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Savanna Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences (June, 2020), 2(1): 15-22

ISSN: 2695-2335

Petrology of Pyrite bearing Sandstones: Inference for Reservoir

Rock Quality and Paleoredox Conditions
Ali A. M. and Kwaya M. Y.
Department of Geology, Bayero University Kano (BUK), Kano
.
ABSTRACT
Pyrites are usually indicators of paleoredox conditions and hydrocarbon generation from organic matter. This study investigates
the mineralogy, chemical composition and reservoir quality of the pyritic sandstones found in Lambir Formation of Onshore West
Baram Delta, Sarawak Basin, which was selected because the prolific occurrence of hydrocarbon in the adjacent Miri Formation
has not been equally reflected in the Lambir Formation, despite their similarity in age (Miocene). X-ray diffraction of the collected
samples identified the presence of quartz, hematite and pyrite, while X-ray fluorescence confirmed the silicate, iron and sulfate
composition. The petrographic analysis shows the lithic samples are friable and highly porous (27%).The unstable more soluble
reduced or ferrous iron (Fe2+), indicated by the pyrite content, suggest water-logged soils, euxinic marine and organic-rich saline
waters, all denoting anoxic environments. The pyrite hinders quartz cementation, as indicated by the friability of the rock samples.
It also fills the pore spaces and reorganizes the detrital grains in a preferential alignment to create micro-laminations. Based on the
high content of syngenetic pyrite, it can be inferred that the thermochemical generation of sulfate could have led to the destruction
or depletion of hydrocarbon in the Lambir Formation.

Keywords: Pyrite, anoxic depositional environment; paleoredox conditions,Lambir Formation

INTRODUCTION diagenesis and the evolution pattern of early diagenetic

Pyrite is one of the most abundant authigenic sulfides that minerals, which in turn can be used to interpret reservoir
occur in sedimentary rocks, and are plentiful in rocks that rock quality (Salem et al., 1998; Kordi et al., 1998; Kassab
are rich in organic matter, but less common in sandstones et al., 2014).This petrology study will supplement ongoing
(Pettijohn, 1957; Ardakani et al., 2016). Pyrites are exploration efforts in Onshore West Baram Delta of
indicative of marine sedimentary deposition under neutral or Sarawak Basin.
alkaline pH conditions (Liu et al., 2019). Thus, the study of
pyrite is very important, as its morphology could be utilized Geology of Onshore Sarawak
to indicate paleoredox conditions (Orr, 1977; Liu et al., Onshore Sarawak can be subdivided geologically into four
2019), which in turn will contribute to understanding the major areas: Eocene-Pliocene sediments; Cretaceous -
reservoir rock quality of sandstones. The size distribution of Eocene Belaga Formation; Pre-Cretaceous basement
pyrite framboids has been effectively used as an indicator for complex; Tectonic mélange, and Eocene-Pleistocene
an anoxic–euxinic environment in ancient marine sediments igneous body. The Eocene-Pliocene sediments are fluvial
(Wilkin et al., 1996; Wilkin and Barnes, 1997; Wignall et deposits transported by the Baram River and tributaries
al., 2005; Pisarzowska et al., 2014; Gallego-Torres et al., (Hutchinson, 1989), and are underlain by paleogene
2015), and the formation of authigenic or diagenetic pyrite molasses sediments. The Sarawak basin is divided into three
is related to hydrocarbon activity that influences the sub tectonostratigraphic zones overlying the West Borneo
hydrocarbon generation from organic matter (Ardakani et basement, and they include: Kuching zone, Sibu zone and
al., 2016). Miri zone. The Miri zone is structurally complex sequence
The focus of this research is on the sub-unit: pyrite of Paleocene to Eocene ophiolithic rocks, including spilite,
bearing/pyritic sandstones of the Lambir Formation, basalt, turf and radiolarian tuff (Hutchinson, 1989). The
Onshore Sarawak, Malaysia The Lambir Formation of the Miocene sedimentary successions of the onshore West
onshore West Baram Delta, Sarawak, were selected because Baram Delta were grouped into the Lambir (Middle-Late
the prolific occurrence of hydrocarbon in the Miri Formation Miocene), Miri (Middle –Late Miocene), Tukau (Late
has not been equally reflected in the adjacent formations Miocene –Early Pliocene) and Belait (Early –Late Miocene)
(Lambir and Belait), despite their similarity in age formations which are equivalent to the oil bearing Cycles V
(Miocene), and slightly diachronous transitional contact and VI in the offshore area.
with the Setap Shale source rock (Leichti et al., 1960). This The Lambir Formation (Middle - Late Miocene) mainly
can be attributed to failure to identify discrete reservoir units consists of fine to coarse-grained sandstone, shale with
and source intervals in Onshore West Baram Delta (Rijks, minor limestone and marl cemented by iron oxides,
1981; Anuar and Hoesni, 2008; Togunwa et al., 2015), intercalations of sandy clay with bioturbation and
despite the fact that several studies have assessed the OphiomorphaNodosa, indurated clayey ironstone and
structural and tectonic evolution, depositional sequences, pyritic nodules (Hutchison, 2005; Ali and Padmanabhan,
and geochemistry of the delta (Nagaran et al., 2014; Hiscot, 2014). Provenance studies by Liechtiet al. (1960) suggested
2001; Hall, 2002; Lambaise et al., 2002; Amir et al., 2013; shallow marine to deltaic sedimentary environment, while
Madon et al., 2013; Cullen, 2014). This study aims to Simmons (1999) put forward distal turbidite through to
investigate the implication of pyrite on the reservoir rock upper distributary channel. Outcrops of Lambir Formation
quality of the Lambir Formation. The textural can also be found in Belait Anticline, close to Kampong
characterization is significant because shallow sandstones Labi, Brunei, deposited in Berekas sub-basin with tidal
have been shown to provide important clues on shallow influence (Borrenet al., 1996), while its equivalent in Miri

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International license
Petrology of pyrite… Savanna Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences

was deposited in West Baram Delta under wave- and tide- diffraction (XRD) (Bruker-AXS model D8 Advance) was
dominated conditions (Simmons et al., 1999). performed for mineral identification using XRD
spectrometer. The Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR)
MATERIALS AND METHODS spectra were recorded at room temperature using a
The sample area is precisely located at Tusan headland, Miri, Shimadzu FTIR 8400S. The total organic carbon content
Sarawak with coordinates: N4°24’89.04”, E114°03’50.78”. (TOC) of the sample was measured using TOC analyzer
Field samples were collected from the outcrop exposed in multi N/C 3100.
the Tusan Beach area, along Miri - Bintulu coastline. The The porosity, pore size and pore size distribution of the
outcrops of Lambir Formation are labeled ‘L’ in the North samples were determined using mercury intrusion
East Sarawak, shown in Fig.1. Representative samples were porosimetry (MIP). The mercury porosimetry analysis
selected to provide reliable laboratory analysis results. The involves the use of high pressure to force intrusion of
characterization techniques carried out include thin sections, mercury into smaller pores, while mercury intrusion in
andfield emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM: larger pores takes place at relatively lower pressure. Thus,
Carl Zeiss Supra 55VP; operated at 5 to 20 kV). X-ray an extensive array of pore sizes can be measured and a pore
Fluorescence (Bruker-AXS model S4 Pioneer XRF) was size distribution can be acquired beginning from 4 nm (400
used for the inorganic geochemical analysis of bulk MPa) up to approximately 800 µm (vacuum).
chemical composition of whole rock samples. X-ray

Figure 1: Map of the study area (modified after Geological Survey of Malaysia, 1995; Hutchinson, 2005).

RESULTS intercalations of sandy clay with bioturbation and

Field Characteristics Ophiomorpha, indurated clayey ironstone and pyritic
The pyritic sandstones lithofacies originated from tidal nodules with Fe-bearing sandstones. The samples are dark
influenced shallow marine environment, consisting of brown to black in color, with a yellowish tint. The sample is
massive medium-grained to coarse-grained sandstone, depicted in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 2: Photographs of the hand specimen sample of Pyritic sandstones

XRD, XRF and FTIR identified, indicating the presence of organics and
The XRD spectrum of the pyritic sandstones is presented sulfate minerals (pyrite), as shown in Fig. 4.The bands
in Fig. 3. XRD spectra of the pyritic sandstones display at 677 cm-1and 786 cm-1 denote S-O-Si bonding and Si-
peaks indicating quartz, hematite and pyrite minerals. O quartz, respectively. The peaks at 920 cm-1 is assigned
Quartz is identified by its typical d-spacing values of to Si-O stretching. The peak at 1633 cm-1is assigned to
3.343, 4.26, 2.282, 2.13, 1.817 and 1.541Å. The pyrite the H-O-H bending bond of water. X-ray fluorescence
is recognized by d-spacing values of 2.21 and 1.916, (XRF) show that the sulphur content is as high as 34%
while hematite by d-spacing value of 2.69. The FTIR and 35.1%, with iron content of 12% and 13%, as shown
characteristic absorbance of peaks at 1150cm-1,1240 cm- in Table 1. TOC duplicate values of 4.04% and 3.85%
1and 1090 cm-1for Si-O-C, CH , and SO
3 4 were were recorded (Fig. 5).

Fig. 3: X-ray powder diffraction spectra indicating the presence of quartz (Q), pyrite (Py) and hematite (H).

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Fig. 4: FTIR spectra of the samples) indicating the presence of Fe-O, Si-O quartz, Si-O-Si, H2O, Si-O-C, SO4, CH3 bonds

Table 1: XRF Chemical composition of the study samples

S/N SiO2 Al2O3 K2O CaO Fe2O3 P2O5 MgO SO3 Cl Na2 ZrO TiO2 PbO
O 2
1 46.6 2.3 0.8 1 12 1.6 0.2 34 0.6 0.15 0.07 0.50 0.01

2 44.3 2.1 1.1 0.9 13 1.2 0.7 35.1 0.4 0.22 0.11 0.36 0.05

Fig. 5: TOC analysis measurement of the pyritic sandstone samples

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Thin sections and FESEM cementation (Fig. 6B). The detrital quartz grains are
The petrographic analysis was based on the renowned observed to be preferentially aligned along the axis of the
studies of Dickinson (1985) and Tucker (1991). The thin organic matter and pyrite particles. The fine-grained clay-
sections show the pyritic sandstones lithofacies consist of rich matrix material invades the intergranular pore spaces
friable ferruginous sandstone, pyrite with organic matter and and slightly replaces the margins of the sand grains. The
rock fragments (Fig. 6A). The porous sandstones comprise pyrite and clay matrix fill the interstices of the sand grains.
highly fractured quartz grains. Quartz is the main The FESEM images of the sample are depicted in Fig. 7. Fig.
sedimentary mineral. The quartz grains vary from fine 7A shows the pyrite framboids. These syngenetic framboids
grained to coarse grained sediments with high sphericity. have an average grain size of 2 µm, which indicates the
The grains are sub-rounded and moderately sorted and sedimentary water body was a euxinic environment (Liu et
relatively low clay matrix, which indicates moderate textural al., 2019). The pyrite framboids are shown to coat the quartz,
maturity. Opaque minerals like iron oxides and rock and infilling inter-granular space. The lithic minerals (pyrite
fragments are also observed. The detrital quartz grains are and clay minerals (C)) are shown coating the detrital quartz
characterized by point (tangential) and minimal floating grains and infilling the pore spaces (Fig. 7B).The pyrite
grain contacts (Fig. 6B). The arbitrarily oriented grains composition is confirmed by the EDX spectra in Fig. 8, with
indicate inactive water deposition. Distinctive for this rock the weight percentages of sulphur and iron being 2.74% and
type is high inter-granular porosity due to possibly leached 47.98%, respectively.
matrix content during weathering, and poor or sparse quartz

Fig. 6: Optical micrographs of sample showing [A] highly fractured quartz grains sparsely cemented by pyrite, clay matrix,
organic matter, and rock fragments, [B] re-alignment of the quartz grains along the axis of the columnar shaped organics

Fig. 7: The SEM micrographs of Lambir sandstone (L1) showing (A) pyrite framboids [Py], (B) pyrite framboids

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Fig. 8: EDX spectra showing Fe, K, S, indicating the presence of pyrites, iron oxides and clay minerals

MIP measurement µm, with the minor presence of nanopores sized 10 nm to

The pore size distribution plot shows a nearly unimodal 1µm, and some mesopores.The cumulative pore volume of
distribution (Fig.9), although a slight variation can be the dominant micropore is almost 90mm3/g.
observed. The dominant pore type is a micropore sized 10

Fig. 9: Pore size distribution plot

DISCUSSION samples. The organics and pyrite fill the rock pore spacesand
According to Petranekand Van Houten (1997), iron reorganize the detrital grains in a preferential alignment to
infiltration suggests the samples were deposited in marine create micro-laminations. The unstable more soluble
deltaic, nearshore and shallow offshore environments. The reduced or ferrous iron (Fe2+) suggests water-logged soils,
ferric (Fe3+) and/or ferrous (Fe2+) ions are derived from local euxinic marine and organic-rich saline waters, all denoting
dissolution of iron-rich minerals or introduced as iron-rich anoxic environments, given that oxygenated environments
fluid from an external source. The high organic matter are particularly depleted in organic matter which is
results from the fact that fine organic matter tends to be destroyed by oxidation. Besides bacteria sulfate reduction
preferentially deposited with clay-and silt-size sandstone (BSR) at low temperatures, sulfate reduction occurs
matrix since the low permeability of the clay matrix inhibits thermochemically at higher temperatures (Orr, 1977;
the influx of oxygen bearing fluid into the sediments. The Berner, 1982; Cross et al., 2004), resulting in the oxidation
iron oxides, pyrite and organic matter hinder quartz of organic matter and the loss of carbon based functional
cementation, as indicated by the friability of the rock groups (Ardakani et al., 2016). The H2S generated by the

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thermochemical process can be depleted by the iron content Cross, M. M.; Manning, D. A.; Bottrell, S. H. and Worden,
(Machael, 2001). Thus, it can be inferred that the R.H. (2004). Thermochemical sulphate reduction
thermochemical generation of sulfate could have led to the (TSR): Experimental determination of reaction
destruction or depletion of hydrocarbon in the Lambir kinetics and implications of the observed reaction
Formation (Rickard, 2012). This inference is supported by rates for petroleum reservoirs. Organic
the TOC and porosity data. The pyritic sandstones exhibit Geochemistry. 35: 393–404.
high TOC of approximately 4%, insinuating the high Cullen, A. (2014). Nature and significance of the West
hydrocarbon accumulation potential in the Lambir Baram and Tinjar Lines, NW Borneo. Marine and
Formation. Petroleum Geology, 51:197–209.
Dickinson, W. R. (1985). Interpreting provenance relations
CONCLUSION from detrital modes of sandstones. In: Provenance
The pyrite distribution in sub units of the Lambir Formation of Arenites (Ed. by Zuffa, G. G.), pp. 333-361,
provides an opportunity to understand possible Reidel, Dordrecht.
hydrocarbon-charged fluid flow as the pyrite leaves an Gallego-Torres, D.; Reolid, M.; Nieto-Moreno, V. and
impression of the fluid flow and the developing biochemical Martínez-Casado, F.J. (2015). Pyrite framboid
reactions in the reservoir rock. The petrographic analysis size distribution as a record for relative variations
shows the lithic samples are friable and highly porous in sedimentation rate: An example on the Toarcian
(27%). Based on the modal analysis, the samples can be Oceanic Anoxic Event in South Iberian
described as lithic arenites, primarily from a quartzose Palaeomargin. Sedimentary Geology. 330: 59–73.
provenance in the recycled orogeny. The grain size of the Geological Society of Malaysia. (1995). Annual report of the
framboids (< 5 µm) indicates the pyrite is syngenetic. The geological society of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur,
unstable more soluble reduced or ferrous iron (Fe2+) Malaysia: Geological Survey Department,
indicated by the pyritic sandstones suggests water-logged Ministry of Primary Industries.
soils, euxinic marine and organic-rich saline waters, all Hiscott, R. N. (2001). Depositional sequence controlled by
denoting anoxic environments. The pyrite hinders quartz high rates of sediment supply, seal level
cementation, as indicated by the friability of the rock variations, and growth faulting: The Quaternary
samples, fill the pore spaces and reorganize the detrital Baram delta of northwestern Borneo. Marine
grains in a preferential alignment to create micro- Geology, 175: 67–102
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Declaration of interest Lambaise, J. J., Abdul Rahim, A. and Lee C. P. (2002).
The authors declare no competing financial interest. Facies distribution and sedimentary processes on
the modern Baram Delta: implications for the
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