CHAPTER 10

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
In the following multiple-choice questions, please circle the correct answer.

1. If a researcher takes a large enough sample, he/she will almost always obtain:

a. virtually significant results

b. practically significant results
c. consequentially significant results
d. statistically significant results
ANSWER: d

2. The null and alternative hypotheses divide all possibilities into:

a. two sets that overlap

b. two non-overlapping sets
c. two sets that may or may not overlap
d. as many sets as necessary to cover all possibilities
ANSWER: b

3. Which of the following is true of the null and alternative hypotheses?

a. Exactly one hypothesis must be true

b. both hypotheses must be true
c. It is possible for both hypotheses to be true
d. It is possible for neither hypothesis to be true
ANSWER: a

4. One-tailed alternatives are phrased in terms of:

a. 
b. < or >
c.  or =
d.  or 
ANSWER: b

5. The chi-square goodness-of-fit test can be used to test for:

a. significance of sample statistics

b. difference between population means
c. normality
d. probability
ANSWER: c
6. A type II error occurs when:

a. the null hypothesis is incorrectly accepted when it is false

b. the null hypothesis is incorrectly rejected when it is true
c. the sample mean differs from the population mean
d. the test is biased
ANSWER: a

7. Of type I and type II error, which is traditionally regarded as more serious?

a. Type I
b. Type II
c. They are equally serious
d. Neither is serious
ANSWER: a

8. You conduct a hypothesis test and you observe values for the sample mean and
sample standard deviation when n = 25 that do not lead to the rejection of H 0 .
You calculate a p-value of 0.0667. What will happen to the p-value if you observe
the same sample mean and standard deviation for a sample > 25?

a. Increase
b. Decrease
c. Stay the same
d. May either increase or decrease
ANSWER: b

9. The form of the alternative hypothesis can be:

a. one-tailed
b. two-tailed
c. neither one nor two-tailed
d. one or two-tailed
ANSWER: d

10. A two-tailed test is one where:

a. results in only one direction can lead to rejection of the null hypothesis
b. negative sample means lead to rejection of the null hypothesis
c. results in either of two directions can lead to rejection of the null hypothesis
d. no results lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis
ANSWER: c

11. The value set for  is known as:

a. the rejection level

 b. the acceptance level
c. the significance level
d. the error in the hypothesis test
ANSWER: c

12. A study in which randomly selected groups are observed and the results are
analyzed without explicitly controlling for other factors is called:

a. an observational study
b. a controlled study
c. a field test
d. a simple study
ANSWER: a

13. The null hypothesis usually represents:

a. the theory the researcher would like to prove.

b. the preconceived ideas of the researcher
c. the perceptions of the sample population
d. the status quo
ANSWER: d

14. The ANOVA test is based on which assumptions?

I. the sample are randomly selected

II. the population variances are all equal to some common variance
III. the populations are normally distributed
IV. the populations are statistically significant

a. All of the above

b. II and III only
c. I, II, and III only
d. I, and III only
ANSWER: b

15. In statistical analysis, the burden of proof lies traditionally with:

a. the alternative hypothesis

b. the null hypothesis
c. the analyst
d. the facts
ANSWER: a

16. When one refers to “how significant” the sample evidence is, he/she is referring to
the:

a. value of 
b. the importance of the sample
c. the p-value
d. the F-ratio
 ANSWER: c

17. Which of the following values is not typically used for  ?

a. 0.01
b. 0.05
c. 0.10
d. 0.25
ANSWER: d

18. Smaller p-values indicate more evidence in support of:

a. the null hypothesis

b. the alternative hypothesis
c. the quality of the researcher
d. further testing
ANSWER: b

19. The chi-square test can be too sensitive if the sample is:

a. very small
b. very large
c. homogeneous
d. predictable
ANSWER: b

20. The hypothesis that an analyst is trying to prove is called the:

a. elective hypothesis
b. alternative hypothesis
c. optional hypothesis
d. null hypothesis
ANSWER: b

21. A p-value is considered “convincing” if it is:

a. less than 0.01

b. between 0.01 and 0.05
c. 0.05 and 0.10
d. greater than 0.10
ANSWER: a

22. One-way ANOVA is used when:

a. analyzing the difference between more than two population means

 b. analyzing the results of a two-tailed test
c. analyzing the results from a large sample
d. analyzing the difference between two population means
ANSWER: a

23. A null hypothesis can only be rejected at the 5% significance level if and only if:

a. a 95% confidence interval includes the hypothesized value of the parameter

b. a 95% confidence interval does not include the hypothesized value of the
parameter
c. the null hypothesis is void
d. the null hypotheses includes sampling error
ANSWER: b

24. Typically one-way ANOVA is used in which of the following situations?

I. there are several distinct populations

II. there are two sample populations over 4000
III. randomized experiments
IV. randomly selected populations

a. All of the above

b. II and III only
c. I, II, and III only
d. I, and III only
ANSWER: d

25. The chi-square test is not very effective if the sample is:

a. small
b. large
c. irregular
d. heterogeneous
ANSWER: a

26. The alternative hypothesis is also known as the:

a. elective hypothesis
b. optional hypothesis
c. research hypothesis
d. null hypothesis
ANSWER: c

27. An informal test for normality that utilizes a scatterplot and looks for clustering
around a 45 line is known as:

a. a Lilliefors test
b. an empirical cdf
c. a p-test
d. a quantile-quantile plot
 ANSWER: d

28. Which of the following tests are used to test for normality?

a. A t-test and an ANOVA test

b. An Empirical CDF test and an F-test
c. A Chi-Square test and a Lilliefors test
d. A Quantile-Quantile plot and a p-value test
ANSWER: c

29. If a teacher is trying to prove that new method of teaching math is more effective
than traditional one, he/she will conduct a:

a. one-tailed test
b. two-tailed test
c. point estimate of the population parameter
d. confidence interval
ANSWER: a

30. A type I error occurs when:

a. the null hypothesis is incorrectly accepted when it is false

b. the null hypothesis is incorrectly rejected when it is true
c. the sample mean differs from the population mean
d. the test is biased
ANSWER: b
 TEST QUESTIONS

31. A sport preference poll yielded the following data for men and women. Use the
5% significance level and test to determine is sport preference and gender are
independent.

Sport Preference
Basketball Football Soccer
Men 20 25 30 75
Gender
Women 18 12 15 45
38 37 45 120

ANSWER:

We reject the null hypothesis of independence at the 5% significance level (since

p-value = 0.019 < 0.05). We may conclude that sport preference and gender are
not independent; that is, there is evidence that sport preference of men is different
from that of women.

32. Suppose that we observe a random sample of size n from a normally distributed
population. If we are able to reject H 0 :   0 in favor of H a :   0 at the 5%
significance level, is it true that we can definitely reject H 0 in favor of the
appropriate one-tailed alternative at the 2.5% significance level? Why or why
not?

ANSWER:
This is not true for certain. Suppose 0  50 and the sample mean we observe is
X  55. If the alternative for the one-tailed test is H a :   50, then we obviously
 can’t reject the null because the observed sample mean X is in the wrong
direction. But if the alternative is H1 :   50, we can reject the null at the 2.5%
level. The reason is that we know the p-value for the two-tailed test was less than
0.05. The p-value for a one-tailed test is half of this, or less than 0.025, which
implies rejection at the 2.5% level.

33. An investor wants to compare the risks associated with two different stocks. One
way to measure the risk of a given stock is to measure the variation in the stock’s
daily price changes. The investor obtains a random sample of 20 daily price
changes for stock 1 and 20 daily price changes for stock 2. These data are shown
in the table below. Show how this investor can compare the risks associated with
the two stocks by testing the null hypothesis that the variances of the stocks are
equal. Use  = 0.10 and interpret the results of the statistical test.

Price Change Price Change

Day for stock 1 for stock 2
1 1.86 0.87
2 1.80 1.33
3 1.03 -0.27
4 0.16 -0.20
5 -0.73 0.25
6 0.90 0.00
7 0.09 0.09
8 0.19 -0.71
9 -0.42 -0.33
10 0.56 0.12
11 1.24 0.43
12 -1.16 -0.23
13 0.37 0.70
14 -0.52 -0.24
15 -0.09 -0.59
16 1.07 0.24
17 -0.88 0.66
18 0.44 -0.54
19 -0.21 0.55
20 0.84 0.08

ANSWER:
n1  20, s1  0.8487, n2  20, s2  0.5291
H 0 :  12 /  22  1
H a :  12 /  22  1
Test statistic: F  s12 / s22  2.573
P-value=0.023
Since the P-values is less than 0.10, we reject the null hypothesis of equal
variances and conclude that the variances of the stocks are not equal at the 10%
level.

QUESTIONS 34 THROUGH 37 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

BatCo (The Battery Company) produces your typical consumer battery. The company
claims that their batteries last at least 100 hours, on average. Your experience with the
BatCo battery has been somewhat different, so you decide to conduct a test to see if the
companies claim is true. You believe that the mean life is actually less than the 100
hours BatCo claims. You decide to collect data on the average battery life (in hours) of a
random sample and the information related to the hypothesis test is presented below.

Test of   100 versus one-tailed alternative

Hypothesized mean 100.0
Sample mean 98.5
Std error of mean 0.777
Degrees of freedom 19
t-test statistic -1.932
p-value 0.034

34. Can the sample size be determined from the information above? Yes or no? If
yes, what is the sample size in this case?

ANSWER:
Yes. 19 + 1 = 20.

35. You believe that the mean life is actually less than 100 hours, should you conduct
a one-tailed or a two-tailed hypothesis test? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
One-tailed test. You are interested in the mean being less than 100.

36. What is the sample mean of this data? If you use a 5% significance level, would
you conclude that the mean life of the batteries is typically more than 100 hours?
Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
98.5 hours. No. You would reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative,
which is less than 100 hours (0.034 < 0.05).

37. If you were to use a 1% significance level in this case, would you conclude that
the mean life of the batteries is typically more than 100 hours? Explain your
answer.

ANSWER:
Yes. You cannot reject the null hypothesis at a 1% level of significance (0.034 >
0.01).

QUESTIONS 38 AND 39 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

Two teams of workers assemble automobile engines at a manufacturing plant in
Michigan. A random sample of 145 assemblies from team 1 shows 15 unacceptable
assemblies. A similar random sample of 125 assemblies from team 2 shows 8
unacceptable assemblies.

38. Construct a 90% confidence interval for the difference between the proportions of
unacceptable assemblies generated by the two teams.

ANSWER:
n1  145, Pˆ1  0.1034, n2  125, Pˆ2  0.0640, z  multiple  1.645

Pˆ1 (1  Pˆ1 ) Pˆ2 (1  Pˆ2 )

SE ( Pˆ1  Pˆ2 )    0.0334
n1 n2

( Pˆ1  Pˆ2 )  Z  SE ( Pˆ1  Pˆ2 )  0.0394  0.0549

Lower limit = -0.0155, and Upper limit = 0.0943

39. Based on the confidence interval constructed in Question 38, is there sufficient
evidence o conclude, at the 10% significance level, that the two teams differ with
respect to their proportions of unacceptable assemblies?

ANSWER:
Because the 90% confidence interval includes the value 0, we cannot reject the
null hypothesis of equal proportions.

40. Staples, a chain of large office supply stores, sells a line of desktop and laptop
computers. Company executives want to know whether the demands for these
two types of computers are related in any way. Each day's demand for each type
of computers is categorized as Low, Medium-Low, Medium-High, or High. The
data shown in the table below is based on 200 days of operation. Based on these
data, can Staples conclude that demands for these two types of computers are
independent? Test at the 5% level of significance.

Desktops
Low Med-Low Med-High High
Low 3 14 14 4 35
Laptops Med-Low 6 18 17 22 63
Med-High 13 16 11 16 56
High 8 14 15 9 46
30 62 57 51 200
 ANSWER:

We fail to reject the null hypothesis of independence at the 5% significance level

(since p-value = 0.083 > 0.05). We may conclude that demands for these two
types of computers are independent

41. Suppose that you are asked to test H 0 :   100 versus H a :   100 at the  =
0.05 significance level. Furthermore, suppose that you observe values of the
sample mean and sample standard deviation when n = 50 that lead to the rejection
of H 0 . Is it true that you might fail to reject H 0 if you were to observe the same
values of the sample mean and standard deviation from a sample with n > 50?
Why or why not?

ANSWER:
No. When n increases and the standard deviation of the sample mean stays the
same, the standard error will decrease. Therefore, the test statistic will become
more significant. If you rejected H 0 with n = 50, you will continue to reject with
n > 50.

QUESTIONS 42 THROUGH 44 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

Do graduates of undergraduate business programs with different majors tend to earn

disparate starting salaries? Below you will find the StatPro output for 32 randomly
selected graduate with majors in accounting (Acct), marketing (Mktg), finance (Fin), and
information systems (IS).
Summary statistics for samples
Acct. Mktg. Fin. IS
Sample sizes 9 6 10 7
Sample means 32711.67 27837.5 30174 32869.3
Sample standard deviations 2957.438 754.982 1354.613 3143.906
Sample variances 8746437.5 569997.5 1834976.7 9884145.2
Weights for pooled variance 0.286 0.179 0.321 0.214

Number of samples 4
Total sample size 32
Grand mean 31039.22
Pooled variance 5308612.5
Pooled standard deviation 2304.043

One Way ANOVA table

Source SS df MS F p-value
Between variation 117609807 3 39203269 7.385 0.0009
Within variation 148641149 28 5308612
Total variation 266250955 31

Confidence Intervals for Differences

Difference Mean diff Lower limit Upper limit
Acct. - Mktg. 4874.167 1263.672 8484.661
Acct. – Fin. 2537.667 -609.890 5685.223
Acct. - IS -157.619 -3609.912 3294.674
Mktg. – Fin. -2336.500 -5874.048 1201.048
Mktg. - IS -5031.786 -8843.014 -1220.557
Fin. - IS -2695.286 -6071.216 680.644

42. Assuming that the variances of the four underlying populations are equal, can you
reject at a 5% significance level that the mean starting salary for each of the given
business majors? Explain why or why not?

ANSWER:
Yes. Because of the F-test and the p-value is less than 0.05 (p-value = 0.0009)

43. Is there any reason to doubt the equal-variance assumption made in Question 42?
Support your answer.

ANSWER:
Yes, there is some cause for concern. The F-test is rather robust, however, is this
case, the sample sizes are rather small and of different sizes.
44. Use the information above related to the 95% confidence intervals for each pair of
differences to explain which ones are statistically significant at  = 0.05.

ANSWER:
These confidence intervals show that the accounting majors stating salaries, on
average, are larger than the marketing majors. There is not a significant difference
for the other pairs using a 95% confidence interval.

QUESTIONS 45 THROUGH 47 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

Do graduates of undergraduate business programs with different majors tend to earn

disparate average starting salaries? Consider the data given in the table below.

Accounting Marketing Finance Management

$37,220 $28,620 $29,870 $28,600
$30,950 $27,750 $31,700 $27,450
$32,630 $27,650 $31,740 $26,410
$31,350 $27,640 $32,750 $27,340
$29,410 $28,340 $30,550 $27,300
$37,330 $29,250
$35,700 $28,890
$30,150

45. Is there any reason to doubt the equal-variance assumption made in the one- way
ANOVA model in this particular case? Explain.

ANSWER:

Summary measures table

Accounting Marketing Finance Management
T
Sample sizes 7 5 8 5
h
Sample means 33512.857 28000.000 30612.500 27420.000
eSample standard deviations 3213.413 451.276 1342.458 780.096
rSample variances 10326023.810 203650.000 1802192.857 608550.000
eWeights for pooled variance 0.286 0.190 0.333 0.190

certainly is reason to doubt equal variances. The ratio of the largest standard
deviation to the smallest is about 7.12, so the ratio of corresponding variances is
about 51.
46. Assuming that the variances of the four underlying populations are indeed equal,
can you reject at the 10% significance level that the mean starting salary is the
same for each of the given business majors? Explain why or why not.

ANSWER:

One Way ANOVA table

Source of variation SS df MS F p-value

Between groups 140927283.143 3 46975761.048 12.677 0.0001
Within groups 77820292.857 21 3705728.231
Total variation 218747576.000 24

H 0 : 1  2  3  4
H : At least two population means are unequal.
The ANOVA table indicates definite mean difference, even at the 1% level (since
the p-value is less than .01). Even if the test is not perfectly valid (because of
unequal variances), we can still be pretty confident that the means are not all
equal.

47. Generate 90% confidence intervals for all pairs of differences between means.
Which of the differences, if any, are statistically significant at the 10%
significance level?

ANSWER:
Simultaneous confidence intervals for mean differences with confidence level
of 90%

Difference Mean difference Lower limit Upper limit Significant?

Accounting - Marketing 5512.857 2510.523 8515.191 Yes
TAccounting - Finance 2900.357 246.644 5554.071 Yes
hAccounting - Management 6092.857 3090.523 9095.191 Yes
eMarketing - Finance -2612.500 -5535.603 310.603 No
Marketing - Management 580.000 -2662.892 3822.892 No
aFinance - Management 3192.500 269.397 6115.603 Yes

Accounting mean is significantly different (larger) than each of the others. Also,
the Finance mean is significantly different (larger) than the Management mean.
The other means are not significantly different from each other.

QUESTIONS 48 THROUGH 52 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

Q-Mart is interested in comparing its male and female customers. Q-Mart would like to
know if its female charge customers spend more money, on average, than its male charge
customers. They have collected random samples of 25 female customers and 22 male
customers. On average, women charge customers spend $102.23 and men charge
customers spend $86.46. Additional information are shown below:

Summary statistics for two samples

Sales (Female) Sales (Male)
Sample sizes 25 22
Sample means 102.23 86.460
Sample standard deviations 93.393 59.695

Test of difference=0
Sample mean difference 15.77
Pooled standard deviation 79.466
Std error of difference 23.23
t-test statistic 0.679
p-value 0.501

48. Given the information above, what is H 0 and H a for this comparison? Also,
does this represent a one-tailed or a two-tailed test? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
H 0 :  F  M , H a : F  M . This represents a one-tail test.
49. What are the degrees of freedom for the t-statistic in this calculation? Explain
how you would calculate the degrees of freedom in this case.

ANSWER:
d.f = 25 + 22 – 2 = 45

50. What is the assumption in this case that allows you to use the pooled standard
deviation for this confidence interval?

ANSWER:
The assumption is that the populations’ standard deviations are equal (  F   M ).

51. Using a 10% level of significance, is there sufficient evidence for Q-Mart to
conclude that women charge customers on average spend more than men charge
customers? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
No. There is not a statistical difference between women and men spending at Q-
Mart, since p-value = 0.501 > 0.10.

52. Using a 1% level of significance, is there sufficient evidence for Q-Mart to

conclude that women charge customers on average spend more than men charge
customers? Explain your answer.
 ANSWER:
No. There is not a statistical difference between women and men spending at Q-
Mart, since p-value = 0.501 > 0.01.

53. The CEO of a software company is committed to expanding the proportion of

highly qualified women in the organization’s staff of salespersons. He claims that
the proportion of women in similar sales positions across the country in 1999 is
less than 45%. Hoping to find support for his claim, he directs his assistant to
collect a random sample of salespersons employed by his company, which is
thought to be representative of sales staffs of competing organizations in the
industry. The collected random sample of size 50 showed that only 18 were
women. Test this CEO’s claim at the  =.05 significance level and report the p-
value. Do you find statistical support for his hypothesis that the proportion of
women in similar sales positions across the country is less than 40%?

ANSWER:
H 0 : P  0.45
H a : P  0.45
Test statistic: Z =-1.279
P-value = 0.10
There is not enough evidence to support this claim. The P-value is large (0.10).

QUESTIONS 54 THROUGH 56 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

Joe owns a sandwich shop near a large university. He wants to know if he is servings
approximately the same number of customers as his competition. His closest competitors
are Bob and Ted. Joe decides to use a couple of college students to collect some data for
him on the number of lunch customers served by each sandwich shop during a weekday.
The data for two weeks (10 days) and additional information are shown below (the tables
have been generated using StatPro).

Summary stats for samples

Joe’s Bob’s Ted’s
Sample sizes 10 10 10
Sample means 50.700 46.200 43.500
Sample standard deviations 4.244 4.492 3.598
Sample variances 18.011 20.178 12.944
Weights for pooled variance 0.333 0.333 0.333

Number of samples 3
Total sample size 30
Grand mean 46.800
Pooled variance 17.044
Pooled standard deviation 4.128

One-way ANOVA Table

Source SS df MS F p-value
Between variation 264.60 2 132.30 7.762 0.0022
Within variation 460.20 27 17.044
Total variation 724.80 29

Confidence Intervals for mean difference using 95% confidence level

Difference Mean diff Lower Upper
Joe’s – Bob’s 4.500 -0.282 9.282
Joe’s – Ted’s 7.200 2.418 11.982
Bob’s – Ted’s 2.700 -2.082 7.482

54. Are all three sandwich shops serving the same number of customers, on average,
for lunch each weekday? Explain how you arrived at your answer.

ANSWER:
No. You should reject Ho at a 5% significance level (p-value = 0.0022). Means
are not all equal.

55. Explain why the weights for the pooled variance are the same for each of the
samples.

ANSWER:
The weights for the pooled variance are the same for each of the samples, because
sample sizes are equal (sample of 10 customers from each sandwich shop).

56. Use the information related to the 95% confidence interval to explain how the
number of customers Joe has each weekday compares to his competition.

ANSWER:
These intervals show that there is not a significant difference between Joe’s and
Bob’s. However, there is a significant difference between Joe’s and Ted’s using a
95% confidence interval.

QUESTIONS 57 AND 58 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

The manager of a consulting firm in Lansing, Michigan, is trying to assess the

effectiveness of computer skills training given to all new entry-level professionals. In an
effort to make such an assessment, he administers a computer skills test immediately
before and after the training program to each of 20 randomly chosen employees. The
pre-training and post-training scores of these 20 individuals are shown in the table below.

Employee Score before Score after

1 62 77
2 63 77
3 74 83
4 64 88
5 84 80
6 81 80
 7 54 83
8 61 88
9 81 80
10 86 88
11 75 93
12 71 78
13 86 82
14 74 84
15 65 86
16 90 89
17 72 81
18 71 90
19 85 86
20 66 92

57. Using a 10% level of significance, do the given sample data support that the
firm’s training programs is effective in increasing the new employee’s working
knowledge of computing?

ANSWER:
H 0 : D  0
H1 : D  0, where D = Before score-After score
Test statistic: t = - 4.471 (paired t-test)
P-value = 0.00013
The test scores have improved by an average of 11 points. Since the P-value is
virtually 0, there is enough evidence to conclude that the given sample data
support that the firm’s training program is increasing the new employee’s
knowledge of computing at the 10% significance level.

58. Re-do Question 57 using a 1% level of significance.

ANSWER:
Again, since the P-value is virtually zero, there is plenty of evidence to support
the effectiveness of the program at the 1% level of significance.

QUESTIONS 59 THROUGH 62 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

Suppose a firm that produces light bulbs wants to know whether it can claim that it light
bulbs typically last more than 1500 hours. Hoping to find support for their claim, the
firm collects a random sample and records the lifetime (in hours) of each bulb. The
information related to the hypothesis test is presented below.

Test of   1500 versus one-tailed alternative

Hypothesized mean 1500.0
Sample mean 1509.5
Std error of mean 4.854
 Degrees of freedom 24
t-test statistic 1.953
p-value 0.031

59. Can the sample size be determined from the information above? Yes or no? If
yes, what is the sample size in this case?

ANSWER:
Yes. 24 + 1 = 25.

60. The firm believes that the mean life is actually greater than 1500 hours, should
you conduct a one-tailed or a two-tailed hypothesis test? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
One-tailed, since the firm is interested in finding whether the mean is actually
greater than 1500.

61. What is the sample mean of this data? If you use a 5% significance level, would
you conclude that the mean life of the light bulbs is typically more than 1500
hours? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
1509.5 hours. Yes, you would reject the null hypothesis in favor of the mean
being greater than 1500 hours (0.031 < 0.05).

62. If you were to use a 1% significance level in this case, would you conclude that
the mean life of the light bulbs is typically more than 1500 hours? Explain your
answer.

ANSWER:
No. You cannot reject the null hypothesis at a 1% level of significance (0.031 >
0.01).

QUESTIONS 63 AND 64 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

A study is performed in San Antonio to determine whether the average weekly grocery
bill per five-person family in the town is significantly different from the national average.
A random sample of 50 five-person families in San Antonio showed a mean of $133.474
and a standard deviation of $11.193.

63. Assume that the national average weekly grocery bill for a five-person family is
$131. Is the sample evidence statistically significant? If so, at what significance
levels can you reject the null hypothesis?

ANSWER:
 H 0 :   131
H :   131
Test statistic: t = 1.563
p-value: 0.124
The sample mean is not significantly different from 131 at even the 10% level
because the p-value is greater than 0.10

64. For which values of the sample mean (i.e., average weekly grocery bill) would
you decide to reject the null hypothesis at the   0.01 significance level? For
which values of the sample mean would you decide to reject the null hypothesis at
the   0.10 significance level?

ANSWER:
For either p-value (0.01 or 0.10), we find the t-value that would lead to the
rejection of the null hypothesis, and then solve the equation
t  ( X  131) /1.583 for X on either side of 131. This leads to the following
results:

 -value t-value Lower limit Upper limit

0.01 2.680 126.758 135.242
0.10 1.677 128.346 133.654

For example, at the 10% level, if X  128.346 or X  133.654, we would reject

the null hypothesis.

QUESTIONS 65 THROUGH 68 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

Do undergraduate business students who major in information systems (IS) earn, on

average, higher annual starting salaries than their peers who major in marketing (Mktg)?
Before addressing this question with a statistical hypothesis test, a comparison should be
done to determine whether the variances of annual starting salaries of the two types of
majors are equal. Below you will find the StatPro output for 20 randomly selected IS
majors and 20 randomly selected Mktg majors.

Summary statistics for two samples

IS Salary Mktg Salary
Sample sizes 20 20
Sample means 30401.35 27715.85
Sample standard deviations 1937.52 2983.39

Test of difference  0
Sample mean difference 2685.5
Pooled standard deviation 2515.41 NA
Std error of difference 795.44 795.44
 Degrees of freedom 38 33
t-test statistic 3.376 3.376
p-value 0.0009 0.0009

Test of equality of variances

Ratio of sample variances 2.371
p-value 0.034
65. Use the information above to perform the test of equal variance. Explain how the
ratio of sample variances is calculated. What type of distribution is used to test
for equal variances? Also, would you conclude that the variances are equal or
not? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
(2983.39)2 / (1937.52)2 = 2.371. Since the p-value is 0.034, you can conclude that
there is a significant difference between the sample variance. They are not equal.

66. Based on your conclusion in Question 65, which test statistic should be used in
performing a test for the existence of a difference between population means?

ANSWER:
Conduct the t-test with individual sample variances (do not use pooled variance).

67. Using a 5% level of significance, is there sufficient evidence to conclude that IS

majors earn, on average, a higher annual starting salaries than their peers who
major in Mktg? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
Yes. The average starting salary for IS majors is significantly larger than the
starting salary for MKT majors, since p-value = 0.0009 < 0.05.

68. Using a 1% level of significance, is there sufficient evidence to conclude that IS

majors earn, on average, a higher annual starting salaries than their peers who
major in Mktg? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
Yes. The average starting salary for IS majors is significantly larger than the
starting salary for MKT majors even at a 1% significance level, since p-value =
0.0009 < 0.01.

69. A recent study of educational levels of 1000 voters and their political party
affiliations in a Midwestern state showed the results given in the table below. Use
the 5% significance level and test to determine if party affiliation is independent
of the educational level of the voters.

Party Affiliation
Democrat Republican Independent
Didn't Complete High School 95 80 115 290
Educational Level Has High School Diploma 135 85 105 325
Has College Degree 160 105 120 385
390 270 340 1000
 ANSWER:

We fail to reject the null hypothesis of independence at the 5% significance level

(since p-value = 0.087 > .05). We may conclude that party affiliation is
independent of the educational level of the voters.

QUESTIONS 70 THROUGH 73 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

A marketing research consultant hired by Coca-Cola is interested in determining if the

proportion of customers who prefer Coke to other brands is over 50%. A random sample
of 200 consumers was selected from the market under investigation, 55% favored Coca-
Cola over other brands. Additional information is presented below.

Sample proportion 0.55

Standard error of sample proportion 0.03518
Z test statistic 1.4213
p-value 0.07761

70. If you were to conduct a hypothesis test to determine if greater than 50% of
customers prefer Coca-Cola to other brands, would you conduct a one-tail or a
two-tail hypothesis test? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
One-tailed, since the consultant is interested in finding whether the proportion is
actually greater than 50%.
71. How many customers out of the 200 sampled must have favored Coke in this
case?

ANSWER:
(200)(0.55) = 110

72. Using a 5% significance level, can the marketing consultant conclude that the
proportion of customers who prefer Coca-Cola exceeds 50%? Explain your
answer.

ANSWER:
No. You cannot reject the null hypothesis at a 5% level of significance, since p-
value = 0.07761 > 0.05.

73. If you were to use a 1% significance level, would the conclusion from part c
change? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
No. You still cannot reject the null hypothesis at a 1% level of significance, since
p-value = 0.07761 > 0.01.

QUESTIONS 74 THROUGH 77 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

The owner of a popular Internet-based auction site believes that more than half of the
people who sell items on her site are women. To test this hypothesis, the owner sampled
1000 customers who sale items on her site and she found that 53% of the customers
sampled were women. Some calculations are shown in the table below

Sample proportion 0.53

Standard error of sample proportion 0.01578
Z test statistic 1.9008
p-value 0.0287

74. If you were to conduct a hypothesis test to determine if greater than 50% of
customers who use this Internet-based site are women, would you conduct a one-
tail or a two-tail hypothesis test? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
One-tailed, since the owner is interested in finding whether the proportion is
actually greater than 50%.

75. How many customers out of the 1000 sampled must have been women in this
case?

ANSWER:
(1000)(0.53) = 530

76. Using a 5% significance level, can the owner of this site conclude that women
make up more than 50% of her customers? Explain your answer.
 ANSWER:
Yes. You can reject the null hypothesis at a 5% level of significance, since p-
value = 0.0287 < 0.05.

77. If you were to use a 1% significance level, would the conclusion from Question
76 change? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
Yes. Your answer would now change. You cannot reject the null hypothesis at a
1% level of significance, since p-value = 0.0287 > 0.01.

QUESTIONS 78 THROUGH 82 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

Q-Mart is interested in comparing customer who used it own charge card with those who
use other types of credit cards. Q-Mart would like to know if customers who use the Q-
Mart card spend more money per visit, on average, than customers who use some other
type of credit card. They have collected information on a random sample of 38 charge
customers and the data is presented below. On average, the person using a Q-Mart card
spends $192.81 per visit and customers using another type of card spend $104.47 per
visit.

Summary statistics for two samples

Q-Mart Other Charges
Sample sizes 13 25
Sample means 192.81 104.47
Sample standard deviations 115.243 71.139

Test of difference=0
Sample mean difference 88.34
Pooled standard deviation 88.323
Std error of difference 30.201
t-test statistic 2.925
p-value 0.006

78. Given the information above, what is H 0 and H a for this comparison? Also,
does this represent a one-tailed or a two-tailed test? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
H 0 : Q  Mart  Others , H a : Q  Mart  Others . This represents a one-tail test.

79. What are the degrees of freedom for the t-statistic in this calculation? Explain
how you would calculate the degrees of freedom in this case.

ANSWER:
d.f = 13 + 25 – 2 = 36
80. What is the assumption in this case that allows you to use the pooled standard
deviation for this confidence interval?

ANSWER:
The assumption is that the two populations standard deviations are equal; that is
 Q  Mart   Others

81. Using a 5% level of significance, is there sufficient evidence for Q-Mart to

conclude that customers who use the Q-Mart card charge, on average, more than
those who use another charge card? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
Yes. There is a statistical difference between those using the Q-Mart card and
those who use other types of charge cards, since p-value = 0.006 < 0.05.

82. Using a 1% level of significance, is there sufficient evidence for Q-Mart to

conclude that customers who use the Q-Mart card charge, on average, more than
those who use another charge card? Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
Yes. There is still a statistical difference between those using the Q-Mart card
and those who use other types of charge cards, since p-value = 0.006 < 0.01.

83. The number of cars sold by three salespersons over a 6-month period are shown in
the table below. Use the 5% level of significance to test for independence of
salespersons and type of car sold.

Insurance Preference
Chevrolet Ford Toyota
Ali 15 9 5 29
Salesperson Bill 20 8 15 43
Chad 13 4 11 28
48 21 31 100

ANSWER:
 We fail to reject the null hypothesis of independence at the 5% significance level
(since p-value = 0.305 > 0.05). We may conclude that salespersons and type of
car sold are independent.

QUESTIONS 84 AND 85 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

An automobile manufacturer needs to buy aluminum sheets with an average thickness of

0.05 inch. The manufacturer collects a random sample of 40 sheets from a potential
supplier. The thickness of each sheet in this sample is measured (in inches) and recorded.
The information below are pertaining to the Chi-square goodness-of-fit test.

Upper limit Category Frequency Normal Distance measure

0.03  0.03 1 1.920 0.441
0.04 0.03 but  0.04 10 8.074 0.459
0.05 0.04 but  0.05 13 14.947 0.254
0.06 0.05 but  0.06 12 11.218 0.055
>0.06 4 3.842 0.007

Test of normal fit

Chi-square statistic 1.214
p-value 0.545

84. Are these measurements normally distributed? Summarize your results.

ANSWER:
Yes. Based on the Chi-square test, with a p-value of 0.545, you can conclude that
the values are normally distributed. The frequency distribution also shows that
the values are fairly close to the expected values.
85. Are there any weaknesses or concerns about your conclusions in Question 84?
Explain your answer.

ANSWER:
Yes. There are a couple of concerns. The sample size is rather small (n = 40),
you should use a larger sample size for this test to be more effective. Also, the
test depends on which and how many categories are used for the histogram. A
different choice could result in a different answer.

QUESTIONS 86 THROUGH 88 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

Do undergraduate business students who major is computer information systems (CIS)

earn, on average, higher annual starting salaries than their peers who major in
international business (IB)?. To address this question through a statistical hypothesis test,
the table shown below contains the starting salaries of 25 randomly selected CIS majors
and 25 randomly selected IB majors.

Graduate Finance Marketing

1 29,522 28,201
2 31,444 29,009
3 29,275 29,604
4 26,803 26,661
5 28,727 26,094
6 32,531 22,900
7 33,373 24,939
8 31,755 23,071
9 31,393 29,852
10 26,124 27,213
11 30,653 23,935
12 30,795 25,794
13 30,319 28,897
14 31,654 27,890
15 27,214 27,400
16 30,579 26,818
86. Is it appropriate to perform a paired-
17 30,249 27,603
comparison t- 18 31,024 26,880
test in this case?
Explain why or 19 31,940 28,791 why not.
20 31,387 24,000
ANSWER: 21 29,479 25,877
A two-sample, 22 30,735 24,825 not paired-sample,
procedure 23 29,271 28,423 should be used because
there is no 24 30,215 28,956 evidence of pairing.
25 31,587 29,758
87. Perform an appropriate hypothesis test with a 1% significance level. Assume that
the population variances are equal.

ANSWER:
H 0 : 1  2  0 , H a : 1  2  0 , Test statistic t = 6.22, P-value=0. Since P-value
is virtually 0, we can conclude at the 1% level that the mean salary for CIS majors
is indeed larger.

88. How large would the difference between the mean starting salaries of CIS and IB
majors have to be before you could conclude that CIS majors earn more on
average? Employ a 1% significance level in answering this question.

ANSWER:
P-value=0.01, t =2.41, and Standard error of difference = SE ( X1  X 2 )  544.439 .
Then X1  X 2  t  SE ( X1  X 2 )  1312.20
A mean difference of 1312.20 is all that would be required to get the conclusion
in Question 87 at the 1% level.

89. A statistics professor has just given a final examination in his linear models
course. He is particularly interested in determining whether the distribution of 50
exam scores is normally distributed. The data are shown in the table below.
Perform the Lilliefors test. Report and interpret the results of the test.

77 71 78 83 84 71 81 82 79 71
73 89 74 75 93 74 88 83 90 82
79 62 73 88 76 76 76 80 84 84
91 70 76 74 68 80 87 92 84 79
80 91 74 69 88 84 83 87 82 72

ANSWER:
The maximum distance between the empirical and normal cumulative
distributions is 0.0802. This is less than 0.1247, the maximum allowed with a
sample size of 50. Therefore, the normal hypothesis cannot be rejected at the 5%
level.

Normal (smooth) and empirical cumulative distributions

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4
90. An insurance firm interviewed a random sample of 600 college students to find
out the type of life insurance preferred, if any. The results are shown in the table
below. Is there evidence that life insurance preference of male students is
different than that of female students. Test at the 5% significance level.

Insurance Preference
Term Whole Life No Insurance
Male 80 30 240 350
Gender
Female 50 40 160 250
130 70 400 600

ANSWER:
 We reject the null hypothesis of independence at the 5% significance level (since
p-value = 0.019 < 0.05). We may conclude that there is no evidence that life
insurance preference of male students is different than that of female students.

QUESTIONS 91 THROUGH 93 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

The retailing manager of Meijer supermarket chain in Michigan wants to determine

whether product location has any effect on the sale of children toys. Three different aisle
locations are considered: front, middle, and rear. A random sample of 18 stores is
selected, with 6 stores randomly assigned to each aisle location. The size of the display
area and price of the product are constant for all the stores. At the end of one-month trial
period, the sales volumes (in thousands of dollars) of the product in each store were as
shown below:

Front Aisle Middle Aisle Rear Aisle

10.0 4.6 6.0
8.6 3.8 7.4
6.8 3.4 5.4
7.6 2.8 4.2
6.4 3.2 3.6
5.4 3.0 4.2

91. At the 0.05 level of significance, is there evidence of a significant difference in

average sales among the various aisle locations?

ASNWER:
 StatPro’s one-way ANOVA produces the following results:

To test at the 0.05 level of significance whether the average sales volumes in
thousands of dollars are different across the three store aisle locations, we conduct
an F test:
H0: Front  Middle   Rear
H1: At least one mean is different.

Since p-value = 0.0004 <  = 0.05, we reject H0. There is enough evidence to
conclude that the average sales volumes in thousands of dollars are different
across the three store aisle locations.

92. If appropriate, which aisle locations appear to differ significantly in average

sales? (Use  = 0.05)

ANSWER:

It appears that the front and middle aisles and also the front and rear aisles differ
significantly in average sales at  = 0.05.

93. What should the retailing manager conclude? Fully describe the retailing
manager’s options with respect to aisle locations?
 ANSWER:
The front aisle is best for the sale of this product. The manager should evaluate
the tradeoff in switching the location of this product and the product that is
currently intended for the front location.

QUESTIONS 94THROUGH 97 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

A real estate agency wants to compare the appraised values of single-family homes in
two cities in Michigan. A sample of 60 listings in Lansing and 99 listings in Grand
Rapids yields the following results (in thousands of dollars):

Lansing Big Rapids

X 191.33 172.34
S 32.60 16.92
n 60 99

94. Is there evidence of a significant difference in the average appraised values for
single-family homes in the two Michigan cities? Use 0.05 level of significance.

ANSWER:
Populations: 1 = Lansing, 2 = Grand Rapids

H0: 1   2 (The average appraised values for single-family homes are the same
in Lansing and Grand Rapids)
H1: 1   2 (The average appraised values for single-family homes are not the
same in Lansing and Grand Rapids)

Decision rule: df = 157. If t < – 1.9752 or t > 1.9752, reject H0.

(n – 1)  S1  (n2 – 1)  S 2 (59)  32.60 2  (98)  16.92 2

2 2

 1 
2
Sp = 578.0822
(n1 – 1)  (n2 – 1) 59  98
Test statistic:

( X 1 – X 2 ) – ( 1 –  2 ) (191.33 – 172.34) – 0
t  = 4.8275
2 1 1  1 1
S p    578.0822  
 n1 n2   60 99 

Decision: Since tcalc = 4.8275 is above the upper critical bound of 1.9752, reject
H0. There is enough evidence to conclude that there is a difference in the average
appraised values for single-family homes in the two Michigan cities. The p value
is 3.25E-06 using Excel.

95. Do you think any of the assumptions needed in Question 94 have been violated?
Explain.

ANSWER:
 The assumption of equal variances may be violated because the sample variance
in Lansing is nearly four times the size of the sample variance in Grand Rapids
and the two sample sizes are not small. Nevertheless, the results of the test for the
differences in the two means were overwhelming (i.e., the p value is nearly 0).

96. Construct a 95% confidence interval estimate of the difference between the
population means of Lansing and Grand Rapids.

ANSWER:
1 1  1 1
X 1  X 2   t S p2     191.33  172.34   1.9752 578.08   
 n1 n2   60 99 

11.2202<1  2  26.7598

97. Explain how to use the confidence interval in Question 96 to answer Question 94.

ANSWER:
Since the 95% confidence interval in Question 96 does not include 0, we reject
the null hypothesis at the 5% level of significance that the average appraised
values for single-family homes are the same in Lansing and Grand Rapids.

QUESTIONS 98THROUGH 100 ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION:

In a survey of 1,500 customers who did holiday shopping on line during the 2000 holiday
season, 270 indicated that they were not satisfied with their experience. Of the customers
that were not satisfied, 143 indicated that they did not receive the products in time for the
holidays, while 1,197 of the customers that were satisfied with their experience indicated
that they did receive the products in time for the holidays. The following complete
summary of results were reported:

Received Products in Time

for Holidays

Satisfied with their Yes No Total

Experience
Yes 1,197 33 1,230
No 127 143 270
Total 1,324 176 1,500
98. Is there a significant difference in satisfaction between those who received their
products in time for the holidays, and those who did not receive their products in
time for the holidays? Test at the 0.01 level of significance.

ANSWER:
Populations: 1 = received product in time, 2 = did not receive product in time

H 0 : P1  P2
H1 : P1  P2

Decision rule: If Z < -2.5758 or Z > 2.5758, reject H0.

Test statistic:
( pˆ1 – pˆ 2 ) 0.9041– 0.1875
Z   23.248
1 1  1 1 
pˆ c  (1– pˆ c )    0.82  1  0.82    
 n1 n2   1324 176 

Decision: Since Zcalc = 23.248 is well above the upper critical bound of Z =
2.5758, reject H0. There is sufficient evidence to conclude that a significant
difference in satisfaction exists between those who received their products in time
for the holidays and those who did not receive their products in time for the
holidays.

99. Find the p-value in Question 98 and interpret its meaning.

ANSWER:
The p-value is virtually 0. The probability of obtaining a difference in two sample
proportions as large as 0.7166 or more is virtually 0 when H 0 is true.

100. Based on the results of Questions 98 and 99, if you were the marketing director of
a company selling products online, what would you do to improve the satisfaction
of the customers?

ANSWER:
Ensuring that the customers receive their products in time for the holidays will be
one effective way to improve the satisfaction of the customers.
TRUE / FALSE QUESTIONS

101. The p-value of a test is the probability of observing a test statistic at least as
extreme as the one computed given that the null hypothesis is true.

ANSWER: T

102. The p-value is usually 0.01 0r 0.05.

ANSWER: F
103. A null hypothesis is a statement about the value of a population parameter. It is
usually the current thinking, or “status quo”.

ANSWER: T

104. An alternative or research hypothesis is usually the hypothesis a researcher wants

to prove.

ANSWER: T

105. A two-tailed alternative is one that is supported by evidence in a single direction.

ANSWER: F

106. A one-tailed alternative is one that is supported by evidence in either direction.

ANSWER: F

107. A Type I error probability is represented by  ; it is the probability of incorrectly

rejecting a null hypothesis that is true.

ANSWER: T

108. A Type II error is committed when we incorrectly accept an alternative hypothesis

that is false.

ANSWER: F

109. The probability of making a Type I error and the level of significance are the
same.

ANSWER: T

110. The p-value of a test is the smallest level of significance  at which the null
hypothesis can be rejected.

ANSWER: T

111. If a null hypothesis about a population mean  is rejected at the 0.025 level of
significance, it must be rejected at the 0.01 level.

ANSWER: F

112. In order to determine the p-value, it is unnecessary to know the level of

significance.

ANSWER: T
113. If we reject a null hypothesis about a population proportion p at the 0.025 level of
significance, then we must also reject it at the 0.05 level.

ANSWER: T

114. Using the confidence interval when conducting a two-tailed test for the population
mean  , we do not reject the null hypothesis if the hypothesized value for  falls
between the lower and upper confidence limits.

ANSWER: T

115. A professor of statistics refutes the claim that the proportion of independent
voters in Minnesota is at most 40%. To test the claim, the hypotheses:
H : p  0.40 , H : p  0.40 , should be used.
0 a

ANSWER: F

116. Using the confidence interval when conducting a two-tailed test for the population
proportion p, we reject the null hypothesis if the hypothesized value for p falls
inside the confidence interval.

ANSWER: F

117. When testing the equality of two population variances, the test statistic is the ratio
of the population variances; namely  12 /  22 .

ANSWER: F

118. Tests in which samples are not independent are referred to as matched pairs.

ANSWER: T

119. The pooled-variances t-test requires that the two population variances are
different.

ANSWER: F.

120. In testing the difference between two population means using two independent
samples, we use the pooled variance in estimating the standard error of the
sampling distribution of the sample mean difference x1  x2 if the populations are
normal with equal variances.

ANSWER: T
121. In conducting hypothesis testing for difference between two means when samples
are dependent, the variable under consideration is D ; the sample mean difference
between n pairs.

ANSWER: T

122. The number of degrees of freedom associated with the t test, when the data are
gathered from a matched pairs experiment with 12 pairs, is 22.

ANSWER: F

123. The test statistic employed to test H 0 :  12 /  22  1 is F  s12 / s22 , which is F

distributed with n1 1 and n2 1 degrees of freedom.

ANSWER: T

124. When the necessary conditions are met, a two-tail test is being conducted to test
the difference between two population proportions. The two sample proportions
are p1  0.35 and p2  0.42 , and the standard error of the sampling distribution of
p1  p2 is 0.054. The calculated value of the test statistic will be 1.2963.

ANSWER: F

125. The equal-variances test statistic of 1  2 is Student t distributed with n1 + n2 -2

degrees of freedom, provided that the two populations are normally distributed.

ANSWER: T

126. When the necessary conditions are met, a two-tail test is being conducted at  =
0.05 to test H 0 :  12 /  22  1 . The two sample variances are s12  700 and s22  875 ,
and the sample sizes are n1  40 and n2  40 . The calculated value of the test
statistic will be F = 0.80.

ANSWER: T

127. Statistics practitioners use the analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique to

compare more than two population means.

ANSWER: T

128. Given the significance level 0.01, the F-value for the degrees of freedom, d.f. =
(6,9) is 7.98.

ANSWER: F

129. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique analyzes the variance of the data to
determine whether differences exist between the population means.
 ANSWER: T

130. The F-test of the analysis of variance requires that the populations be normally
distributed with equal variances.

ANSWER: T

131. One-way ANOVA is applied to four independent samples having means 13, 15,
18 and 20, respectively. If each observation in the forth sample were increased by
30, the value of the F-statistics would increase by 30.

ANSWER: F

132. The degrees of freedom for the denominator of a one-way ANOVA test for 4
population means with 10 observations sampled from each population are 40.

ANSWER: F

133. A test for independence is applied to a contingency table with 4 rows and 4
columns. The degrees of freedom for this chi-square test must equal 9.

ANSWER: T

134. The number of degrees of freedom for a contingency table with r rows and c
columns is rc - 1 , provided that both r and c are greater than or equal to 2.

ANSWER: F

135. The Lilliefors test is used to test for normality.

ANSWER: T