Int. J. Econ. Environ. Geol. Vol.

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et al. /Int.J.Econ.Environ.Geol.Vol. 9(3) 01-05, 2018 Open Access
Journal home page: www.econ-environ-geol.org ISSN: 2223-957X
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Preliminary Resource Potential Assessment of Placer Light Rare Earth Elements (LREEs)
from mid-Siwalik Sediments of a late Miocene Himalayan Foreland Basin, Pakistan
Abbas Ali, Pan Jiayong*, Yan Jie , Ahmad Nabi

East China University of Technology, 418-Guanglan Avenue, Nanchang, China

*Email: [email protected]
Received: July 16, 2018 Accepted: October 12, 2018
Abstract: The present study has assessed the preliminary placer LREEs resource potential of mid-Siwalik Group Dhok
Pathan Formation from Surghar-Shingar Range of NW Himalayan foreland Fold-and-Thrust-Belt and regarded them as
indicative resources only. The analytical results of bulk samples of sandstone did not show any anomalous
concentration of REEs. However, the ICP-MS results of heavy minerals laminations (black sands) revealed high
concentrations (ppm) of LREEs (La: 975, Ce: 2831, Pr: 193, Nd: 746, Sm: 127, Gd: 98.70). We identified monazite-
(Ce) [Ce, La, Nd]PO 4 as the primary LREEs-bearing mineral through Electron Probe Micro Analysis (EPMA). The
representative quantitative micro-mineral analysis of monazite confirmed promising concentration of Rare Earth
Oxides (REOs) maximum (in weight %) - La 2 O 3 : 16.20, Ce 2 O 3 : 37.82, Pr 2 O 3 : 4.77, Nd 2 O 3 : 21.72, Sm 2 O 3 : 5.23,
Gd 2 O 3 : 4.88. Considering the thickness, lateral extension and depositional setting of host sediments along-with
anomalously high concentrations of LREEs, it has been concluded that these Siwalik sediments host good indicative
placer resource potential for low-cost recovery of LREEs.

Keywords: Rare earth elements, LREEs, Placer, Siwalik, Miocene, Himalaya, Pakistan.

Introduction from four minerals i.e. bastnasite, monazite, loparite

and xenotime (Kanazawa and Kamitani, 2006;
Rare Earth Elements (REEs) hold great importance due Goodenough et al., 2016). China is the principal
to their extensive utilization in manufacturing country in the production of REEs from bastnasite
strategic/military defense devices, medical diagnostic which is followed by Australia and India extracting
equipment, hybrid vehicles, clean energy systems and from monazite, Russia from loparite and Malaysia
as fluid catalysts. Because of the emergence of high from xenotime. The major proportion of LREEs comes
technologies and demand of clean/green energy, the from these four minerals while HREEs are extracted
global requirement of REEs is predicted to continually from ion adsorption clays (Zhou et al., 2017). These
increase in the coming decades (Heikal, 2014; Zhou et REEs-bearing minerals are primarily related to alkaline
al., 2016; Zhou et al., 2017). China and Australia are igneous rocks and carbonatites; however, deeply
the leading countries in REEs production with 85% weathered residual deposits of igneous rocks, marine
and 10% shares respectively, of the total global REEs phosphate, pegmatites, IOCG (iron oxide copper-gold)
production in 2016. The remaining 5% of global REEs and placer mineral deposits (sedimentary) may contain
production comes from 178 deposits located around economically viable concentrations of REEs.
the globe (Liu, 2016).
Presently, there are no well-known REEs deposits
The group of 15 elements in lanthanide group in located/discovered in Pakistan. The discovery of
periodic table along-with scandium and yttrium has carnotite uranium mineralization (Azizullah and Khan,
been identified as REEs by the International Union of 1997) in Siwalik sandstones from the outermost
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC, 2005). The Himalayan foreland Fold-and-Thrust-Belt known as
REEs are further sub-divided into light rare earth Surghar-Shingar Range (SSR) or Trans-Indus Salt
elements (LREE) and heavy rare earth elements Range has attracted scientists to search placer REEs
(HREE) on the basis of their atomic radii and electron from Neogene molasses sediments to meet country’s
shell configuration (Cameron, 1973). Lanthanum (La), own demand. The available/acquired data-base is
Cerium (Ce), Praseodymium (Pr), Neodymium (Nd), limited as compared to the economic significance of
Promethium (Pm), Samarium (Sm), Europium (Eu) the rocks exposed in SSR. The published data mainly
and Gadolinium (Gd) are included in LREEs whereas documented the eastern flank of SSR due to their well-
Terbium (Tb), Dysprosium (Dy), Holmium (Ho), known coal mining from centuries while the western
Erbium (Er), Thulium (Tm), Ytterbium (Yb) and flank of SSR hosting uranium mineralization has
Lutetium (Lu) are documented as HREEs based on relatively remained unaddressed. There is no scientific
United States Geological Survey (USGS) classification data available on mid-Siwalik Dhok Pathan Formation
(Pagel, 1973; Rudnick and Gao, 2003). of SSR regarding their potential to host placer REEs.
This study is aimed at the preliminary placer REEs
At present more than 200 minerals are well known to resource potential assessment of the Himalayan
host REEs but the major global production is derived molasses sediments exposed on the western limb of

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 Ali et al. /Int.J.Econ.Environ.Geol.Vol. 9(3) 01-05, 2018

Surghar-Shingar Range. This will help in further by the existence of thick, distinct conglomeratic bed
exploration planning, demarcation of prospective areas which primarily consists of pebbles and boulders of
and identification of undiscovered resources of middle Eocene formations. The Siwalik Group rocks exposed
Siwalik sandstones of Dhok Pathan Formation. on the western limb of SSR are 5300 m thick, while
the thickness of Dhok Pathan Formation varies from
Geological Setting 807-1540 m showing the character of repeated
sandstone-shale sequences in fining- upward rhythm
As a consequence of tectonic loading due to the (Ali et al., 2018). Khan and Opdyke (1987b) have
continent-continent collision of India-Eurasia, a assigned 7.5-2.5 Ma age to Dhok Pathan Formation of
flexural depression was developed in the south of this area based on magneto-stratigraphic studies. The
emerging mountain ranges (Powell, 1979; Valdiya, Siwalik Group rocks are also well developed in other
2016, Rehman et al., 2017) known as Himalayan parts of the country such as Kohat-Potwar Plateau, the
foreland basin. This peripheral basin extends for more Kirthar and Suleiman Fold-and-Thrust-Belts (Shah and
than 2000 km from Nepal in the east to Pakistan in the Hafeez, 2009; Ullah et al., 2009).
west (Ullah et al., 2009; Fig. 1d). This foreland basin
received plenty of detritus produced due to India- Materials and Methods
Eurasia collision during the Neogene time and
emerged as a unique identity called “Siwaliks”
(Chuahan, 2003, Najman, 2006). In Pakistan, these The methods used for this study can be summarized as
Siwalik Group rocks are divided into three sub-groups; below:
Lower, Middle and Upper (Shah, 2009). The Lower
i. 15 grab samples of sandstone were collected from
Siwaliks include Kamlial and Chinji formations and
positions marked as A, B, C on Figure 2 and
are comprised of mudstone dominated facies over
analyzed for their LREEs concentrations by ICP-
sandstone. The Nagri and Dhok Pathan formations are
MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass
mid-Siwalik formations of mainly arenaceous
Spectrometer).
character with typical alternation of sandstone-
ii. The quantitative micro-mineral analysis of
mudstone facies. The Upper Siwalik Soan Formation is
monazite from selective sandstone samples were
principally conglomeratic in nature. An arcuate
carried out by JEOL-JXA-8100-EPMA (Electron
mountain belt lying west of the Indus river as a
Probe Micro Analysis) to evaluate their LREEs
western extension of the Salt Range dislocated by the
resource potential.
active strike-slip Kalabagh fault (Fig. 1c) is named as
Surghar-Shingar Range (SSR) or Trans-Indus Salt These analyses were carried out at Beijing Research
Range which is a part of NW Himalayan foreland Institute of Uranium Geology, Beijing and State Key
basin (Fold-and-Thrust-Belt). The study area lies on Laboratory Breeding Base of Nuclear Resources and
the western flank of SSR (Fig. 1a). Environment, East China University of Technology,
Nanchang.
The SSR is an overfolded-asymmetrical anticline
exposing Mesozoic and Paleocene rocks in the core
Results and Discussion
which are under-laid by Permian rocks (Akhtar, 1983).
The SSR is representing the outer-most Himalayan Bulk Analysis of Sandstone
ranges (Powell, 1979; Fig. 1b). The SSR show an EW
configuration along the southern fringes of Kohat The values of various LREEs were measured on ICP-
Plateau and attain NS structural trend while bordering MS range from La: 16.3-45.6 ppm, Ce: 31.1-82.9 ppm,
the Bannu basin (Fig. 1c) to the west (Khan and Pr: 3.72-9.57 ppm, Nd: 14.3-37.0 ppm, Sm: 2.66-6.83
Opdyke, 1987b; Rehman et al., 2017). The Siwaliks ppm and Gd: 2.27-5.67 ppm. These values are
are well exposed on the western limb of the anticline comparable with the upper crustal concentrations
(present study area) while older formations are (Rudnick and Gao, 2003). The bulk analysis of
exposed on the eastern limb. The Surghar thrust which sandstone merely shows any anomalous value of
is an equivalent of the Salt Range Thrust probably LREEs. The results are tabulated in Table 1.
persistent along the axis of Surghar anticline that has
brought Punjab foreland alluvium in contact with the Analysis of Heavy Minerals Laminations
Neogene rocks to the south and Permian and Mesozoic
rocks in the north (Gee, 1989). The analysis of heavy mineral concentrates from Dhok
Pathan Formation show extremely high content of
The steep cliffs and rugged topographic expression of LREEs. Their LREEs concentration values are up-to
SSR have been developed due to head-ward erosion of La: 975 ppm, Ce: 2831 ppm, Pr: 193 ppm, Nd: 746
streams as the range experienced tectonic uplift phases. ppm, Sm: 127 ppm, Gd: 98.70 ppm (sample # 213-802,
The eroded material has been laid down in the Table1).
adjoining Indus and Bannu plains (Danilchik and Shah,
1987). In SSR the marine sedimentation has been Micro-mineral Analysis of Monazite
brought to an end by the deposition of Siwalik Group
rocks. The base of Lower Siwalik can be distinguished The values of different oxides of LREEs measured

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 Ali et al. /Int.J.Econ.Environ.Geol.Vol. 9(3) 01-05, 2018

through quantitative micro-mineral analysis by EPMA Monazite-(Ce) [Ce,La,Nd]PO 4 as concentrated heavy

of monazite crystals from selective sandstone or placer minerals in fluvial sediments has been hosting LREEs
deposits thin sections of Dhok Pathan Formation range deposits in many countries of the world such as
from La 2 O 3 : 5.47-16.20 %, Ce 2 O 3 : 26.64-37.82 %, Malaysia, India, USA and China (Orris and Grauch,
Pr 2 O 3 : 2.6-4.77 %, Nd 2 O 3 : 10.65-21.72 %, Sm 2 O 3 : 2002). Similarly, monazite-(Ce) has been identified as
0.92-5.23 %, Gd 2 O 3 : 3.05-4.88 % (Table 2). the main LREEs-bearing mineral in this study (Fig. 3c,
d). The quantitative micro-mineral analysis has also
Being lithophile elements, REEs generally occur as confirmed the potential of monazite mineral for LREEs
oxides, silicates or phosphates in diverse geological along with minor amounts of silver (0.024-0.101 %)
environments such as igneous, metamorphic and (Fig. 3e, f).
sedimentary deposits (placer) and never exist as native
or in pure metal form. REEs enrich as accessories in In our previous study, we concluded that the sediments
minerals due to their ionic radii and cannot be put-up of Dhok Pathan Formation in this area had been
into the crystal structure of common rock-forming deposited by the Indus river system (Ali et al., 2018b).
elements similar to aluminum, iron, chromium and The catchment areas of Indus river have diverse
sulphur etc. Primarily there is an assemblage of LREEs geological environments and evolutionary history. The
or HREEs in minerals with or without some complex placer gold-uraninite-scheelite has already been
mineral aggregates (USGS, 2015). The REEs reported from many hundred miles (1100 miles) down-
enrichment in minerals can be clearly divided into two stream of river Indus (Davidson, 1962) and gold is
environments; primary deposits associated with being actively extracted through primitive methods.
igneous or hydrothermal processes and the secondary Considering the geological diversity of source area,
deposits developed through the sedimentary or other thickness and lateral extension of Siwalik sequence
surface processes of nature such as weathering (British exposed in Surghar-Shingar Range, the present study
Geological Survey, 2011). In primary REEs deposits has confirmed promising concentrations of LREEs
the enrichment process is associated with partial through analytical techniques over a strike length of
melting of crustal rocks or fluids from upper mantle less than 30 km and discloses good indicative LREEs
due to their large ionic radius (Möller, 1986) and REEs resource potential of Dhok Pathan Formation.
minerals are often related to skarns, pegmatites, Conversely, these anomalously high concentrations of
breccia zones and quartz-fluorite veins (Billingsley, LREEs can be treated as “path finder”, which helps in
2010). The economic potential is dependent on determining the source of these commodities.
geological processes and deposit mineralogy. Those
deposits having a genetic and spatial association with Once the area will have been explored systematically,
alkaline igneous rocks can be further divided whether the REEs-bearing minerals/ore can be up graded by
associated with carbonatites or peralkaline igneous physical beneficiation processes and by further treating
rocks (Samson and Wood, 2004). them chemically or through metallurgical procedures
to extract low-cost individual Rare Earth Element.
Placer deposits are the secondary deposits formed due
to the accumulation of economic detrital mineral grains Conclusion
under the action of gravity or by the tractional current
of flowing water of streams and rivers, deposited as The bulk analysis of sandstones did not show any
heavy mineral accumulations within sedimentary anomalous concentration of LREEs. However, ICP-
sequences. Worldwide more than 360 placer REEs MS analysis of heavy minerals laminations (black
deposits have been identified (Orris and Grauch, sand) divulged good concentrations of LREEs. Also,
2002). Monazite is one of the most important REEs- the EPMA micro-mineral analysis of LREEs-bearing
bearing mineral found in placers along-with certain mineral (monazite) depicted high concentrations.
amounts of allanite, pyrochlore, loparite, xenotime, Keeping in view the thickness, lateral extension and
euxenite, knopite, fergusonite and samarskite (Möller, depositional setting of Siwalik rocks, our preliminary
1986). conclusion is that these Himalayan Neogene molasse
sediments hold good resource potential for placer
The term occurrence is used for a concentrated mineral LREEs occurrences/exploration.
in a spatially confined area and it becomes mineral
deposit, ore deposit or deposit if that mineral Acknowledgement
commodity is reasonably exploitable. The LREEs
analytical results of bulk sandstones of Dhok Pathan We thankfully acknowledge A. Majid Azhar and K.
Formation are relatively comparable with the average Pervaiz, M. Ahsan Amin, Gulcan Top and one
crustal abundance values (Rudnick and Gao, 2003). anonymous reviewer for their reviews to improve the
However, the sandstone facies of Dhok Pathan quality of the manuscript. Thanks are due to the
Formation frequently contains less than 1 cm to about Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission and China
1 m thick layers (Fig. 3a, b) of heavy minerals National Nuclear Corporation for providing facilities
concentrates/black sand whose analytical results gave to carry out this research as part of Ph.D studies of
promising/anomalously high concentrations of LREEs main author. The authors also acknowledge the
and reveal good potential for LREEs exploration. financial support from National Natural Science Funds

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of China number U1403292 and 41772066. We Himalaya; Geological Society of America special
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