the nucleus of an atom and that has a positive electrical
charge.

7. Neutron A very small particle of matter that has no electrical charge and is part of the nucleus of all atoms
except hydrogen atoms.

8. Matter It is anything that occupies space and has mass.

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9. Binding energy Is the minimum energy that would be required to disassemble the nucleus of an atom into its
component parts. These component parts are neutrons and protons, which are collectively called
nucleons.

10. Electron binding energy Is the energy required to completely remove an electron from an atom or a molecule. The binding
energy of nucleons in the nucleus of an atom amounts for most nuclei (i.e. Z>5) to around 8 MeV per
nucleon.

11. Nuclear binding energy Is the minimum energy that would be required to disassemble the nucleus of an atom into its
component parts. These component parts are neutrons and protons, which are collectively called
nucleons.

12. Element One of the basic substances that are made of atoms of only one kind and that cannot be separated by
ordinary chemical means into simpler substances.
13. Fundamental particle Is a subatomic particle with no sub structure, thus not composed of other particles.

14. Group (periodic table) Is a column of elements in the periodic table of the chemical elements.
15. Period (periodic table) A row of chemical elements. All elements in a row have the same number of electron shells.

16. Atomic mass the mass of an atom of a chemical element expressed in atomic mass units
17. Atomic mass number the total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus
18. Atomic mass unit a unit of mass used to express atomic and molecular weights, equal to one-twelfth of the mass of an
atom of carbon-12. It is equal to approximately 1.66 x 10-27 kg
19. Principal quantum number is one of four quantum numbers which are assigned to all electrons in an atom to describe that
electron's state
20. Force is the push or pull on an object with mass that causes it to change velocity (to accelerate)

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TASK II: Describe the different atomic models from the earliest years of its discovery until the present. Provide a structural model for each atomic
model.

Atomic Model Description and Model

1. The Greek Atom  The Greek philosopher Democritus began the search for a description of matter more than
2400 years ago.
 He asked: Could matter be divided into smaller and smaller pieces forever, or was there a
limit to the number of times a piece of matter could be divided?
 His theory: Matter could not be divided into smaller and smaller pieces forever, eventually
the smallest possible piece would be obtained. This piece would be indivisible. He named
the smallest piece of matter “atomos,” meaning “not to be cut.” To Democritus, atoms
were small, hard particles that were all made of the same material but were different
shapes and sizes. Atoms were infinite in number, always moving and capable of joining
together.

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2. Dalton Atom  He proposed the Atomic theory of matter based on his experimental observations.

To Dalton:
 All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and => indestructible.
 All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.
 Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms
 A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms.
 Atoms can be neither created nor destroyed.

3. Thomson Atom  Thomson's atomic theory proposed a model of atom which is known as plum pudding
model.
 In the year 1897 He totally changed the view of an atom by discovering electron.
Thomson’s atomic theory suggested that the atom is not indivisible as it was of smaller
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pieces – electrons and protons.
 An atom consists of a sphere of positive charge with negatively charged electron
embedded in it.
 The positive and the negative charges in an atom are equal in magnitude, due to which an
atom is electrically neutral. It has no over all negative or positive charge.

4. Rutherford  Ernest Rutherford presented a paper , accurately describing the structure of the atom.
Based on an experiment he had performed - with totally unexpected results - he realized
that the atom must have almost all of its mass concentrated at its center, in a nucleus, with
the vast majority of the atom consisting chiefly of empty space. Two years earlier, in 1909,
he had conducted an experiment with two other scientists, in which they studied the
deflection angles of "alpha particles" that they shot through a microscopically thin layer of
gold. Alpha particles are just helium atoms stripped of their 2 electrons.
 He showed that while the nucleus contains virtually all of the mass of the atom, it only
takes up one-billionth of the volume of the atom, an inconceivably tiny amount. Much
smaller particles - electrons - orbit the nucleus at a great distance, relatively speaking.

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5. Bohr Atom Neils Bohr refined Rutherford's model in 1913 by proposing that electrons:
 Orbit the nucleus without losing energy;
 Could move only in fixed orbits of specific energies.
 Electrons with low energy would orbit closer to the nucleus while electrons with high
energy orbit further from the nucleus.

6. Quantum Chromodynamics In QED the electromagnetic interactions of charged particles are described through the emission
and subsequent absorption of massless photons, best known as the “particles” of light; such
interactions are not possible between uncharged, electrically neutral particles. The photon is

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 RADIATION PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS
described in QED as the “force-carrier” particle that mediates or transmits the electromagnetic
force. By analogy with QED, quantum chromodynamics predicts the existence of force-carrier
particles called gluons, which transmit the strong force between particles of matter that carry
“color,” a form of strong “charge.” The strong force is therefore limited in its effect to the
behavior of elementary subatomic particles called quarks and of composite particles built from
quarks—such as the familiar protons and neutrons that make up atomic nuclei, as well as more-
exotic unstable particles called mesons.

TASK III: Write a discussion for the following atomic structures listed below.
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Atomic structure Discussion

1. Nucleus  Center of the atom
 Home of Protons and Neutrons
 Has a positive charge

2. Electron shell electrons in specific energy levels

3. Electrons  Has a negative (-) charge

 Found outside the nucleus

4. Protons  Has a relative mass of 1

 Has a positive (+) charge
 Determines the atomic number
 Found inside the nucleus
5. Neutron  Has no (0) charge
 Has a relative mass of 1
 Found inside the nucleus
6. Quarks Quarks are one type of matter particle. Most of the matter we see around us is made from protons and
neutrons, which are composed of quarks. Protons contain two up quarks and one down quark. Neutrons
contain one up quark and two down quarks. The nucleus is held together by the "strong nuclear force,"
which is one of four fundamental forces (gravity and electromagnetism are two others).
7. Gluons the so-called messenger particle of the strong nuclear force, which binds subatomic particles known
as quarks within the protons and neutrons of stable matter as well as within heavier, short-lived particles
created at high energies. Quarks interact by emitting and absorbing gluons, just as electrically charged
particles interact through the emission and absorption of photons

TASK IV: Describe the atomic structures by completing the table below.

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Particle Location Mass in Kg amu Charge Symbol

1. Electron Outside the nucleus 9.1093897*10-31 kg 0.000548597 a.m.u. -1 (negative) p+
2. Proton Inside the nucleus 1.6726231*10-27 kg 1.0072766 a.m.u. +1 (positive) e−
3. Neutron Inside the nucleus 1.6749286*10-27 kg 1.0086654 a.m.u. 0 (zero) n0

TASK V: Complete the table by describing the characteristics of various nuclear arrangements.

Nuclear arrangement Atomic number Atomic mass number Neutron number

Isotope Same Different Different
Isotone Different Same Different
Isobar Different Different Same
Isomer Same Same Same

TASK VI: Describe Figure 1 according to the protocol for representing elements in a molecule.

A – Atomic mass
Z – Atomic number
+/- - Valence State
# - Number of atoms/molecules

Figure 1

TASK VII: List at least 20 elements and describe them accordingly.

Element Chemical symbol Number of electrons Number of protons Number of neutrons Atomic number K-shell binding
energy
1. Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 0.11
2. Carbon C 6 6 6 6 0.28
3. Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 0.53
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4. Aluminum Al 13 13 14 13 1.56
5. Calcium Ca 20 20 20 20 4.04
6. Iron Fe 26 26 30 26 7.11
7. Copper Cu 29 29 35 29 8.98
8. Molybdenum Mo 42 42 54 42 20
9. Rhodium Rh 45 45 58 45 23.2
10. Ruthenium Ru 44 44 57 44 22.1
11. Silver Ag 47 47 47 47 25.7
12. Tin Sn 50 50 69 50 29.2
13. Iodine I 53 53 74 53 33.2
14. Barium Ba 56 56 81 56 37.4
15. Tungsten W 74 74 110 74 69.5
16. Rhenium Re 75 75 111 75 71.7
17. Gold Au 79 79 118 79 80.7
18. Lead Pb 82 82 125 82 88
19. Uranium U 92 92 146 92 116
20. Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1 5.7

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