ATOLL RESEARCH BULLETIN

-----.--

NO. 88
Coral Islands

by
Charles Darwin

with Introduction, map and remarks

by D. R. Stoddart

Issued by

THE PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

National Academy of Sciences--National Research Council

Washington, D. C.

Dzc-.:.;?i- 11, 1 2,
 Coral Islands

Charles Darwin

with Introduction, map and remarks

by D. R. Stoddart

Introduction
Charles Darwin, w r i t i n g i n h i s Autobiography towards the end of
h i s l i f e , looked back t o some of h i s e a r l i e s t s c i e n t i f i c work associated
with the voyage of the Beagle, and was able t o l ' r e f l e c t with high s a t i s -
faction" on "solving the probleln of coral-islands. " l During the Beagle
expedition Darwin had crossed the P a c i f i c Ocean, c a l l i n g a t Tahiti, and
then the Indian Ocean, making h i s famous observations a t Cocos-Keeling
Island, and on h i s r e t u r n home he had given a number of papers t o t h e
Geological Society of London. h n g them was one announcing h i s theory
of c o r a l r e e f s , "On c e r t a i n a r e a s of elevation and subsidence i n the
P a c i f i c and Indian Oceans, a s deduced from t h e study of c o r a l forma-
t i o n s , " i n which he o u t l i n e d the scheme whereby f r i n g i n g r e e f s were
converted i n t o b a r r i e r r e e f s and then i n t o a t o l l s by slow subsidence
of the island-foundation. This was the first public announcement of the
theory, and it met with a favourable response, e s p e c i a l l y from fa ell.^
The substance of t h i s paper was embodied, and g r e a t l y extended, i n the
Journal and Researches 1832-1836, published i n 1839 t o accompany t h e
o f f i c i a l account of the voyage by FitzRoy, and Darwin's ideas were given
d e f i n i t i v e treatment i n t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n of The s t r u c t u r e and a s t r i b u -
t i o n of Coral Reefs, published i n London i n 1842.3

I n h i s Autobiography, Darwin has t h i s t o say about the formulation

of h i s theory:

"No o t h e r work of mine was begun i n so deductive a s p i r i t

a s t h i s ; f o r the whole theory was thought out on t h e west
coast of S. America before I had seen a t r u e c o r a l r e e f . I
had t h e r e f o r e only t o v e r i f y and extend my views by a
c a r e f u l examination of l i v i n g r e e f s , But it should be
observed t h a t I had during the two previous years been
incessantly attending t o the e f f e c t s on t h e shores of S.
America of the i n t e r m i t t e n t elevation of t h e land, together
with the denudation and the deposition of sediment. This
n e c e s s a r i l y l e d me t o r e f l e c t much on t h e e f f e c t s of subsidence,
and it was easy t o replace i n imagination t h e continued
deposition of sediment by the upward growth of coral. To do
t h i s was t o form my theory of the formation of b a r r i e r - r e e f s
and a t o l l s . "4

A l l notes p e r t a i n i n g t o the Introduction a r e t o be found on p. 4.

-1 -
 The Beagle had been working on t h e west coast of South America i n
the e a r l i e r p a r t of 1835, and it would therefore be of i n t e r e s t t o know
when and i n what form Darwin f i r s t expressed h i s ideas. I n the o r i g i n a l
-
Diary of t h e voyage, he describes the e f f e c t of t h e s i g h t of the r e e f -
encircled Eimeo ( ~ o o r e a ) , a s seen from T a h i t i on 17th l!Jovember 1835, and
on 12th April 1836, i n h i s description of Cocos-Keeling, he plunges i n t o
h i s theory without f u r t h e r ado ( t h i s passage was much extended when the
Diary was rewritten f o r publication a s Journal and Researches):

" I f t h e opinion t h a t the rock-making Polypi continue t o

build upwards a s the foirndation of the I s d from volcanic
agency, a f t e r intervals, gradually subsides, i s granted
t o be true; then probably the Coral limestone must be of
great thickness. Ve see c e r t a i n Isds i n t h e Pacifick, such
a s T a h i t i & Eimeo, mentioned i n t h i s journal, ~ ~ l l i cahr e
encircled by a Coral reef separated from the shore by
channels & basins of st511 water. Various causes tend t o
check the growth of the most e f f i c i e n t kinds of corals i n
these situations. Hence i f we imagine such an Island, a f t e r
long successive i n t e r v a l s t o subside a few f e e t , i n a manner
similar, but with a movement opposite t o the continent of
S. America; t h e c o r a l would be continued upwards, r i s i n g
from the foundation of the encircling reef. In time the
c e n t r a l land would sink beneath the l e v e l of t h e sea &
disappear, but t h e c o r a l would have colnpleted i t s c i r c u l a r
w a l l . Should we not then have a lagoon Island? Under -
t h i s view, we must look a t a Lagoon Island a s a monument
r a i s e d by myriads of t i n y a r c h i t e c t s , to mark the spot where
a former land l i e s buried i n t h e depths of the ocean .. ."5

The theory was therefore by t h i s time f a i r l y vell thought out, and i n a

l e t t e r t o h i s s i s t e r , Caroline Darwin, s e n t f'rom Port Louis, Mauritius,
on 29th April 1836, Darwin explained t h a t "The subject of c o r a l formation
has f o r the l a s t half year been a point of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t o me. I
hope t o be able t o put some of t h e f a c t s i n a more simple and correcte
point of view, than t h a t i n which they have h i t h e r t o been considered." 2
Hence, from about November 1835, Darwin had been seriously exercised
on t h e c o r a l r e e f problem. It was on the 9th November t h a t he first
c a u g h t , s i g h t of "Lagoon Islands" a s he c a l l e d them, i n t h e Low o r
Dangerous (~uamotu)Archipelago, and on t h e 15th he arrived i n Tahiti.
There he stayed u n t i l 3rd December, when t h e Beagle s a i l e d f o r New Zealand,
a r r i v i n g on t h e 21st, and then f o r Australia. He l e f t Australia on 14th
March f o r Cocos-Keeling, where he spent eleven days i n e a r l y April, and
made h i s way home by South Africa and South America.

Among the Earwin papers preserved i n the University Library a t

Cambridge, there a r e two items e n t i t l e d Coral
---.
Islands, one i n Earwin's
own hand, the other a f a i r copy with corrections i n Darwin's h a d . The
f i r s t i s c l e a r l y dated 1835, and it includes i n the course of the exposi-
tion, an account of Darwin's view of Moorea from T a h i t i recounted i n t h e
Diary f o r 17th November 1835.7 There i s no mention of t h e Cocos-Keeling
Island. It thus seems very probable t h a t Darwin wrote t h i s outline on t h e
voyage between T a h i t i and New Zealand (3rd-21st December 1835), and it
i s therefore a t l e a s t t h r e e months e a r l i e r , and much longer, than the
Diary e n t r y f o r 1 2 t h A p r i l 1836, given above.

The o r i g i n a l i s w r i t t e n on s h e e t s of unlined paper 15.6 x 10.15

inches, folded once t o give pages of 7.8 x 10.15 inches. There a r e twelve
Such ' s h e e t s ' of four pages, and g e n e r a . 1 1 ~t h e t e x t i s w r i t t e n on pages 1
aad 3, with the notes t o each page of t e x t e i t h e r on t h e verso, o r i n the
case of page 3, occasionally opposite o n p . 2 . I n t h e t w e l f t h sheet, page
4 i s a l s o devoted t o t e x t . Each page of t e x t , a p a r t from t h e f i r s t , is
headed "1835. Coral I s l a n d s " and t h e text-page number. The note-pages
a r e not numbered, and can be r e f e r r e d t o as [la], [2a! ... The d e t a i l e d
composition i s a s follows:

Sheet 1 Page 1 Text [la] TJotes 2

Text Motes
2 3 Text [3a] Notes 4
Text -
3 5 Text [ 5a] - 6 Text
4 Text [ 7a] - 8 Text
Text [gal Notes 10 Text -
Text [ l l a ] Notes 12 Text Notes
Text [ 13a] Notes 14 Text
Text [ Xl5a] Notes X l 5 CblText Text, notes
Text U5a3 Diagrams 16 Text Notes
Text [l7a] Notes 18 Text -
Text [lga] Notes 20 Text Notes
Text [21a] Motes 22 Text Text

The t e x t has c l e a r l y been w r i t t e n i n haste: t h e r e a r e many erasures,

l a t e r c a n c e l l a t i o n s i n i n k and p e n c i l , and some r e p e t i t i o n of notes i n
t h e t e x t . This seems t o i d i c a G t h a t - Coral I s l a n d s i s Darwin's elm f i r s t
f u l l d r a f t of h i s thesry,8 and it i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t it was stimulated
by h i s s i g h t of Moorea and i t s e n c i r c l i n g reef,Y even though t h e theory
had been slowly formulating since t h e middle of t h e year.

The F a i r Copy i s w r i t t e n on f e i n t - r u l e d foolscap, i n u n i t s of four

pages, each 7.8 x 12.5 inches. A s with the o r i g i n a l t h e t e x t i s w r i t t e n
on pages 1 and 3 of each u n i t . There a r e a number of p e n c i l l e d comments
of a c r i t i c a l nature, some erased, i n a hand o t h e r than Darwin's ( p o s s i b l y
FitzRoy Is), with b r i e f answers t o them i n Darwin's hand.

The t e x t presented here-%i s a t r a n s c r i p t of t h e o r i g i n d paper i n

Darwin's hand, r e t a i n i n g h i s s p e l l i n g and punctuation. I n t h e absence of
any e a r l i e r manuscript on h i s c o r a l r e e f theory, it i s thought t o be t h e
f i r s t f u l l statement he ever wrote. The o r i g i n a l and F a i r Cop&are
contained i n Volume 41 of t h e Damsin manuscripts a t Cambridge.

?t- TWOtext-pages of t h e Earwin manuscript, with t h e i r running-heads

and marginal notes, and with t h e notes r e f e r r i n g t o them, a r e included
i n one B u l l e t i n page. The numbers i n [I r e f e r t o t h e note-pages, as
above. Remarks, o r o t h e r e d i t o r i a l d e t a i l s , furnished by Mr. S - t o d W t
a r e a l s o i n [I. Eds.
+MThe t h r e e sample pages reproduced here, a c t u a l s i z e , a r e from the
o r i g i n a l manuscript (photos furnished by t h e University Library, Cambridge).
 I am indebted t o S i r Chazles Darwin f o r permission t o publish
t h i s paper, t o the Library of the University of Cambridge f o r access t o
the manuscripts, and t o IvIr. P. J. Gautrey f o r h i s assistance. D r . Sydney
Smith kindly gave me further information on the manuscript and other
collections; and Lady Nora Barlow has read the manuscript and given me
much encouragement.

-
Notes
1. The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809-1882. With o r i g i n a l omissions
restored. Edited by Lady N. Barlow. London, 1958, 253 p. (written i n
1876). See p. 80.
2. Charles Darwin: On c e r t a i n areas of elevation and subsidence i n the
Pacific and Indian Oceans, a s deduced from the study of coral formations.
Proc. Geol. Soc. London, 2, 1837, 552-554. On LyelL's response t o the
theory, Autobiography, 1358> pp. 83-84, and 100, and l e t t e r from Lyell
t o S i r J. Herschel, May 24th, 1837, in: K. M. Lyell ( e d i t o r ) : Life, l e t t e r s
and journals of S i r Charles Lyell, Bart. London, 2 vols,l88l, see Vol. 2,
p. 12-13. Compare C. LyeU, Principles of Geology, 1st edition, Chapter
X V I I I , Corals and coral reefs, 1832 ( ~ o l .2, p. 283-301) (and similar
accounts i n editions 2, 3, 4, and 5 ) with Chapter XVIII, Formation of
coral reefs, i n Principles, 6th edition, Vol. 3, 1840, p. 366-406.

3. Charles Darwin: Journal and Researches 1832-1836. ( ~ a r r a t i v eof the

surveying voyages of H i s Najesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle, between
the years 1826 and 1836 ..., Vol. 3). London, 1833, 615 p. Charles
The structure and d i s t r i b u t i o n of coral reefs. London, 1842, 214 p.

4. Autobiography, 1958, p. 98-99. See a l s o Professor C. M. Yonge's essay

"Darwin and coral reefs, " in: S. A. Barnett, editor, A Century of Darwin.
London, 1358, p. 245-266.

5. Charles Darwinls Diary of the voyage of HMS Beagle. Edited from the
MS by Lady N. Barlow. Cambridge, 1933, 541 p. See p. 400.

6. I n Lady N. Barlow, editor: Charles Damin and the voyage of the

Beagle. London, 1945, 279 p. See p. 137.

7. Coral Islands, manuscript, p. 4-5; compare Diary, 1933 p. 348, and

Journal, 1839, p. 484-485.

8. Lady Brlow has described jottings outlining the theory i n one of

Damrin's f i e l d note-books, probably written i n July 1835; see Charles
Darwin and the voyage of the Beagle, 1945, p. 243-244.

9. "I was much struck with t h i s f a c t [the lack of "essential .difference

bet-treen encircling barrier-reef s and a t o l l s " ] when viewing, from the
heights of Tahiti, the d i s t a n t island of Eimeo ..
.I1 (Structure and
distribution of coral reefs, 1842, p. 46). Also reference i n note 7, above,
 Coral I s l a n d s (1

Although I have p e r s o n a l l y s c a r c e l y seen anything of t h e Coral'

I s l a n d s i n t h e P a c i f i c k Ocean. I am tempted t o make a few observations
r e s p e c t i n g them.-

I n looking a t a c h a r t of t h e E a s t Indian group. it w i l l be seen t h a t

a d i r e c t i o n w i t h i n a couple of P o i n t s of NW & SE i s common t o t h e Western
& Eastern Islands.-This l i n e i s continued t o New Ca1edonia.-It i s f r o n t e d
a ) by t h e p a r a l l e l chains of New I r e l a n d . Solomon & Hebrides lslds.- [Perhaps
t h e s i m i l a r d i r e c t i o n of t h e North p a r t of New Zealand & t h a t p a r t of New
Holland, which i n i t s p o s i t i o n & b a r r i e r of Coral1 r e e f s i s i n t i m a t e l y
connected with t h e South sea, may be more t h m an a c c i d e n t a l coincid-
ence. - C1]] Those small I s l a n d s , which s t r e t c h i n an B. W d i r e c t i o n h a l f
way a c r o s s t h e Pacifick, a r e f r e q u e n t l y described a s being a curved p a r t
of t h a t Volcanic band of I s l a n d s which terminates Southward a t t h e New
Hebrides, o r more p r o p e r l y i n Sew Zealand.-

[l. This sentence i s d e l e t e d i n t h e o r i g i n a l , and t h e following note i s

given on page la:]
( a ) Again we s e e t h e same f a c t i n the northern p a r t of New Zealand; t h e
c o n s t i t u t i o n of which, l i k e t h e foregoing I s l a n d s , is e s s e n t i a l l y Volcanic. -
The XE c o a s t of A u s t r a l i a which i s f r o n t e d by t h e g r e a t b a r r i e r r e e f & so
i n t i m a t e l y connected with t h e P a c i f i c k , has a l s o a NW & SE d i r e c t i o n . The
whole shore is b e l i e v e d t o c o n s i s t of G r a n i t i c rocks; a l i t t l e wajr i n l a n d
a long chain of h i l l s runs p a r a l l e l t o the c o a s t l i n e . - ( ~ Fri t t o n ' s
Appendix t o King ' s ~ u s t r a l i a )

*++*****
Coral I s l a n d s

But I do n o t t h i n k t h i s i s a c o r r e c t view.-In each s e p a r a t e Archi-

pelago t h e d i r e c t i o n a l r e a d y a luded t o i s found.- This l a w p r e v a i l s even
( a ) as f a r a s We Sandwich lsGs ( a t - Perhaps t h e s t r o n g e s t exception w i l l be
( b ) discovered i n t h e F r i e n d l y IS$ t h a t is i f t h e s e axe taken without reference
t o t h e group of t h e F i d j i s . A l l t h e I s l a n d s ought r a t h e r t o be considered
a s s o many s h o r t p a r a l l e l l i n e s , than t h e continuation of t h e g r e a t
volcanic band which sweeps round t h e Eastern shores of A s i a . - I have
p o i n t e d o u t t h i s f a c t , a s showing a degree o f p h y s i c a l connection i n t h e
I s l a n d s of Polynesia. F o r s t e r i n h i s observations i n a Voyage round t h e
-
World. makes t h r e e c l a s s e s f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t kinds: ( 1 s t ) High I s l a n d s
without Coral r e e f s ; he adduces as Examples t h e Marquesas & ~ e b r i d e s .&
two o u t of t h e F r i e n d l y Is; t o them may be added t h e Navigators

[ 24 ( a ) I may even add t h e peninsula of C a l i f o r n i a & t h e shores of North

America. -
( b ) Mem. t h e F r i e n d l y a f i e l d of modern disturbance. & t h e r e f o r e t h e
exception of Value.-
 1835 Coral ~ s l a n d s (3

a s described by Kotzebue. the Sandwich Ba Galapagos groups & severaLother

smaller ones.- It would be a curious point t o ascertain, whether Coral
grows abundantly on the shores of any of these Islands, although not
forming a reef; o r whether a s a t the Galapagos, it may be considered a s
absent.- This one f a c t would alone throw much l i g h t on the t h e o r e t i c a l
structure of a l l the Coral formations.- We know t h a t i n some p a r t s of t h e
World where Coral1 is abundant, as i n the West Indies true Lagoon Islands
do not occur. 11. High Islands encircled by a reef, a s a picture i s by a
frame.- the singularity of t h i s phenomenon, the beauty & u i i t y of i t s
( a ) e f f e c t has scarcely been enough i n s i s t e d upon by Voyagers. la?-
Forster
gives an example i n Tahiti, & a l l the t r u e Society Islands, the higher
ones of the Friendly & New Caledonia.- I11 The low half drowned Islands,
composed e n t i r e l y of Coral

[3a] ( a ) It must be borne i n mind, t h a t the l i n e of breakers sweeps round,

-
a t a considerabke distance from the foot of the mountains. The i n t e r v a l
is occupied by the smooth water of the lagoon & the low a l l u v i a l land.
which has encroached on p a r t s of i t s f o m r bed.-

1835 Coral Islands 4

a s Elizabeth. Savage * Wateo Island, ra)

& including a lagoon.- IV. Capt Beech y has described another class, such
which a r e composed of Coral rock,
a r e of moderate height, & probably before t h e i r elevation existed a s Low
or Lagoon Islands.- Capt. Beechey remarks on the r a r i t y of t h i s class.-
I suspect however on a more accurate knowledge. several more w i l l be added
t o t h i s list. I may perhaps instance Turtle Isd. of Cook. which Forster
brings forward as the b e s t example of subterranean elevation i n the
Pacifick.- With respect t o t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , it appears t o me that t h e
d i s t i n c t i o n between the I1 & I11 division, o r the high islands with r e e f s
& the Lagoon ones, is a r t i f i c i a l . - I believe the r e e f s and s t r i p s of land,
which compose the c i r c u l a r Low Islands. are of the very same structure &
o r i g i n with those r e e f s which encircle, a s with a b e l t so many of the
l o f t y ones.- Viewing the E i Meo

[Marginal note, same page ] (a)& Perhaps W d e n of L+. Byron

1835 Coral IS^?^ 5

f r o m t h e h e i g h t s of T a h i t i I was f o r c i b l y s t n i c k with t h i s opinion.- The

mountains a b r u p t l y r i s e out of a g l a s s y lake, which i s separated on a l l
sides, by a narrow defined l i n e of breakers, from t h e open sea.- Remove
the c e n t r a l group of mountains, & there remains a Lagoon IS$ - I ground
t h i s opinion from t h e following f a c t s . - There i s a general s i m i l a r i t y i n
-
t h e two cases i n the form & s i z e of t h e r e e f s ; t h e i r s t r u c t u r e appears
i d e n t i c a l , we have s c a r c e l y fathomable water i n each case, a t a s h o r t
distance on the o u t e r margin; within i s a shallow Sasin more o r l e s s
f i l l e d up by k n o l l s of growing Coral1 o r converted i n t o dry land.- I n the
Lagoon 1sl+ t h e r e a r e some, which do n o t deserve t h i s t i t l e , f o r they
consist solely o c i r c u l a r reef, of which scarcely a p o i n t p r o j e c t s
above t h e water; f a 8 w h i l s t o t h e r s have a more o r l e s s complete, b u t
narrow r i n g of dry land. - I n the same

[Marginal note, same page] ( a ) Such a s the 1 s t near T u r t l e I.

manner i n t h e e n c i r c l i n g r e e f s , although they generally a r e only

ornamented by a few speck formed Islands, y e t a t the f i n e I s l a n d of
Huahine E l l i s states t h e reef i s becoming converted i n t o dry land.-
The e s s e n t i a l character i n t h e one c l a s s , of a l a r g e e n c i r c l e d I s l d .
i t s e l f dwindles away & becomes ambiguous.- We have the 2 l a r g e Islands
-
of R a i a t i a & Taha ( ? ) included i n one r e e f . In such cases, a s i n Gambier
IS$ so well described by Capt Beechey, where a group of small h i l l y
Islands a r e e n c i r c l e d by one grand r e e f , o r a s i n Whylootacke. (seen by
the eagle) when one s i n g l e one i s so s i t u a t e d , it becomes a question
-
i n which of the two c l a s s e s they ought t o be arranged. I n t h e 1sd of
Caledonia, as drawn on a l a r g e s c a l e i n Krusenstern's A t l a s , the r e e f
w i l l be seen prolonged a t each extremity. & e n c i r c l i n g t h e continuation,
 Coral IS$

beneath t h e water of t h e land. It h e r e r e q u i r e s l e s s e f f o r t of imagination

t o remove t h e c e n t r a l h i l l s & t o l e a v e a p e r f e c t lagoon IS$ - t h i s change
judging from t h e f i g u r e , it might be b e l i e v e d was a c t u a l l y i n process.-
The last argument which I can adduce i s t h e p a r a l l e l i s m between t h e
Archipelagoes of t h e two orders, f o r instance t h e l o x ~I s l a n d & t h e
Society ones.- Moreover, t h i s p a r a l l e l i s m i s found i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of
t h e longer a x i s of t h e o v a l f i g u r e , which i s so frequent i n t h e
e n c i r c l i n g r e e f s & low Island:- One i s teznpted t o extend s t i l l f u r t h e r
t h i s s i m i l a r i t y & t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e between the
r e e f which e n c i r c l e s an Island, & those extraordinary b a r r i e r s of Coral,
which f r o n t f o r s o many leagues t h e c o a s t of A u s t r a l i a & I b e l i e v e the
r\?orthern shore of B r a z i l . - The high e n c i r c l e d I s d s . a r e composed of
various geological formations: no

Coral IS$

doubt a n c i e n t Volcanic rocks a r e most abundant, b u t i n T a h i t i M. Hoffman

found Granite. M r . E l l i s s t a t e s . t h a t i n s e v e r a l of t h e Society 1sCS
Granite, Hornblendic rock, Limestone & rock with Garnets i s found.
F o r s t e r i n New Gal-edonia describes t h e prevalent rock under the name
of Gestele s t e i n , which I b e l i e v e t o be Mica S l a t e . - Hence we may f e e l
secure ( i f any dogbts could have been e n t e r t a i n e d ) t h a t these e n c i r c l i n g
r e e f s a r e n o t b u i l t on t h e c r e s t s of submarine C r a t e r s . - I f t h e proofs
of t h e i d e n t i t y i n nature of t h e two kinds of r e e f s , a r e considered a s
conclusive, i n a l i k e manner, t h e r e i s no n e c e s s i t y t h a t t h e Lagoon Isd.
should be based on such C r a t e r s . This view w i l l I think, g e n e r a l l y be
more s a t i s f a c t o r y , it removes t h e d i f f i c u l t y of t h e irrrmense s i z e of t h e
Lagoons f a r exceeding any known C r a t e r : & explains t h e extreme
i r r e g u l a r i t y of f i g u r e . exemplified i n t h e Radack
 Coral 1sCS

& Ralix groups, described by Kotzebue. Whether we look a t t h e s e I s l a n d s .

a s having formerly e n c i r c l e d high land, o r r e s t i n g on t h e brim of a C r a t e r ,
[I] it appears t o me, we must admit, t h e t h e o r y of Jlr Lyell, t h a t t h e i r
p r e s e n t s t r u c t u r e i s owing t o a s e r i e s of small depressions.- I f t h e
ground on which t h e Lithophytes have hilt t h e i r e d i f i c e s has n o t
subsided. it must have remained s t a t i o n a r y o r been e l e v a t e d . [ I t being
allowed t h a t t h e Coral1 animal can f l o u r i s h only a t a small depth. it
( a ) follows, on t h e first supposition, t h a t a l l t h e su5marine mountains
w i t h i n t h i s l i m i t had t h e samy h e i g h t & tha.t not one r a i s e d i t s head
( a ) above t h e l e v e l of t h e s e a . [ 2 ~ ] On t h e second supposition. of a s e r i e s
of e l e v a t i o n s ; t h e s e movements over a l a r g e t r a c t of ocean, ceased. &
-
never exceeded t h e limits a l r e a d y pointed o u t . Now, t h e s e consequences
from t h e two suppositions, a r e s o very improbable: ( f o r i f they a r e n o t so,we

[l. Marginal note:] Vol I1 Chapt: X V I I I

[2. This sentence i s dele2ed i n t h e o r i g i n a l , and t h e following note i s
given on page ga:]
( a ) On t h e f i r s t of t h e s e suppositions. it being allowed. t h a t t h e Coral
animal can only f l o u r i s h a t a small depth, it follows t h a t submarine
mountains, on which t h e Coral i s nov growing. reached w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s
of such depth, t h e surface, b u t y e t t h a t n o t one peak e v e r r a i s e d i t s
head above t h i s l e v e l . -

might expect t o f i n d somewhere a t r a c t o f country with mountains of an

e q u a l h e i g h t ) t h a t t o my mind t h e evidence of subsidence t h e only
remaining supposition i s demonstrative.- No doubt t h e f o u r t h c l a s s o f
I s l a n d s , t h e r a i s e d Coral rock, i s an argument on t h e o t h e r s l d e ; b u t
t h e i r acknowledged r a r i t y appears t o me a proof t h a t they ought r a t h e r
t o be considered a s exceptions o r i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n t h e p r e v a i l i n g
movement. If a gradual upheaval w a s i n progress here, a s on t h e shores
of S, America. t h e C o r a l ~ r o u l da f f o r d a more palpable and l a s t i n g
evidence, than could be expected under any o t h e r circumstances.- Capt.
FitzRoy has discovered an i n t e r e s t i n g t r a d i t i o n amongst t h e Low I s l a n d e r s ,
t h a t t h e a r r i v a l of t h e f i r s t Ship. was followed n o t long afterwards by a
g r e a t inundation which destroyed meny people.- Earthquakes are
o c c a s i o n a l l y experienced here; a t T a h i t i t h e r e happened one which w a s
b e l i e v e d t o have f o r e t o l d t h e a r r i v a l of t h e f i r s t Missionaries.
 coral IS$ 11

I looked i n vain on t h e shores of T a h i t i f o r any s o r t of evidence of a

consequent r i s e . - I n t h e Polynesian t r a d i t i o n s ( ~ l l i s e sResearches ) t h e r e
a r e accounts of deluges, which e v i d e n t l y were accompanied by Volcanic
phenomena.- The d i f f i c u l t y i n understanding t h e cause o f a r e e f of l i v i n g
Coral, being separated by channels o r l a k e s from t h e l a n d . has not a s y e t .
been attempted t o be removed. The only explanation. which I can o f f e r . i s
( a ) c h i e f l y c o n j e c t u r a l . a - when a t T a h i t i I examined t h e r e e f . - I found on
(B) t h e e x t e r i o r margin, a s o l i d broard [ s i c ] (30-50 y a r d s ? ) mound of Coral
( A ) rock, s t r i k i n g l y resembling an a r t i f i c i a l ( b u t low) breakwater. on which
t h e s u r f b e a t with violence.- The surface of t h e mound i s compact &
( C ) smooth. - It i s s l i g h t l y curved & d i p s towards t h e i n s i d e o r smooth water
of t h e Harbor. Owing t o t h e s u r f . I could not examine t h e o u t e r margin;
I am t o l d it c o n s i s t s of

[ l l a ] ( a ) I t r e s t s on a b e l i e f t h a t t h e s p e c i e s of Coral, most efficient

i n b u i l d i n g a r e e f , f l o u r i s h b e s t when immersed i n t h e s u r f of t h e o u t e r
breakers, & t h a t t h e i r grov-th i s checked by sediment & f r e s h water
brought down from t h e c e n t r a l l a n d . -

1835 coral IS' 12

smooth ledges of l i v i n g Coral, & t h a t i t s general i n c l i n a t i o n i s g r e a t : -

It i s only on r a r e occasions, when t h e r e happens -- t o be very l i t t l e s u r f
8 a low t i d e t h a t t h e l i v i n g - p a r t s can be seen. Rot unfrequently a f t e r
g a l e s of wind, t h e ledges (probably overhanging) a r e t o r n up & i n
enormous masses thrown far up on t h e r e e f : By t h i s ineans a l s o t h e Natives
know t h e e x t e r i o r margin i s thus c o n s t i t u t e d . The c e n t r a l p a r t of t h e
breaknater i s e n t i r e l y dead; on i t s surface t h e c h i e f production i s an
e n c r u s t i n g i n a r t i c u l a t e C o r a l l i n a . The sea: breaking v i o l e n t l y on t h e
o u t e r margin, continuouslypmps over i n s h e e t s t h e water of i t s waves.-
hence t h e s u r f a c e i s worn smooth & g e n t l y d e c l i n e s towards t h e lagoon.-
I w a s assured t h a t on t h e r a r e occasions, a l l u d e d to, t h e c e n t r a l p a r t i s
exposed, uncovered t o t h e r a y s of t h e sun, & t h a t t h i s i n v a r i a b l y k i l l s
( a ) t h e animal, & leaves t h e Lithophyte dead rock.
(a>
[12a] ( a ) There must however be some process by which t h e mound i s
r e p a i r e d : i f once worn away so deeply as always t o be covered by t h e
water, t h e case becomes a t once similar t o t h e o u t e r p a r t s ; perhaps
t h e C o r a l l i n a s & o t h e r small Masine productions may p r o t e c t t h e s u r f a c e . -
T h i s r e v i s e d v e r s i o n of t h e s k e t c h on Darwin's page 11
occurs on a s e p a r a t e piece of paper i n s e r t e d i n t h e F a i r Copy.
 The hole reef may be described, a s consisting of two p a r t s : the outer
margin of t h e Breakwater, the s o l i d p a r t of which i s higher than a l l the
r e s t , & a t r a c t of very shallow water which varys i n width from LOO yards
t o a mile. I n t h i s low p a r t there a r e l i t t l e narrow t v i s t i n g channels &
holes of deep water, & on the other hand many points. where the Coral
reaches t o the surface. It i s i n t h i s s t i l l water where a n observer a s
has often been described, may watch the f i s h gliding amongst groves of
variously coloured Corals. This p a r t of the reef seldom o r never i s
d i r e c t l y joined t o the shores: but there i s l e f t channels & harbors where
a Ship can anchor i n a f i n e Sandy bottom.- I imagine it i s the f r e s h
water & sediment brought do1.m. which helps t o prevent these spaces being
f i l l e d up & likewise perhaps the cause t h a t these r e e f s a r e seldomer
( a ) converted i n t o s t r i p e s of dry land. than i n the Lagoon lsdS- I n the
shallow p a r t s the most abundant kind of Lithopbytes, a r e stony & branching,
generas ( a s . ) Also Fungia G Caryophillia

p 3 a ] ( a ) ' . e n such does happen. t h a t p a r t close within the breakwater

would from the fragments t h r o ~ mover it, be soonest changed.- there a l s o
the water i s pure & f i t f o r the growth of some kinds of Coralls. -

1835 c o r a l lsd 14

Showing them t o some i n t e l l i g e n t natives I t m s assured t h a t such kinds

never grow on the outside of the reef o r compose s o l i d r e e f s . - From t h e i r
descriptions. I imagined the prevalent kinds, so s i t u a t e d a r e such as
P o r i t e s . Millepora. & some Meandrina & Astrea. Anyhow they appeared t o
consider t h a t there i s a wide distincti.on i n the two cases. A~alogy. from
the h a b i t s of a l l other marine animals would lead one t o suppose t h a t
the same species would not f l o u r i s h i n two such d i f f e r e n t l o c a l i t i e s , as
the foam of furious breakers. & shallow p l a c i d lakes. If t h i s opinion
should be granted. it would be very important; we might i n f e r t h a t those
species. which b u i l d the e x t e r n a l s o l i d wall, the hipaest & most p e r f e c t
p a r t of t h e Coral1 rock, w i l l only f l o u r i s h where the waters break
violently. M. Quoy & Gaimard, s t a t e , " t h a t the species, which constantly
formed the most extensive banks, belong t o the genera. Meandrina,
Caryophyllia. & Astrea" & t h a t the Saxigenous polypi increase most
considerably i n shallow & q u i e t water. I am not aware whether they
suppose, these same species form the outer p a r t s of the r e e f s .

n. marginal note:] D. L. Beche

 With respect t o t h e r a t i o of increase I have a few remarks t o o f f e r . - I n
the g r e a t e r number of the Lagoon IS* from the arguments already used,
it i s c l e a r no movement of elevation has taken place.- Now Capt. Beechey
'remarks, t h a t the s t r i p s of dry Coral, divested of any loose sandy
materials heaped upon them a r e r a r e l y elevated more than 2 f t above the
l e v e l of the sea. Now whatever t h i s elevation may be, it i s clear, t h a t
the highest point of t h e l i v i n g Coral rock is i n any IS$ as high o r
higher than the dead. Because the dead. l i v e d under s i m i l a r circumstances
ZC may have s ~ f f e r e ddegradation.- Now t h i s quantity i s so much higher
than the l e v e l of the ocean & therefore than the waters of the Lagoon,
which must a f f o r d t h e n e w e s t approximation t o judge by.- Hence t h e Coral,
which has formed the s t r i p s of dry land, could not have been cherished by
those q u i e t waters, but r a t h e r i n the turbulence of the breakers, where
a surface above the mean

l e v e l . would never remain uncovered & exposed t o the rays of the sun.(^)-
I n those cases where t r u e Coral rock i bove the l e v e l of the Lagoon.
(a) the land must have increased oui-mards; fa7 but a s it appears from the
extreme depth. beyond the r e e f , t h a t t h i s can hardly be a general
process. I suspect t h a t Coral rock may often be d i f f i c u l t t o be
distinguished from a rock of cemented fragments.- Besides the greater
absolute height of t h e Coral which grows i n the surf, it mst be remembered,
t h a t yearly gales of wind, t e a r o f f l a r g e fragments, some of which a r e
tossed on the r e e f & others must f a l l down i n t o the surrounding depths.
Yearly t h e Polypus has t o replace t h i s damage.- On the other hand, within
the lagoon a l l d e t r i t u s accumvlates, & if a s according t o M. Quoy and
Gaimard. t h e Coral grows there a l s o most rapidly; how comes i t t h a t t h e
Lagoon i s not more commonly f i l l e d up? This i s the more surprising. if we
look a t the e n t i r e section of a Lagoon Island i n Capt. Eeechey. & see how
t r i f l i n g the inequality of the foundation
XXX

[xl5a:] ( x ) This conclusion p e r f e c t l y agrees with what was v i s i b l e i n

the reef of Tahiti.
[ x l ~ c : ] ( a ) a s appears t o have been the case. on the IS'? on which Capt.
Beechey found t h e remains of the wreck of the Matilda so very singularly
situated.
[TIote on verso of Leaf 11 i n F a i r Copy:] I n s e r t t h i s a s a note s t a t i n g my
previous formed opinion.
Note - May not earthquake waves be occasional agents?- May not the wreck
of the Matilda have been thrown inshore by a great wave?- Such an event
happening once i n a century- a s a t Lima o r Concepcion - would hardly be
known t o t h e few Europeans who have y e t examined Polynesia.
XXX Iw5c 1
r e a l l y i s . And we must a l s o bear i n mind t h a t arguments can be advanced
t o show t h a t the subsidences must happen a f t e r long i n t e r v a l s . - such as
-few proportionate numbers of submerged c i r c u l a r r e e f s ; & again t h e q u a n t i t y
of d e t r i t u s heaped up on t h e dry Coral.- The general t e n o r of t h e f o r e -
going f a c t s , s t r o n g l y urges me t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e Coral, most e f f e c t i v e
i n forming t h e s o l i d r e e f , w i l l only f l o u r i s h near t o t h e break of t h e
Sea.- I w i l l not pretend t o conjecture concerning t h e cause of t h i s
p r e d i l i c t i o n , whether t h e motion of t h e f l u i d , o r t h e q u a n t i t y of
insolvedC1l air. i s favourable; o r whether t h e l i g h t and heat, which must
pervade s t i l l shoal water i s i n j u r i o u s t o t h e grow-bh of t h e i r Species.-

[l. I n t h e F a i r Copy, insolved i s rendered intangled.]

3C ?C *****
1835 Coral I S ~ S

[ r e s p e c t t o t h e r a t i o of increase, it must be remembered, t h a t a l l t h e

Coral. which grows within t h e lagoon. accumulates. whereas on t h e outside
y e a r l y l a r g e fragments are t o r n o f f & c a r r i e d away. The Polypi have t o
r e p a i r a l l t h i s damage. On t h e supposition t h a t t h e dimensions of t h e r e e f
o r i s l a n d do n o t decrease. (which a t l e a s t w i l l be granted), t h e polypi
-
must y e a r l y r e p a i r t h i s darnage.Cl1 1 If then t h e two following p o s t u l a t e s
are allowed, much of t h e d i f f i c u l t y i n understanding t h e C o r d formation.
w i l l I think, be removed. - ( l S t ) That i n c e r t a i n p a r t s of t h e Pacifick, a
s e r i e s of subsidences have taken place; of which no one exceeded i n depth,
t h e nuniber of f t , a t which saxigenous polypi w i l l f l o u r i s h : & of which
s e r i e s , t h e i n t e r v a l s between t h e successive s t e p s . were s u f f i c i e n t l y
long t o allow of t h e i r growth, always bringing t o t h e same l e v e l t h e upper
-
s u r f a c e of t h e r e e f . (2nd) That those species of Lithophytes, which
build the outer. s o l i d w a l l , flourish

[l. These two sentences d e l e t e d i n t h e o r i g i n a l , and t h e i r substance

expanded in t h e two pagmmarked X 1 5 and i n [X15c], c l e a r l y added after
t h i s s e c t i o n of t h e t e x t was written.]
 1835 Coral d
IS 16

( a ) best, where the sea violently breaks. -

Better t o explain my views, I w i l l take the case of an Island s i t u a t e d
i n a p a r t of the ocean. which we w i l l suppose a t l a s t becomes favourable
t o the growth of Coral1.- The circumstances which determine the presence
o r absence of the Saxigenous Polypi are s u f f i c i e n t l y obscure, but they do
not enter i n t o t h i s discussion.- kt AB represent the slope of an Island
so circumstanced & CD the l e v e l of the ocean. Then Coral1 would immediately
commence t o grow on the shore (D) & would extend Sea-ward a s f a r a s the
depth of water. would permit i t s r i s i n g from the bottom.- Let t h i s point
be (H).- The breadth of the reef (HD)would then depend, on the angle of
inclination of the bottom.- This space might e i t h e r be converted i n t o a
piece of Alluvial ground, o r even, from the Coral1 springing up v e r t i c a l l y
from E & so protecting the inner space, might e x i s t as a Lagoon.-

[16a] (a) This second Post: i s not so necessary as the f i r s t : a s w i l l be

subsequently seen.- Possibly the f a c t of the Windward side of the low
Islands, where the surf generally is most violent, being the highest &
most perfect. may be p a r t l y explained by such an admission.-

This reef would however e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r from those i n the South Sea,

i n the depth of the water. ( I exclude any few exceptions) beyond the W a l l
not suddenly becoming excessive.- I f the l e v e l of t h i s Island should
remain stationasy. I cannot imagine any change.- But i f the land should be
raised. ( o r sea sink): the outline would be a s represented by the dotted
l i n e . - And on the shores. a fringe of Dry Coral rock would be l e f t : This
circumstance i s known t o happen i n the East & West Indian IS$'- Some such
f a c t , m y perhaps explain the double r e e f s found by Capt. Beechey a t Loo
Choo, one of which was dead & one l i v i n g . - Now i f we suppose the land
gradua3.1~t o subside (See Fig. 11. I have represented the water rising;
the e f f e c t of course is the same) the l e v e l of the sea w i l l stand a t C 1
-
instead of a t CD. The Coral of the o ter w a l l favoured by the heavy s u r f .
( a ) w i l l soon recover i t s former level. ( aY - If t h i s process.

[17a] (a) or the whole m y be supposed t o have same tendency t o grow up &
recovers its former level: but t h a t the sediment &c from the land checks
its growth.
 Coral 1 ~ 6 s

i s repeated each time t h e sea w i l l gain on the land while. t h e r e e f r i s e s ,

n e a r l y v e r t i c a l l y on i t s f i r s t foundation.- I say n e a r l y v e r t i c a l l y ,
because, m y & e v e q -- small p o r t i o n removed i n f r o n t of t h e lower p a r t &.
t h e building being continued upwards before i t s r e p a i r , t h i s must throw
backwards t h e whole of t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e . When t h e l e v e l stands a t ( ~ 3 ) ~
t h e space between t h e r e e f s & t h e land, w i l l be more, than twice a s
broard a s a t f i r s t . This space w i l l probably be occupied by a l a k e of
water. such s t i l l water. not being favourable t o t h e growth of the most
e f f i c i e n t species of Coral.- 1 may mention t h a t when a t f i r s t t h e r e e f
touched t h e shcre. i n t h e mouth of each stream. t h e r e must have been a
channel.- such openings. during t h e longest s e r i e s of depressions. would
be continued & hence would generally

( a ) f a c e the valleys, a s i s observed t o be t h e case.a- This explanation i s

r e f e r r i b l e t o those r e e f s wb.ich f r o n t a continent o r e n c i r c l e an I s l a n d . -
If t h e subsidences a r e continued, till by t h e encroachment of t h e water
an I s l a n d i s reduced from i a r g e t o small & i s a t l a s t t o t a l l y submerged;
then t h e r e w i l l remain a t r u e Lagoon Is.- d9 When viewing E i meo, o r t h e
c h a r t of New Caledonia. I t a l k e d of removing t h e c e n t r a l mass of h i l l s ,
t h i s was t h e process I was considering. I f t h e above hypothesis, a l l i t s
( b ) p a r t s considered together, i s considered even a s p a r t i a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y
( f o r I a m aware s e v e r a l objections can be r a i s e d a g a i n s t i t ) it w i l l
be ~ ? o r t hwhile t o follow o u t some o f t h e more extended consequences. I n
those p a r t s of t h e world, where a genera movement upwards i s i n progress,
i
we ought not t o f i n d groups of Lagoon Is. o r t h a t c l a s s of r e e f s . which
e n c i r c l e s t h e land a t a distance & has very deep water c l o s e t o t h e
o u t e r wall. How far t h i s is a c t u a l l y t h e case I have n o t

[lga] ( a ) These channels would generally have about t h e same depth as t h e

lagoons; t h e i r bottoms being f i l l e d up with sand o r d e t r i t u s . - The a c t i o n
o f c u r r e n t s would prevent t h e i r t o t a l f i l l i n g up.-
( b ) I must observe t h a t i n t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h e s e r i e s of subsidences,
t h e r e can be l i t t l e doubt t h a t t h e fresh-water Sc sediment, brought down
from t h e c e n t r a l land, would be i n j u r i o u s t o t h e growth of t h e Coral
-
within t h e r e e f . But when a Lagoon I s l a n d was once formed, (excepting
t h e prejudice caused by t h e accumulated sediment, a s a s l i p p e r y
foundation) we must look t o t h e o t h e r reasons as an explanation of t h e
continuation o f t h e i n e q u a l i t y in growth. -
 1835 coral isdS 20

s u f f i c i e n t d a t a t o judge. I n t h e Vest Indies, where proofs of r e c e n t

e l e v a t i o n a r e abundant, r e e f s of t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s a r e not found. o r a t
l e a s t a r e n o t common.- V i t h i n t h e E a s t Indian I s l a n d s , t h e shores of which
a r e f r e q u e n t l y . o v e r l a i d with r a t s e d Coral rock, I b e l i e v e l i k e w i s e t h e y
(a) a r e n o t found.- I n t h e P a c i f i c k I may adduce t h e Sandwich IS$- It w i l l be
i n t e r e s t i n g t o discover. whether those groups ( o u r f i r s t c l a s s ) which are
n o t p r o t e c t e d by r e e f s , but y e t have Coral1 abundant on t h e i r shores can
( B ) be proved t o have been r e c e n t l y elevated.B- If such g e n e r a l l y i s t h e case,
it w i l l give much p r o b a b i l i t y t o t h e idea, t h a t -tihe d i r e c t i o n of t h e
movemmt determines t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e reef.- It i s manifest t h a t a
Lagoon I s d . might be r a i s e d s t r i f l e , by an o s c i l l a t i o n i n t h e g e n e r a l
movement v i t h o u t i t s c h a r a c t e r being l o s t . - This appears t o have happened
[l]a t ' l h r t l e IS$ (cook), which F o r s t e r b r i n g s f o r ~ w da s t h e b e s t i n s t a n c e
of subterranean upheaval i n t h e P a c i f i c k . - P l a n t s a r e described on t h e
r e e f a s growing on t h e dead Coral, whicn i s r a i s e d above t h e

[l. marginal note: J (P. 147)

[20a] ( a ) How a r e t h e Ladrones (which have dead Coral on t h e s u r f a c e ) ?
V. Kotzebue I1 Vol. -
V. some l a r g e Chart. Kotzebue g i v e s no information on t h e s u b j e c t . - Note
( B ) M r . Bennet informs me t h a t i n t h e New Hebrides, which are t h u s
circumstanced he found dead c o r a l a t an e l e v a t i o n of 1500 f t . -
Vide Wanderings i n !Jew S. Vales

Coral Is. 21

reach o f high water.- y e t t h i s I s l a n d appears t o have r e t a i n e d i t s proper

f i g u r e . If however such movements were continued, no doubt an I s d of our
f o u r t h c l a s s would be produced.- Now it i s remarkable, t h a t o u t of t h e
few i n s t a n c e s of t h i s C l a s s given by Capt. Beechey, two of t h e s e I s l a n d s
a r e surrounded by reefs of growing Coral, b u t t h e s e a r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e
shore, not being s e p a r a t e d by channels o r l a k e s of water. I a l l u d e t o
( a ) Henderson I described by Capt Beechey himself & Wateo by Cook. -

On t h e opposite supposition of a g e n e r a l progressive subsidence i n any

p a r t of t h e World ( o f course I include only those favourable t o t h e growth
(b) of c o r a l ) we should expect t o f i n d e i t h e r o r both ;Lagoon 1sdS & t h e
e n c i r c l i n g r e e f s . - The a r c h i p e l a g o of t h e S o c i e t y I? ( which a r e e n c i r c l e d )
a
& h a t of t h e Low IS$ occur i n t h e same p a r t o f t h e ocean. The F r i e n d l y -
Is i n a l i k e manner are d i v i d e d i n t o t h e same two s o r t s of groups.- A s
d e c i s i v e evidence of depressions of

F21a] ( a ) V. Byron f o r s t r u c t u r e o f Malden IS@-

b ) V. Chart o f t h e B a r r i e r o f E a s t e r n A u s t r a l i a , a r e t h e r e i n that
d i s t r i c t any lagoon IS@?-
-
Note
 c o r a l lsd 22

l e v e l . w i l l almost always be d e f i c i e n t : a l l t h a t we can look t o i s t h a t

t h e r e i s no evidence of an opposite tendency. Now a g a i n s t t h i s . a f l a g r a n t
instance. can be brought up. from M r . E l l i s ' account of the Society
Is.-d He s t a t e s , t h a t on the mountains of Raiatia, Coral & e h e l l s &c a r e
found. I do not c l e a r l y understand t h a t he himself has examined i n t o t h e
circumstances. Perhaps they may be i n t e r s t r a t i f i e d with t h e Lavas & only
point out a very ancient e l e v a t i o n . - From the mineralogical nature of t h e
strata i n T a h i t i I f e l t no doubt, b u t what they had formerly been
-
submerged beneath the Sea. To a l l such general views, a s these, many
exceptions, may always be expected t o be found; t o a s c e r t a i n t h e i r t r u t h ,
a f a r more extended e x m i n a t i o n of a l l t h e phenomena, i s absolutely
necessary. I f t h e r e a l i t y of them should ever be proved, it would be
important t o Geology. For then we might assume t h a t groilps of Lagoon lsd
c l e a r l y shoved t h a t a chain of Mountains had t h e r e sub-

[l: marginal note] V. E l l i s Vol. 1 P. 389

C22a I
-sided.- And, when i n any formation t h e r e should be found, a g r e a t
thiclkness composed of Coral & the genera of which resembled those, which
now b u i l d t h e reefs, we might a i s o conclude. t h a t during i t s successive
accumulation, the general movement, was one of depression.-

Before f i n a l l y concluding t h i s subject, I may remark t h a t the

general horizontal uplif'ting which I have proved has & i s now r a i s i n g
upwards t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of S. America & a s it would appear likewise of
PI. America, would of necessity be compensated by an equal subsidence i n
some other p a r t of t h e world.- Does not the g r e a t e x t e n t of t h e Northern
& Southern Pacificlr include t h i s corresponding Area?- Humboldt c w r y s a
similar idea s t i l l f'urther; I n t h e Fragmens Asiatiques, P 95. he says.
"Par c o n s e ~ u e n tl'epoque de l'affaisement de l l A s i e occidentale coincide
p l u t o t avec c e l l e de l'exhaussement du plateau de l ' I r a n , du plateau de
1'Asie centrale, de l'Himalaya, du Kuen Lun, du Thia-n shan & de tous l e s
anciens systemes de montages d i r i g e s de l ' e s t a I ' o u e s t ; peut e t r e a u s s i
c e l l e de llexhaussement du Caucau, & du noeud de montagnes de 1'Armenie
B de Erzeroum. "[I]

[?. The following t r a n s l a t i o n , found on a s i n g l e s h e e t i n Darwin papers,

Vol. 42, f o l i o 23, i s transcribed i n the f i n a l paragraph of t h e F a i r Copy: l
Humboldt (~ragmensAsiatiques Page 95) i n a similar manner considers t h a t
t h e epoch of the sinking down of Western Asia coincides with t h e elevation
of the platforms, of Iran, of c e n t r a l Asia, of t h e Himalaya, of Kuen Lun,
of Thian Chan, and of a l l t h e ancient systems of Mountains, d i r e c t e d from
East t o Vest.
 Appendix: Works r e f e r r e d t o by Charles Darwin

In 'Coral I s l a n d s ' Darwin makes reference t o some fourteen books

and papers, l i s t e d below. It is probable t h a t n o t a l l of t h e s e were c a r r i e d
on t h e Beagle, and t h e references derive from o t h e r sources. For example,
Damin d i d n o t r e a d o t h e r languages with ease, and h i s knowledge of t h e
work of Quoy and Gaimard almost c e r t a i n l y derives from De l a Beche's
'Geological Manual.' To t r a c e the books r e l e v a n t t o t h e c o r a l work which
Darwin a c t u a l l y had with him during t h e voyage, we have t h e evidence of
h i s own writings, i n t h e 'Autobiography, ' L i f e and L e t t e r s , ' and 'More
Letters' - which together mention only Humboldt, Lyell and a "small volume"
of Milton - together with t h e books remaining i n h i s l i b r a r y a t t h e time
of h i s death, and l i s t e d i n t h e following two publications:
H. V. Rutherford. 1908. Catalogue of the l i b r a r y of Charles Darwin
now i n t h e Botany School, Cambridge. Cambridge, University
Press, 91.
Books received i n t h e University Library from Down House, March-May
1961. Cambridge, University Library, mimeographed (29 p. ) .
Two books were pre-eminent i n h i s c o l l e c t i o n : L y e l l ' s ' P r i n c i p l e s
of Geology1 and Humboldt's 'Pereonal n a r r a t i v e of t r a v e l s t o t h e equinoc-
t i a l regions of t h e New Continent.' The f i r s t e d i t i o n of t h e ' P r i n c i p l e s , '
used on t h e voyage, is now a t Cambridge, t o g e t h e r with e d i t i o n s 5, 6, 7,
9, 1 0 and 11, a l l from Darwin's l i b r a r y . Volume 1 (1830) i s i n s c r i b e d
"Given me by / Capt F. R/ C. Darwin;" Volume 2 (1832), containing t h e
chapter on c o r a l r e e f s , has on t h e f l y l e a f "Charles Darwin / M. Video
IYoveG 1832." The copy of t h e 'Fersonal N a r r a t i v e ' i s t h e English t r a n s l a -
t i o n by H. M. W i l l i a m s , London 1819-20, 6 volumes i n 7, and i s inscribed:
"J. S. Henslow t o h i s f r i e n d C. Darwin on h i s departure from England upon
a voyage round the world. 2 1 sepr 1831. " Both volumes a r e annotated. I n
t h e c o r a l reef chapter of Lyell, " P r i n c i p l e s , ' Volume 2, it i s i n t e r e s t i n g
t o s e e t h a t t h e paragraph i n which "subsidence by earthquakes" is advocated
t o account f o r t h e form of a t o l l s has been scored.

In a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e works, t o which Darwin made frequent apprecia-

t i v e references i n h i s l e t t e r s and 'Autobiography,' he probably a l s o had
with him Humboldt's 'Fragmens de g&ologie e t de climatolagie asiatiq.uesl
( h i s admiration f o r t h e author overcoming h i s repugnance f o r French);
Captain Beechey 's 'Narrative, ' a much annotated copy being preserved i n
t h e Cambridge c o l l e c t i o n ; and F o r s t e r ' s 'Observations,' a l s o a t Cambridge
and quoted i n 'Coral I s l a n d s . ' It is c l e a r from 'Coral I s l a n d s ' t h a t a
number of volumes which a r e no longer i n h i s l i b r a r y were a l s o taken on
t h e Beagle : c h i e f l y Kotzebue ' s 'Voyage; ' E l l i s 's 'Polynesian Researches; '
Bennett's 'Wanderings i n New South Wales;' Byron's 'Voyage;' and King's
'Narrative. ' De l a Beche's 'Researches i n t h e o r e t i c a l geology, ' 1834, is
i n t h e l i b r a r y , b u t n o t t h e 'Geological Manual, ' 1831, which w a s probably
used during t h e voyage. have t h e evidence of FitzRoy t h a t a copy of
b u s e n s t e r n ' s ' A t l a s ' was c a r r i e d on t h e Beagle.

One f u r t h e r r e l e v a n t volume i n t h e l i b r a r y , which may have been

taken on t h e voyage, is P l a y f a i r ' s ' I l l u s t r a t i o n s of t h e Huttonian
Theory, ' 1802.
From t h e p o i n t of view of 'Coral I s l a n d s , ' however, it i s c l e a r t h a t
Lyell, Beechey, Kotzebue, F o r s t e r and De l a Beche were Darwin's
main sources, t o g e t h e r with a c o l l e c t i o n of voyages and t r a v e l s now
f o r g o t t e n . The complete l i s t is a s follows:

Beche, B. T. de l a . 1831. A g e o l o g i c a l manual. London, T r e u t t e l and

N k t z . 535 p.
Bcechey, F. W. 1832. Narrative of a voyage t o t h e P a c i f i c and Beering's
S t r a i t , t o co-operate with t h e p o l a r expeditions: performed i n His
t h j e s t y ' s Ship Blossom, under t h e command of Captain F. W. Beechey,
R. FJ., F. R. S. &c. i n t h e y e a r s 1825, 26, 27, 28. Philadelphia,
Carey and Lea. 493 p. ( T ~ F eSd i t i o n i n Darwin's l i b r a r y , a n n o t a t e d ) .
Bennett, George. 1834. idanderings i n New South Wales, Batavia, P e d i r
Coast, Singapore, and China; being t h e journal of a n a t u r a l i s t i n those
c o u n t r i e s , during 1832, 1833, and 1834. London, R. Bentley. Volume 1,
440 9. Volume 2, 428 p.
Byron, George Anson, 7 t h Baron. 1826. Voyage of H. M. S. Blonde t o t h e
Sandwich I s l a n d s , i n t h e y e a r s 1824-25. Captain t h e Right Hon. Lord
Byron, Commander. London, John Murray. 260 p.
Chamisso, Adelbert vcn. 1821. Renarks and opinion;; of t h e n a t u r a l i s t of
t h e expedition: i n , Ibtzebue, Voyage, Volume 2, p. 349-433; Volume 3,
P. 1-318, and 331-336.
E l l i s , William. 1829. Polynesian researches, during a residence of n e a r l y
six years on t h e South Sea I s l a n d s ; including d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e
-
n a t u r a l h i s t o r y and scenery of t h e i s l a n d s with remarks on t h e
h i s t o r y , mythology, t r a d i t i o n s , government, arts, manner, and customs
of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s . London, F i s h e r , Son and Jackson. Volume 1, 536 p.
Vohme 2, 576 p.
F i t t o n , W. H. 1827. An account of some g e o l o g i c a l specimens, c o l l e c t e d by
Captain P. P. King, i n h i s Survey of t h e Coasts of A u s t r a l i a , and by
Robert Brown, E,sq., on t h e Shores of t h e Gulf of Carpentaria, during
t h e voyage of Captain F l i n d e r s : in, King, A u s t r a l i a , Volume 2, p.
566-630.
F o r s t e r , J. R. 1778. Obse,rvations made during a voyage round t h e world,
on p h y s i c a l geography, n a t u r a l h i s t o r y and e t h i c philosophy. Londor,,
G. Robinson, 649 p.
Humboldt, Alexander von. 1831. Fragmens de geologic e t de c l i m a t ~ l o g ~ e
a s i a t i q u e s , p a r A. de Humboldt. P a r i s , Gide. Volume 1, 309 p. Volume
2, p. 310-640.
King, P. P. 1827. Narrative o f a survey of t h e i n t e r t r o p i c a l and western
c o a s t s of A u s t r a l i a . Performed between t h e years 1818 and 1822. London.
Volmie 1, 451 p. Volume 2, 637 p.
Ibtzebue, Otto von. 1821. A voyage of discovery, i n t o t h e South Sea and
Beering's S t r a i t s , f o r t h e purpose o f e x p i o r i n g a n o r t h - e a s t passage,
undertaken i n t h e y e a r s 1815-1818, a t t h e expense of H i s Highness t h e
Chancellor o f t h e Empire, Count Romanzoff, i n t h e s h i p Rurick, under
t h e command o f t h e Lieutenant i n t h e Russian Imperial Navy, Otto von
Kotzebue. London, Longman, Hurst. Volume 1, 358 p. Volume 2, 433 p.
Volume 3, 442 p.
b u s e n s t e r n , A. I. von. 1826-27. A t l a s de l l O c e a n Pacifique dress6 p a r
M. de Krusenstern. S t . Petersbourg, 34 maps.
Lyell, Charles. 1830-1033. P r i n c i p l e s o f geology, being an attempt t o
e x p l a i n t h e former changes of t h e e a r t h ' s surface, by r e f e r e n c e t o
causes now i n o p e r a t i o n . London, John Murray. Volume 1, 1830, 511 p.
IJolume 2, 1832, 330 p. Volume 3, 1833, 398 p. a d 109 p.
Quoy, J. R. and Gaimard, J. Paul. 1824. Mgmoire s u r l'accroissement des
Polypes l i t h o p h y t e s considere g4ologiquement: in, Voyage antour du
monde e n t r e p r i s par ordre du Roi ... par M. Louis de Freycinet.
Zoologie, par MM. Quoy e t Gaimard, M6decins de l t E x p 6 d i t i o n . Paris,
Chez P i l l e t ~ h 5 712 . p. Chapter XV, p. 658-671. Also r e p r i n t e d i n
Amales des Sciences Naturelles, V I , 1825, p. 273-290.