Natural Heritage Marbled Salamander

& Endangered Species Ambystoma opacum

Program State Status: Threatened
www.mass.gov/nhesp Federal Status: None
Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife

DESCRIPTION: The Marbled Salamander is a stout,

medium-sized salamander with a stocky body, short
limbs, and a broad, rounded snout. Dorsal coloration is
black, marked with bold, variably-shaped grayish to
whitish crossbands that create a “marbled” pattern from
head to tail. Lateral and ventral coloration is uniformly
dark gray to black. Banding on the mid- to upper dorsum
tends to be bright white in mature males and dull gray in
mature females. Banding on the tail can be white in both
sexes, or gray in females. Total length is 3–5 inches.

Marbled Salamander
Photo by Lloyd Gamble

larvae collected from the wild will transform to a light-

olive color when kept in a light-colored container.
Albino/leucistic larvae have been documented in
Massachusetts on at least two occasions.

Recently transformed juveniles (metamorphs) have a

Distribution in Massachusetts
base color of brown to black and are marked with light,
1990 - 2015
Based on records in silvery flecks that become more pronounced and
Natural Heritage Database aggregated over the dorsum during the first several
weeks post-metamorphosis. As the animal matures
during the following 1–2 months, the markings elongate
Recently hatched larvae are dark brown to blackish in to form the characteristic marbled pattern of an adult.
coloration and measure approximately half-an-inch in
total length. Throughout development, they have bushy, SIMILAR SPECIES: Adult Marbled Salamanders
external gills, a broad head, a long caudal fin that cannot be confused with any other species in
extends onto the back, and a row of bright-white spots Massachusetts. Larvae can be distinguished from those
leading from the “armpit” of the forelimb down the of other Ambystoma salamanders in Massachusetts on
lower lateral part of the body toward the hind limb. As the basis of the pigmented chin and the ventrolateral row
larvae age, they develop dark pigment on the chin and of white spots. Metamorphs are somewhat similar to
belly, as well as light yellowish to olive-colored rows of those of Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma maculatum),
spots or blotches along the upper lateral part of the body Blue-spotted Salamander (A. laterale), or Jefferson
and tail. Mottling of the body and tail increases with age Salamander (A. jeffersonianum), but the latter three
of the larva, and total length typically reaches 2–2.5 species are distinguished by yellowish (rather than
inches prior to metamorphosis. Base coloration can vary silvery) dorsal flecking and tend not to occur until July
depending on environmental conditions, as dark-colored or August, when most young-of-the-year Marbled

A Species of Greatest Conservation Need in the Massachusetts State Wildlife Action Plan
Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife
1 Rabbit Hill Rd., Westborough, MA; tel: 508-389-6300; fax: 508-389-7890; www.mass.gov/dfw

Please allow the Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program to continue to conserve the biodiversity of Massachusetts with a contribution for
‘endangered wildlife conservation’ on your state income tax form, as these donations comprise a significant portion of our operating budget.
www.mass.gov/nhesp
 Marbled Salamander Fact Sheet – p. 2

Salamanders have already attained the adult color across Massachusetts, but dry sites seem to be preferred.
pattern. Juvenile Blue-spotted and Jefferson salamanders Breeding/larval habitat is also variable, consisting of
have light-blue flecking that might be mistaken for the vernal pools, woodland ponds, shrub swamps, and
silvery-gray flecking of juvenile Marbled Salamanders, forested swamps differing markedly in their surface
but the markings in Blue-spotted Salamander and areas, depths, bottom substrates, and/or densities and
Jefferson Salamander are concentrated much more composition of vegetation. However, there are three
heavily on the sides and legs (rather than on the head consistent characteristics of those habitats – they almost
and dorsum). always are fishless, occur within or adjacent to forests,
and hold water continuously during a minimum period
of January–May (often October–June). Most breeding
wetlands dry completely or substantially during the
summer, and many have variable microtopography (e.g.,
at least one relatively deep sub-basin adjacent to flat or
gently-sloped “shelves” of intermediate depth).

(a) (b)

Basal coloration of the Marbled Salamander larva can be relatively

dark (top) or light (bottom), depending on developmental stage or
pool environment. Both of the larvae shown above were collected on
the same date from Dartmouth, Massachusetts, with the top animal
from a vernal pool with tannic water, and the bottom animal from a
forested swamp with heavy algal growth. Note that the ventrolateral
row of white spots and the dark pigments on the chin and belly are (c) (d)
much more prominent in the top animal. Breeding wetlands of Marbled Salamanders in Massachusetts include
Photos by Jacob E. Kubel (a) small vernal pools; (b) large, open, temporary ponds; (c) forested
swamps; and even (d) abandoned farm ponds or borrow pits.
RANGE: Marbled Salamander ranges from southern Photos by Lori Johnson (a) and Jacob E. Kubel (b–d)
New England south to northern Florida and west to
eastern Texas and Oklahoma. Disjunct populations occur In the terrestrial environment, trademarks of good-
in southwestern Missouri, northern Indiana, quality microhabitat for adult and juvenile Marbled
southwestern Michigan, northern Ohio, and Salamanders include well-developed leaf litter, abundant
northwestern Pennsylvania. Within Massachusetts, coarse woody debris, loose soils, predominantly closed-
Marbled Salamander is distributed primarily among canopy tree cover, and abundant rodent tunnels. Most
parts of Bristol, Franklin, Hampden, Hampshire, adult individuals reside within several hundred meters of
Norfolk, and Worcester counties. Only several their breeding wetland. Research suggests that local
populations are known from Middlesex and Plymouth salamander distribution around a breeding site may be
counties, and a disjunct population occurs in Berkshire influenced by habitat integrity, with salamanders
County. residing closer to a wetland (on average) in intact forest,
but occupying areas farther from the wetland when a
HABITAT: Adult and juvenile Marbled Salamanders forest patch is fragmented (e.g., by development). Of
inhabit relatively mature deciduous and mixed course, variability in the distribution of high-quality
deciduous-coniferous forests and woodlands. Elevation microhabitat around a breeding site is also likely to
and forest type vary greatly among local populations influence the distribution of individual salamanders

A Species of Greatest Conservation Need in the Massachusetts State Wildlife Action Plan

Please allow the Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program to continue to conserve the biodiversity of Massachusetts with a contribution for
‘endangered wildlife conservation’ on your state income tax form, as these donations comprise a significant portion of our operating budget.
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 Marbled Salamander Fact Sheet – p. 3

around the wetland, as is the availability of other suitable diameter, depending on their age and hydration. Each
wetlands within the patch of upland habitat. egg initially appears as a transparent capsule containing
a whitish embryo in a clear, fluid matrix, but the outer
LIFE CYCLE / BEHAVIOR: As the family name membrane soon stains dark-brown to black as the female
“mole salamander” implies, adult and juvenile Marbled moves over or turns the eggs, and soil particles stick to
Salamanders spend the majority of their time them. By the time a nest is several days old, it resembles
underground or hidden beneath rocks, logs, leaf litter, or a pile of spherical mud pellets.
other debris. During rainy or otherwise humid nights in
the warmer months of the year, individuals may occur on In Massachusetts, egg deposition peaks in mid-
the ground surface for purposes of foraging, dispersal, or September. Unless disturbed by a predator or other large
migration to breeding sites. However, most hours of the animal, the female typically remains with her eggs until
year are spent under leaf litter, in rodent tunnels, or in they are inundated by water or, if filling of the pool is
other subsurface cavities. Winters are spent below the slow to materialize, for a period of several weeks. Nests
frost line, presumably in vertical rodent tunnels or root are often abandoned if dryness persists into mid-
channels, as has been observed in other mole October; females are seldom observed brooding eggs in
salamanders. November. Dehydration and/or the onset of cold
temperatures are probable triggers for abandonment.
Unlike most Ambystomatid salamanders in Egg mortality likely increases as wetland basins remain
Massachusetts that breed during early spring and deposit dry into the winter, but abandoned eggs can remain
gelatinous egg masses in water, Marbled Salamanders viable for a considerable period of time. Successful
breed during late summer and deposit clutches of loose hatching of abandoned nests in Massachusetts has been
eggs in dried wetland basins. In late August or early documented in December and even late January.
September (depending on the timing of rain or other
high-humidity events), adult Marbled Salamanders
emerge from their underground retreats and migrate to
their breeding pools. Migrations occur at night, usually
during or shortly following rain, or during foggy or
misty conditions. Males generally arrive at the breeding
sites several days to a couple of weeks prior to females.

Courtship occurs on land, either in the dried wetland

basin or at some other location beyond the wetland
(research suggests that males occasionally intercept
females prior to their arrival at breeding sites). Courtship
behavior involves circular “dancing” and snout-to-vent
nudging. This activity induces the male to deposit a
gelatinous spermatophore (a tiny packet of sperm) on the
ground, which the female picks up with her cloaca and
stores for internal fertilization of her eggs. A Marbled Salamander found guarding her eggs beneath a log in a
dried vernal pool in Sutton, Massachusetts on September 7, 2012.
Larvae were observed the following spring, even though the pool had
After mating, the female moves to a select portion of the not filled with water until late January.
dried wetland basin (usually at an intermediate depth) to Photo by Jacob E. Kubel
construct a nest. She carves out a small, elliptical cavity
in the soil or detritus just below the leaf litter or at the When the pool basin does fill with water, the eggs hatch
edge of or beneath a partially imbedded log, stone, or within hours to a couple of days. Hatchling larvae are
mat of dead vegetation. She then deposits a clutch of active immediately and feed on zooplankton. If hatching
approximately 50–150 individual eggs in the depression occurs during September or October (when water
and coils her body over them, waiting for autumnal rains temperatures are relatively warm), larvae are able to put
to fill the pool with water and inundate the eggs. The on noticeable growth (≥50% of initial body size) before
eggs are spherical and approximately 2–5 mm in winter arrives, pools ice over, and feeding activity slows.

A Species of Greatest Conservation Need in the Massachusetts State Wildlife Action Plan

Please allow the Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program to continue to conserve the biodiversity of Massachusetts with a contribution for
‘endangered wildlife conservation’ on your state income tax form, as these donations comprise a significant portion of our operating budget.
www.mass.gov/nhesp
 Marbled Salamander Fact Sheet – p. 4

The larval salamanders remain in their natal wetlands documented among 61 towns since 1990. Massachusetts
throughout the winter and rapidly increase their feeding is near the northern limit of the geographic range of
activity (and growth) once ice thaws in March and water Marbled Salamander, and local populations in the state
temperatures rise in April and May. At this time, the are relatively small. Adult survivorship appears critical
larvae feed on zooplankton, aquatic invertebrates to population persistence, especially at sites where
(including mosquito larvae), and even other amphibian reproductive output is low, or reproductive failures are
larvae (e.g., Spotted Salamander). Metamorphosis peaks common. Primary threats to Marbled Salamander in
during late May through early June, with some Massachusetts are habitat loss, habitat degradation, road
individuals or sites experiencing earlier or later dates, mortality, and emerging infectious disease.
depending on larval density, pool hydrology, and/or
other factors.

During metamorphosis, the larvae develop lungs, resorb

their gills, and seek cover beneath stones, woody debris,
leaf litter, or other detritus in moist or saturated portions
of the wetland basin. There, the juvenile salamanders
will wait for an opportunity to leave the basin and
disperse into the surrounding forest (typically during an
evening rain). Following dispersal from natal wetlands,
juvenile salamanders will reside in the forest, feeding on
snails, earthworms, beetles, slugs, and other small
invertebrates. Upon reaching sexual maturity (1–5
years), most individuals will return to their natal wetland
to breed, starting the cycle anew. Others will have
sought out new ground, joining another segment of the
local breeding population, or pioneering a new one of Clearing of forest for residential and other developments is an
ongoing threat to Marbled Salamanders in Massachusetts.
their own. One study in Massachusetts documented a Photo by Jacob E. Kubel
juvenile dispersal rate of approximately 9%, with some
individuals eventually breeding in wetlands >3,000 feet The most common types of habitat loss are the clearing
from where they were born. of forests and the filling (or draining) of vernal pools
during residential, commercial, industrial, mining, or
Maximum life expectancy of Marbled Salamander is agricultural development. Habitat degradation typically
unknown. Mark-recapture studies of mole salamanders, occurs when development fragments habitat (e.g.,
in general, indicate that adult survivorship is relatively creates gaps between forest habitat and breeding
high, and individuals may live for several years or more wetlands), chemical applications (e.g., pesticides,
with regularity. Accounts of salamanders held in deicing salts, fertilizers) pollute breeding wetlands, or
captivity suggest a possible lifespan greater than 10 commercial logging operations disrupt forest ecology
years. One study in Massachusetts documented Marbled (e.g., compact soils, reduce leaf litter, introduce or
Salamanders surviving greater than 6 years in the wild, increase growth of non-native, invasive vegetation).
with average annual adult survivorship at the site High road densities and traffic volumes tend to result in
approaching 65%. In comparison, modeling exercises increased levels of adult salamander mortality; in
suggested annual adult survival near 80% at a site in extreme cases, road mortality functions as a barrier
South Carolina. between upland and breeding habitats. Known and
potential impacts of several pathogens/emerging
POPULATION STATUS IN MASSACHUSETTS: infectious diseases (e.g., ranavirus, Batrachochytrium
Marbled Salamander is legally protected and listed as salamandrivorans) are not completely understood, but
Threatened pursuant to the Massachusetts Endangered outbreaks could result in severe and widespread
Species Act (M.G.L. c. 131A) and implementing salamander mortality.
regulations (321 CMR 10.00). As of January 2015,
approximately 85 local populations had been

A Species of Greatest Conservation Need in the Massachusetts State Wildlife Action Plan

Please allow the Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program to continue to conserve the biodiversity of Massachusetts with a contribution for
‘endangered wildlife conservation’ on your state income tax form, as these donations comprise a significant portion of our operating budget.
www.mass.gov/nhesp
 Marbled Salamander Fact Sheet – p. 5

MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS:
At a local scale, sites of known occurrence of Marbled
Salamander should be managed to develop or maintain
mature forest conditions within at least 1,000-ft radii
around confirmed and potential breeding wetlands. Such
management should aim to minimize forest
loss/fragmentation, road traffic, soil compaction, and
introduction/growth of invasive, non-native vegetation.
Forest type should be maintained as deciduous or mixed
deciduous-coniferous. Fallen trees, branches, leaves, and
other detritus should be allowed to accumulate on the
forest floor. Hydrology of breeding wetlands should not
be altered in ways that might reduce hydroperiod within
the October through June time period. Breeding
wetlands should be protected from chemical pollution,
and basin structure should not be altered without special A gravid Marbled Salamander migrates to her breeding site during
late August in Attleboro, Massachusetts.
permits from the Massachusetts Division of Fisheries Photo by Jacob E. Kubel
and Wildlife and/or the Department of Environmental
Protection. Breeding wetlands should not be filled or observations of Marbled Salamander should be reported
used for dumping of yard waste or refuse. to the NHESP, as land-protection efforts for the species
are dependent on knowing where local populations
At the landscape scale, area of mature upland forest occur. Collection and submission of data for the
between local populations of Marbled Salamander certification of vernal pool habitat is another beneficial
should be maximized to maintain broad dispersal action, as it will afford certain legal protections to
corridors and, therefore, genetic exchange between salamander habitats. Citizens may also provide
populations. Land acquisition/protection efforts for important information by reporting incidents of mass
maintaining habitat connectivity should prioritize areas amphibian mortality at vernal pools and other wetlands.
with low road densities and traffic volumes. A land-
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A Species of Greatest Conservation Need in the Massachusetts State Wildlife Action Plan

Please allow the Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program to continue to conserve the biodiversity of Massachusetts with a contribution for
‘endangered wildlife conservation’ on your state income tax form, as these donations comprise a significant portion of our operating budget.
www.mass.gov/nhesp
 Marbled Salamander Fact Sheet – p. 6

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Updated 2015

A Species of Greatest Conservation Need in the Massachusetts State Wildlife Action Plan

Please allow the Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program to continue to conserve the biodiversity of Massachusetts with a contribution for
‘endangered wildlife conservation’ on your state income tax form, as these donations comprise a significant portion of our operating budget.
www.mass.gov/nhesp