GEN.

CHEM REVIEWER

Lesson 1: Development of the Modern Atomic Theory

Empedocles (490 - 435 B.C) – proposed the concept of fire, air, water, and earth as
the answer. He called these the four elements, composed of minute, unchanging
particles.
Aristotle (384 – 323 B.C) – known as most influential Greek philosopher. He added the
fifth element which he called quintessence.
Democritus (460 – 370 B.C) – he assumed the presence of a void in which the
unchanging particles were in continuous random motion. Later, he then came up with a
theory stating the everything is composed of small indivisible particles which he called
atomos or atoms.
Alexander the Great – he is Aristotle’s student. Because of the wars waged by
Alexander the Great who then introduces civilization to areas he conquered and settled.
John Dalton – an English chemist who proposed that atoms have fixed weights and
definite properties. It is also known as Dalton’s Atomic theory.
Sir William Crookes (1869 – 1975) – an English chemist who developed discharged
tube with vacuum. He passed an electric current through a gas-filled which provided
with electrodes, sealed at both ends. As steam of gas was pumped out of the tube, a
certain pressure was reached at
which the remaining gas glowed.
According to Crookes, the glow
was produced by negative
particles called cathode rays
passing from the cathode toward
the anode (negative to positive
electrode).
Cathode Ray Tube

J.J Thomson – with the help of Crookes’ cathode

rays, he discovered the electron in 1897. He
measured the deflection of cathode ray particles
of both magnetic and electric fields. He
determined the ratio of the charge to the mass of
the cathode ray particles. He was surprised that
the ratio is identical for all particles, regardless of
metal used as electrodes and the kind of gas
Plum Pudding Model
used. In 1904, he used plum pudding model to
demonstrate that the atoms are made up of these
negatively-charged particles (electron).
Robert Millikan – he determined the charge of an electron. Based on the charge to the
mass ratio of the cathode ray particles, he was able to establish that the mass of the
electron as compared to the hydrogen atom.
Ernest Rutherford – In his gold-foil experiment, it helps him to conclude that
concentrated mass in the middle of the atom is present, which he called nucleus. He
postulated that it is surrounded with enough negative charges to make the atom
electrically neutral.
Niels Bohr – he suggested that the energy of an electron is quantized.
BASIC LAWS OF MATTER
Law of Conservation of Mass – It is proposed by Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, a French
chemist and is also known as Father of Modern Chemistry. This states that the mass of
the products in a chemical reaction will always be equal to the mass of the reactants. In
other words, matter can either be destroyed or created, no mass is lost in a chemical
reaction.
Law of Constant Composition – It was discovered by a French chemist, Joseph
Proust. It states that all samples of a chemical compound contain all the elements in the
same proportion.
Law of Multiple Proportions – It was formulated by John Dalton, an English chemist
and meteorologist. It states that the elements in a compound have a proportion of those
chemical compounds that can be expressed in a small, whole-number ratio.

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

The basic laws of matter served as the basis for Dalton to formulate Dalton’s Atomic
Theory. This determination of the atom’s structure is based firmly on many rigorous
experimental investigations. John Dalton started to lay down the foundations of the
atomic theory. He attributed atoms with fixed weights and definite properties.

In 1803, Dalton published the following generalizations about the atom:

1. Elements are composed of minute, discrete, and indivisible particles called atoms
which maintain their identity in all physical and chemical changes.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical in physical and chemical properties, and
have the same mass. Atoms of different elements differ in physical and chemical
properties and have different masses.
3. The chemical combination of two or more elements consist of the union of the
atoms of these elements in simple numeric ratios to form the smallest possible
unit particles of a compound.
4. Atoms of the same element can unite in more than one ration to form more than
one compound.

Lesson 2: The Atomic Structure

Atom – a small, indivisible particle
considered to be the basic unit of matter. It
contains a nucleus which is located at its
center. The nucleus consists of protons and
neutrons. The electrons, on the other hand,
are located outside the nucleus. Electrons
are much smaller than neutrons and protons.

The Atomic Structure

3 subatomic particles:
• Protons (+) – were discovered by Eugene Goldstein using Crookes tube, with
holes in cathode. He observed that there is another kind of ray originating from
the anode, passing through holes in the cathode. The charge to the mass ratio
was much smaller than that of electron, and it varies with the kind of gas used in
tube.
 • Neutrons (no charge) – are found in the nucleus. James Chadwick showed that
the uncharged particles are emitted when atoms of beryllium and other elements
are bombarded with high velocity helium particles.

• Electrons (-) – are small, negatively-charged particles that spin around the
nucleus staying in their orbits (also called electron shells or energy levels). The
shells are numbered, depending on how close they are to the nucleus. Electrons
in the lowest energy level are the ones most dignity bound and, therefore,
hardest to expel.

Table 3.1 Comparison of the different subatomic particles

Subatomic Particle Symbol Mass (a.m.u) Charge Location
Proton P+ 1.0073 +1 Inside the nucleus
Neutron N0 1.007 0 Inside the Nucleus
Electron e- 0.00055 -1 Outside the nucleus

Representing an Atom
An Atom can be easily identified and represented because each atom has
characteristics that are different from other atoms.

Atomic number (Z) – is equal to the number of protons inside the nucleus.
Mass number (A) – is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in
the nucleus.

Atomic Number is equal to Proton & Electron

Neutron = Atomic mass – atomic number (should be round off)

Isotopes – are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons.
• Protium – one proton but no neutron.
• Deuterium – one proton and one neutron.
• Tritium – one proton and two neutrons.
Other common isotopes and their uses
Isotopes of Carbon
• Carbon-12 – It has 6 neutrons, 6 electrons, and 6 protons. It is considered as the
reference isotope measuring the atomic weights of all the other element’s
masses.
• Carbon-13 – It has 7 neutrons, 6 electrons and 6 protons. It is commonly used in
studying structure of organic compounds using nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy.
• Carbon-14 – It has 8 neutrons, 6 electrons and 6 protons. It is used in carbon
dating to determine the age of materials like historical artifacts.
Radioisotopes – It is unstable isotopes. They emit radiation, causing the nucleus to
change into the nucleus of different element which is more stable.
Radioactive decay – radioactive and process of emission of radiation.

DEVELOPMENT IN MEDICAL RESEARCH AS A CONSEQUENCE OF THE

ELUCIDATION OF THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE

LESSON 3: MOLECULES AND IONS

Molecules – are made up of atoms that are chemically bonded together. They can be a
combination of atoms of the same element or different element.
Types of Molecules
• Diatomic Molecules – contains only 2 atoms and normally occur in nature. If the
atoms are of the same element, they are called homonuclear. If the atoms are of
different elements, they are called heteronuclear.
• Polyatomic Molecule – contains three or more atoms.
Ions – are atoms or molecules that have a charge, meaning the number of protons is
equal to the number of electrons, giving them atom either a positive or negative net
charge.
• Cations – ions with positive charge
• Anions – ions with negative charge
 RWS REVIEWER
Lesson 2: CLAIMS IN A WRITTEN TEXT
Claim – is the main argument of a text. It argues and persuades the readers about the
merits of the argument through research, evidence, testimony, academic reasoning.
Types of Claim
• Fact Claim – is an argument that is verifiable through evidence.
• Value Claim – refers to a qualifiable assertion about a moral, aesthetic, or
philosophical value of a topic.
• Policy Claim – makes an assertion about a course of action the reader should
take.
Explicit claim – the claim is directly stated in a text.
Implicit claim – indirectly stated or merely implied in a text.
Fact – refers to the veracity or truthfulness of information. It is proven to be true by
authorities or credible sources.
Opinion – refers to a “personal belief”, view or judgement. (Words that signal opinion:
perhaps, believe, think, suppose, seems, belief, view, somewhat and among others.)
Bias – a strong inclination of mind or preconceived opinion about something or
someone.

Making Inferences (Drawing Conclusions)

Inference – is an idea or conclusion that is drawn from evidence and reasoning. It is an
educated guess.
Making Inference – interpreting the implied meaning (what is not stated) based on
details presented.
Making Generalizations – is simply making “broad statement based on information
from the text and your own knowledge” (Macmillan/McGraw Hill, 2001 p.127)

Lesson 3: CONTEXT OF TEXT DEVELOPMENT

Context -
Hypertext – a web page that contains links to other texts. It is a text which consists of
highlighted words/phrases that are clickable, and when clicked, will lead to different
texts in other websites which or may not be related to the main text being read.
• Ted Nelson (1963) – defined “hypertext” as “non-sequential writing”.
• Jakob Nielsen – The author of Hypertext and Hypermedia. Defines hypertext as
“The Art of Navigating through Hypertext”
• Montecino (2002) – stated that “hypertext is being replaced by ‘hyperlink’, since
text is not the only kind of link.
• Hyperlink – other term for clickable words/items.
Hypermedia – Multimedia such as images, audio, and video that stimulate more
senses.
Intertext – a literary text that is related to one or more text, especially through use of
allusions to these texts (Collins Dictionary Online). It refers to an integration of a
concept relevant to the main text.
Lesson 4: ARGUMENTS AND TYPES OF EVIDENCES
Argument – it is not a fight; it is an assertion of the merits of your claim based on
specific pieces of evidence.
Evidence – a proof in support to the argument presented. Evidence can be: facts,
statistics, expert’s testimony, or research findings.
Types of Evidence
Logos or Logic – it depends on logic or reason; hence, it is considered as an appeal to
the intellect.
• Inductive Reasoning – presents some specific facts and then formulates
conclusion from them. (Specific to general)
• Deductive Reasoning – it begins from a generalization and then applies it to a
specific case. (General to specific)
Fal
• Statistics – refers to figures or numerical values.
• Facts – are information proven to be true.
• Testimony – is an expert’s statement in which is the result of rigorous
research study.
Logical Fallacies
• Non-sequitur – means it does not follow.
• Hasty Generalization – is a conclusion drawn from insufficient or biased
evidence.
• Slippery Slope – a conclusion based on the premise.
• Post hoc ergo propter hoc (False Cause) – is a conclusion drawn from the
assumption.
• Genetic Fallacy – a conclusion derived from an argument that the character,
nature, or worth of a person, an object, an idea, or a theory is based on its
origins.
• Circular Argument – does not actually prove the argument but just restates it.
• False Dichotomy or Either/or – is an oversimplified conclusion that reduces an
argument only to two sides or choices.
• Ad hominem – an attack on the character of a person rather than his/her
arguments.
• Ad populum – a popular appeal or an appeal to the majority. (bandwagon)
• Red Herring – a diversionary tactic that avoids the key issues, often by avoiding
opposing arguments rather than addressing them.
Ethos (Ethics) – a Greek word for “character”. It refers to the trustworthiness, credibility
or reliability of the writer.
Pathos (Emotion) – refers to an emotional appeal. It is a persuasion technique which
touches on the readers’ emotions.

Lesson 5: Critiquing a Text

Critiquing a Text – is one of the important skills that you have to acquire because you
will do several of this kind throughout your academic years both in senior high and in
college.
Steps in Writing a Good Critique
• Describe the text and its author in the first paragraph – Provide your readers
a background of the text by presenting whether it is controversial work, well-
known, or little known.
 • Write an accurate summary of the text’s main ideas in the second
paragraph – Present only the main points and avoid writing your own opinion
about the text.
• Evaluate the author’s presentation in the third paragraph – Asses the a)
accuracy and relevant of the data presented; b) logical arrangement of ideas; c)
definition of important terms and jargons; d) presentation of sound
interpretations; and e) achievement of the writer’s purpose.
• State both your agreement and disagreement with the author in the fourth
paragraph – Discuss your points of agreement and disagreement with the
author’s ideas and explain your reasons.
• Compose the conclusion, often shortest paragraph in critique – Restate the
main ideas by citing briefly your agreements and objections to the text.

Lesson 1: PURPOSES OF WRITING

Purposes of Writing according to text types
• Argue or persuade – express opinion.
✓ Argue – present argument and pieces of evidence.
✓ Persuade – convince the readers to take action or to accept belief.
• Inform, instruct, explain, describe – give details, instructions, elaborate upon,
or help clarify something.
✓ Inform – explain something, present facts, provide information.
✓ Explain – elaborate the topic by providing details in explaining
something.
✓ Instruct – tell the reader how to do something (process)
✓ Describe – paint a picture using words (use words to appeal to five
senses)
• Analyze, Review – is considered as the reader’s response to the text.
✓ Analyze – examine or break down the whole into parts, offer judgement
✓ Review – assess the merits and weaknesses of a text.
• Critical Review – assess a text in terms of its strengths and weaknesses after
summarizing its content section by section in order to show the accuracy of
one’s understanding of what is being evaluated.
• Narrate – tell a story; draw the reader into the sequence of events.
• Imagine, explore, entertain – something original.

Lesson 2: BOOK REVIEW

Book review – is the process of evaluating a book according to specific parameters
such as determining the author’s credibility, his or her purpose in writing a book, the
book’s context, as well as its merits.

Parts of Book Review

• Bibliographic Information – on top of the book, write the complete bibliographic
information of the book such as title, author, publisher, place of publication, date
of publication, and number of pages.
• Introduction – presents what your review contains. In the first part of the
introduction, mention the author, his credentials, and the title of the book, the
purpose and target audience of the book, an overview of its contents, and your
evaluation and reaction to its contents.
• Book’s Background Information or Context – Context refers to the social and
historical background as to when then the book was published.
• Summary – is the gist of the book where the main points are given.
• Overall Evaluation (Critique) – To end the book review, present the overall
evaluation or assessment of the book, its merits and weaknesses, if any.