Notes 0

UNIT – I
LINEAR WAVESHAPING
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High pass, low pass RC circuits, their response for sinusoidal, step, pulse, square and ramp
inputs. RC network as differentiator and integrator, attenuators, its applications in CRO probe,
RL and RLC circuits and their response for step input, Ringing circuit.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
A linear network is a network made up of linear elements only. A linear network can be
described by linear differential equations. The principle of superposition and the principle of
homogeneity hold good for linear networks. In pulse circuitry, there are a number of waveforms,
which appear very frequently. The most important of these are sinusoidal, step, pulse, square
wave, ramp, and exponential waveforms. The response of RC, RL, and RLC circuits to these
signals is described in this chapter. Out of these signals, the sinusoidal signal has a unique
characteristic that it preserves its shape when it is transmitted through a linear network, i.e. under
steady state, the output will be a precise reproduction of the input sinusoidal signal. There will
only be a change in the amplitude of the signal and there may be a phase shift between the input
and the output waveforms. The influence of the circuit on the signal may then be completely
specified by the ratio of the output to the input amplitude and by the phase angle between the
output and the input. No other periodic waveform preserves its shape precisely when transmitted
through a linear network, and in many cases the output signal may bear very little resemblance to
the input signal.
The process whereby the form of a non-sinusoidal signal is altered by transmission through a
linear network is called linear wave shaping.
THE LOW-PASS RC CIRCUIT

Figure 1.1 shows a low-pass RC circuit. A low-pass circuit is a circuit, which transmits
only low-frequency signals and attenuates or stops high-frequency signals.
At zero frequency, the reactance of the capacitor is infinity (i.e. the capacitor acts as an
open circuit) so the entire input appears at the output, i.e. the input is transmitted to the output
with zero attenuation. So the output is the same as the input, i.e. the gain is unity. As the
Pulse and Digital Circuits 1

frequency increases the capacitive reactance (Xc = H2nfC) decreases and so the output decreases.
At very high frequencies the capacitor virtually acts as a short-circuit and the output falls to zero.
Sinusoidal Input
The Laplace transformed low-pass RC circuit is shown in Figure 1.2(a). The gain versus
frequency curve of a low-pass circuit excited by a sinusoidal input is shown in Figure 1.2(b).
This curve is obtained by keeping the amplitude of the input sinusoidal signal constant and
varying its frequency and noting the output at each frequency. At low frequencies the output is
equal to the input and hence the gain is unity. As the frequency increases, the output decreases
and hence the gain decreases. The frequency at which the gain is l/√2 (= 0.707) of its maximum
value is called the cut-off frequency. For a low-pass circuit, there is no lower cut-off frequency.
It is zero itself. The upper cut-off frequency is the frequency (in the high-frequency range) at
which the gain is 1/√2 . i-e- 70.7%, of its maximum value. The bandwidth of the low-pass circuit
is equal to the upper cut-off frequency f2 itself.
For the network shown in Figure 1.2(a), the magnitude of the steady-state gain A is given by

Step-Voltage Input
A step signal is one which maintains the value zero for all times t < 0, and maintains the
value V for all times t > 0. The transition between the two voltage levels takes place at t = 0 and
is accomplished in an arbitrarily small time interval. Thus, in Figure 1.3(a), vi = 0 immediately
before t = 0 (to be referred to as time t = 0-) and vi = V, immediately after t= 0 (to be referred to
as time t = 0+). In the low-pass RC circuit shown in Figure 1.1, if the capacitor is initially
uncharged, when a step input is applied, since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change
instantaneously, the output will be zero at t = 0, and then, as the capacitor charges, the output
voltage rises exponentially towards the steady-state value V with a time constant RC as shown in
Figure 1.3(b).
Let V’ be the initial voltage across the capacitor. Writine KVL around the IOOD in Fieure 1.1.

Expression for rise time
When a step signal is applied, the rise time tr is defined as the time taken by the output
voltage waveform to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value: It gives an indication of how fast
the circuit can respond to a discontinuity in voltage. Assuming that the capacitor in Figure 1.1 is
initially uncharged, the output voltage shown in Figure 1.3(b) at any instant of time is given by

This indicates that the rise time tr is proportional to the time constant RC of the circuit. The
larger the time constant, the slower the capacitor charges, and the smaller the time constant, the
faster the capacitor charges.
Relation between rise time and upper 3-dB frequency

We know that the upper 3-dB frequency (same as bandwidth) of a low-pass circuit is
Thus, the rise time is inversely proportional to the upper 3-dB frequency.
The time constant (Τ= RC) of a circuit is defined as the time taken by the output to rise to 63.2%
of the amplitude of the input step. It is same as the time taken by the output to rise to 100% of
the amplitude of the input step, if the initial slope of rise is maintained. See Figure 1.3(b). The
Greek letter T is also employed as the symbol for the time constant.
Pulse Input
The pulse shown in Figure 1.4(a) is equivalent to a positive step followed by a delayed
negative step as shown in Figure 1 .4(b). So, the response of the low-pass RC circuit to a pulse
for times less than the pulse width tp is the same as that for a step input and is given by
v0(t) = V(l – e-t/RC). The responses of the low-pass RC circuit for time constant RC » tp, RC
smaller than tp and RC very small compared to tp are shown in Figures 1.5(a), 1.5(b), and 1.5(c)
respectively.
If the fime constant RC of the circuit is very large, at the end of the pulse, the output voltage will
be Vp (t) = V(1 – e-tp/RC), and the output will decrease to zero from this value with a time constant
RC as shown in Figure 1.5(a). Observe that the pulse waveform is distorted when it is passed
through a linear network. The output will always extend beyond the pulse width tp, because
whatever charge has accumulated across the capacitor C during the pulse cannot leak off
instantaneously.

If the time constant RC of the circuit is very small, the capacitor charges and discharges very
quickly and the rise time tr will be small and so the distortion in the wave shape is small. For
minimum distortion (i.e. for preservation of wave shape), the rise time must be small compared
to the pulse width tp. If the upper 3-dB frequency /2 is chosen equal to the reciprocal of the pulse
width tp, i.e. if f2 = 1/tp then tr = 0.35tp and the output is as shown in Figure 1.5(b), which for
many applications is a reasonable reproduction of the input. As a rule of thumb, we can say:
A pulse shape will be preserved if the 3-dB frequency is approximately equal to the reciprocal
of the pulse width.
Thus to pass a 0.25 μ.s pulse reasonably well requires a circuit with an upper cut-off frequency
of the order of 4 MHz.
Square-Wave Input
A square wave is a periodic waveform which maintains itself at one constant level V’
with respect to ground for a time T1 and then changes abruptly to another level V", and remains
constant at that level for a time T2, and repeats itself at regular intervals of T = T1 + T2. A square

wave may be treated as a series of positive and negative steps. The shape of the output waveform
for a square wave input depends on the time constant of the circuit. If the time constant is very
small, the rise time will also be small and a reasonable reproduction of the input may be
obtained.
For the square wave shown in Figure 1.6(a), the output waveform will be as shown in Figure
1.6(b) if the time constant RC of the circuit is small compared to the period of the input
waveform. In this case, the wave shape is preserved. If the time constant is comparable with the
period of the input square wave, the output will be as shown id Figure 1.6(c). The output rises
and falls exponentially. If the time constant is very large compared to the period of the input
waveform, the output consists of exponential sections, which are essentially linear as indicated in
Figure 1.6(d). Since the average voltage across R is zero, the dc voltage at the output is the same
as that of the input. This average value is indicated as V&. in all the waveforms of Figure 1.6.

When the time constant is very small relative to the total ramp time T, the ramp will be
transmitted with minimum distortion. The output follows the input but is delayed by one time
constant RC from the input (except near the origin where there is distortion) as shown in Figure
1.7(a). If the time constant is large compared with the sweep duration, i.e. if RCIT » 1, the output
will be highly distorted as shown in Figure 1.7(b).
This shows that a quadratic response is obtained for a linear input and hence the circuit acts as an
integrator for RC/T » 1.
The transmission error et for a ramp input is defined as the difference between the input
and the output divided by the input at the end of the ramp, i.e. at t = T.
For RC/T « 1,

where f2 is the upper 3-dB frequency. For example, if we desire to pass a 2 ms pulse with less
than 0.1% error, the above equation yields f2 > 80 kHz and RC < 2 μ.s.
Exponential Input
For the low-pass RC circuit shown in Figure 1.1, let the input applied as shown in Figure
1.8 be vi(t ) = V(l – e-tlτ), where T is the time constant of the input waveform.

These are the expressions for the voltage across the capacitor of a low-pass RC circuit excited by
an exponential input of rise time tr1 - 2.2r.
If an exponential of rise time tr1 is passed through a low-pass circuit with rise time tr2, the rise
time of the output waveform tr will be given by an empirical relation,tr =1.05√tr12 + tr22 .This is
same as the rise time obtained when a step is applied to a cascade of two circuits of rise times trl
and tr2 assuming that the second circuit does not load the first.
THE LOW-PASS RC CIRCUIT AS AN INTEGRATOR

If the time constant of an RC low-pass circuit is very large, the capacitor charges very
slowly and so almost all the input voltage appears across the resistor for small values of time.
Then, the current in the circuit is vffylR and the output signal across C is
As time increases, the voltage drop across C does not remain negligible compared with
that across R and the output will not remain the integral of the input. The output will change
from a quadratic to a linear function of time. If the time constant of an RC low-pass circuit is
very large in comparison with the. time required for the input signal to make an appreciable
change, the circuit acts as an integrator.A criterion for good integration in terms of steady-state
analysis is as follows: The low-pass circuit acts as an integrator provided the time constant of the
circuit RC > 15T, where T is the period of the input sine wave. When RC > 15T, the input
sinusoid will be shifted at least by 89.4° (instead of the ideal 90° shift required for integration)
when it is transmitted through the network.
An RC integrator converts a square wave into a triangular wave. Integrators are almost
invariably preferred over differentiators in analog computer applications for the following
reasons:

1. It is easier to stabilize an integrator than a differentiator because the gain of an integrator
decreases with frequency whereas the gain of a differentiator increases with frequency.
2. An integrator is less sensitive to noise voltages than a differentiator because of its limited
bandwidth.
3. The amplifier of a differentiator may overload if the input waveform changes very rapidly.
4. It is more convenient to introduce initial conditions in an integrator.
THE HIGH-PASS RC CIRCUIT

Figure 1.30 shows a high-pass RC circuit. At zero frequency the reactance of the
capacitor is infinity and so it blocks the input and hence the output is zero. Hence, this capacitor
is called the blocking capacitor and this circuit, also called the capacitive coupling circuit, is
used to provide dc isolation between the input and the output. As the frequency increases,'the
reactance of the capacitor decreases and hence the output and gain increase. At very high
frequencies, the capacitive reactance is very small so a very small voltage appears, across C and,
so the output is almost equal to the input and the gain is equal to 1. Since this circuit attenuates
low-frequency signals and allows transmission of high-frequency signals with little or no
attenuation, it is called a high-pass circuit.

Sinusoidal Input
Figure 1.31 (a) shows the Laplace transformed high-pass RC circuit. The gain versus
frequency curve of a high-pass circuit excited by a sinusoidal input is shown in Figure 1.31(b).
For a sinusoidal input v,, t;he output signal v0 increases in amplitude with increasing frequency.
The frequency at which the gain is 1/V2 of its maximum value is called the lower cut-off or
lower 3-dB frequency. For a high-pass circuit, there is no upper cut-off frequency because all
high frequency signals are transmitted with zero attenuation. Therefore, f2 – f1. Hence bandwidth
B.W= f2 - fi =∞
Expression for the lower cut-off frequency

For the high-pass RC circuit shown in Figure 1.31 (a), the magnitude of the steady-state gain A,
and the angle θ by which the output leads the input are given by
This is the expression for the lower cut-off frequency of a high-pass circuit.

Relation between f1 and tilt
The lower cut-off frequency of a high-pass circuit is /i = \/2nRC. The lower cut-off
frequency produces a tilt.For a 10% change in capacitor voltage, the time or pulse width
involved is
This equation applies only when the tilt is 10% or less. When the tilt exceeds 10%, the voltage
should be treated as exponential instead of linear and the equation should be
applied.
Step Input
When a step signal of amplitude V volts shown in Figure 1.32(a) is applied to the high-
pass RC circuit of Figure 1.30, since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change
instantaneously the output will be just equal to the input at t = 0 (for f < 0, v,- = 0 and va = 0).
Later when the capacitor charges exponentially, the output reduces exponentially with the same
time constant RC. The expression for the output voltage for t > 0 is given by
Figure 1.32(b) shows the response of the circuit for large,
small, and very small time constants.For t > 5r, the output will reach more than 99% of its final
value. Hence although the steady state is approached asymptotically, for most applications we
may assume that the final value has been reached after 5f. If the initial slope of the exponential is
maintained, the output falls to zero in a time t = T.
The voltage across a capacitor can change instantaneously only when an infinite current
passes through it, because for any finite current i(t) through the capacitor, the instantaneous
change in voltage across the capacitor is given by
Pulse Input
A pulse of amplitude V and duration tp shown in Figure 1.4(a) is nothing but the sum of a
positive step of amplitude V starting at t = 0 and a negative step of amplitude V starting at tp as
shown in Figure 1.4(b). So, the response of the circuit for 0 < t < t,, for the pulse input is the
same as that for a step input and is given by v0 (t) = Ve-t/ RC. At t = tp, vo(t) = V = Ve-t/RC . At t = tp,

since the input falls by V volts suddenly and since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change
instantaneously, the output also falls suddenly by V volts to Vp - V. Hence at t = t + , va(t) = Ve-tp
/RC - V . Since Vp< V, Vp- V is negative. So there is an undershoot at t = tp and hence for t > tp,
the output is negative. For t > tp, the output rises exponentially towards zero with a time constant
RC according to the expression (Ve-tp/RC - V)e-(t-tp)/RC-
The output waveforms for RC » tp, RC comparable to tp and RC « tp are shown in Figures
1.33(a), (b), and (c) respectively. There is distortion in the outputs and the distortion is the least
when the time constant is very large. Observe that there is positive area and negative area in the
output waveforms. The negative area will always be equal to the positive area. So if the time
constant is very large the tilt (the almost linear decrease in the output voltage) will be small and
hence the undershoot will be very small, and for t > tp, the output rises towards the zero level
very very slowly. If the time constant is very small compared to the pulse width (i.e. RC/tp « T),
the output consists of a positive spike or pip of amplitude V volts at the beginning of the pulse
and a negative spike of the same amplitude at the end of the pulse. Hence a high-pass circuit with
a very small time constant is called a peaking circuit and this process of converting pulses into
pips by means of a circuit of short time constant is called peaking.
Square-Wave Input
A square wave shown in Figure 1.34(a) is a periodic waveform, which maintains itself at
one constant level V with respect to ground for a time T{ and then changes abruptly to another
level V" and remains constant at that level for a time T2, and then repeats itself at regular
intervals of T = T\ + T2. A square wave may be treated as a series of positive and negative steps.
The shape of the output depends on the time constant of the circuit. Figures 1.34(b), 1.34(c),
1.34(d), and 1.34(e) show the output waveforms of the high-pass RC circuit under .steady-state
conditions for the cases (a) RC » T, (b) RC > T, (c) RC - T, and (d) RC « T respectively.
When the time constant is arbitrarily large (i.e. RC/T1 and RC/T2 are very very large in
comparison to unity) the output is same as the input but with zero dc level. When RC > T, the
output is in the form of a tilt. When RC is comparable to T, the output rises and falls
exponentially. When RC « T (i.e. RCIT\ and RC/T2 are very small in comparison to unity), the
output consists of alternate positive and negative spikes. In this case the peak-to-peak amplitude
of the output is twice the peak-to-peak value of the input.In fact, for any periodic input waveform
under steady-state conditions, the average level of the output waveform from the high-pass

circuit of Figure 1.30 is always zero independently of the dc level of the input. The proof is as
follows: Writing KVL around the loop of Figure 1.30,
Under steady-state conditions, the output waveform (as well as the input signal) is repetitive with
a period T so that v0(T) = v0(0) and v,(T) = v,(0).
Hence Since this integral represents the area under the output waveform over one
cycle, we can say that the average level of the steady-state output signal is always zero.This can
also be proved based on frequency domain analysis as follows.The periodic input signal may be
resolved into a Fourier series consisting of a constant term and an infinite number of sinusoidal
components whose frequencies are multiples of / = 1/T. Since the blocking capacitor presents
infinite impedance to the dc input voltage, none of these dc components reach the output under
steady-state conditions. Hence the output signal is a sum of sinusoids whose frequencies are
multiples of/. This waveform is therefore periodic with a fundamental period T but without a dc
component.With respect to the high-pass circuit of Figure 1.30, we can say that:
1. The average level of the output signal is always zero, .independently of the average level of
the input. The output must consequently extend in both negative and positive directions with
respect to the zero voltage axis and the area of the part of the waveform above the zero axis must
equal the area which is below the zero axis.
2. When the input changes abruptly by an amount V, the output also changes abruptly by an
equal amount and in the same direction.
3. During any finite time interval when the input maintains a constant level, the output decays
exponentially towards zero voltage.

Under steady-state conditions, the capacitor charges and discharges to the same voltage levels in
each cycle. So the shape of the output waveform is fixed.

Expression for the percentage tilt
We will derive an expression for the percentage tilt when the time constant RC of the
circuit is very large compared to the period of the input waveform, i.e. RC » T. For a symmetrical
square wave with zero average value

Ramp Input
A waveform which is zero for t < 0 and which increases linearly with time for / > 0 is
called a ramp or sweep voltage.
When the high-pass RC circuit of Figure 1.30 is excited by a ramp input v/(r) = at, where a is the
slope of the ramp, then

Figure 1.36 shows the response of the high-pass circuit for a ramp input when (a) RC» T, and (b)
RC « T, where T is the duration of the ramp. For small values of T, the output signal falls away
slightly from the input as shown in the Figure 1.36(a).
When a ramp signal is transmitted through a linear network, the output departs from the input. A
measure of the departure from linearity expressed as the transmission error e, is defined as the
difference between the input and the output divided by the input. The transmission error at a time
t = T is then
For large values of t in comparison with RC, the output approaches the constant value aRC as
indicated in Figure 1.36(b).
Exponential Input
When the high-pass RC circuit of Figure 1.30 is excited by an exponential input v,(r) =
V(l - e~'H) shown in Figure 1.8, where T is the time constant of the input, the output taken across
the resistor is given by

If the time constant of the circuit is very high, n is high and the second term of the equation for n
# 1 is negligible compared to the first term except for small values of time.
This equation agrees with the way the circuit should behave for an ideal step voltage. The
response of the high-pass circuit for different values of n is shown in Figure 1.37.
Near the origin of time the output follows the input. Also, the smaller the circuit time constant,
the smaller will be the output peak and the narrower will be the pulse. The larger the circuit time
constant, the larger will be the peak output and also the wider will be the pulse.

The maximum output occurs when
Since τ = t/T, the time to rise to peak tp is given by
To obtain the maximum value of output, substitute this value of -x in the expression for v0(t)

THE HIGH-PASS RC CIRCUIT AS A DIFFERENTIATOR
When the time constant of the high-pass RC circuit is very very small, the capacitor
charges very quickly; so almost all the input v,(0 appears across the capacitor and the voltage
across the resistor will be negligible compared to the voltage across the capacitor. Hence the
current is determined entirely by the capacit nce. Then the current
Thus we see that the output is proportional to the derivative of the input.The high-pass
RC circuit acts as a differentiator provided the RC time, constant of the circuit is very small in
comparison with the time required for the input signal to make an appreciable change.The
derivative of a step signal is an impulse of infinite amplitude at the occurrence of the
discontinuity of step. The derivative of an ideal pulse is a positive impulse followed by a delayed
negative impulse, each of infinite amplitude and occurring at the points of discontinuity. The
derivative of a square wave is a waveform which is uniformly zero except, at the points of
discontinuity. At these points, precise differentiation would yield impulses of infinite amplitude,
zero width and alternating polarity. For a square wave input, an RC high-pass circuit with very
small time constant will produce an output, which is zero except at the points of discontinuity. At
these points of discontinuity, there will be peaks of finite amplitude V. This is because the
voltage across R is not negligible compared with that across C.An RC differentiator converts a
triangular wave into a square wave.For the ramp vi = at, the value of RC(dv/dt) = aRC. This is
true except near the origin. The output approaches the proper derivative value only after a lapse
of time corresponding to several time constants. The error near θ= 0 is again due to the fact that
in this region the voltage across R is not negligible compared with that across C.
If we assume that the leading edge of a pulse can be approximated by a ramp, then we
can measure the rate of rise of the pulse by using a differentiator. The peak output is measured
on an oscilloscope, and from the equation = aRC, we see that this voltage divided by the product
RC gives the slope a.A criteria for good differentiation in terms of steady-state sinusoidal
analysis is, that if a sine wave is applied to the high-pass RC circuit, the output will be a sine
wave shifted by a leading angle θ such that: with the output being
proportional to sin(a>t + θ). In order to have true differentiation, we must obtain cos ωt. In other
words,θ must equal 90°. This result can be obtained only if R =,0 or C = 0. However, if ωRC =
0.01, then 1/ωRC = 100 and θ = 89.4°, which is sufficiently close to 90° for most purposes. If
ωRC = 0.1, then 90 - 84.3° and for some applications this may be close enough to 90°.If the peak
value of input is Vm, the output is and if ωRC « 1, then the output
is approximately VmωRC cos (at. This result agrees with the expected value RC(dvt/dt). If ωRC =
0.01, then the output amplitude is 0.01 times the input amplitude.
DOUBLE DIFFERENTIATION
Figure 1.38 shows two RC coupling networks in cascade separated by an amplifier A. It
is assumed that the amplifier operates linearly and that its output impedance is small relative to
the impedance of /?2 and C2. so that this combination does not load the amplifier. Let R\ be the
parallel combination of R and the input impedance of the amplifier. If the time constants R\C\
and R2C2 are small relative to the period of the input waveform, then.this circuit performs
approximately a second-order differentiation.
This circuit (Figure 1.38) can convert a ramp voltage into a pulse. The initial slope of the output
wave is the.initial slope of the input multiplied by the gain of the amplifier. For this reason this
circuit is also called a rate-of-rise amplifier.
ATTENUATORS
Attenuators are resistive networks, which are used to reduce the amplitude of the input
signal. The simple resistor combination of Figure 1.61 (a) would multiply the input signal by the
ratio a = R2/(R1 + R2) independently of the frequency. If the output of the attenuator is feeding a
stage of amplification, the input capacitance C2 of the amplifier will be the stray capacitance
shunting the resistor R2 of the attenuator and the attenuator will be as shown in Figure 1.61(b),
and the attenuation now is not independent of frequency. Using Thevenin's theorem, the circuit
in Figure 1.61(b) may be replaced by its equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1,6l(c), in which R is
equal to the parallel combination of R1 and R2. Normally /?t and R2 must be large so that the
nominal input impendence of the attenuator is large enough to prevent loading down the input
signal. But if R1 and R2 are large, the rise time tr = 2.2 will be large and a large rise
time is normally unacceptable.
The attenuator may be compensated by shunting R\ by a capacitor C\ as shown in Figure
1.61(d), so that its attenuation is once again independent of frequency. The circuit has been
drawn in Figure 1.61(e) to suggest that the two resistors and the two capacitors may be viewed as
the four arms of a bridge. If R1C1 = R2C2, the bridge will be balanced and no current will flow in

the branch connecting the point X to the point Y. For the purpose of computing the output, the
branch X-Y may be omitted and the output will again be equal to CM, independent of the
frequency. In practice, C1 will ordinarily have to be made adjustable.
Suppose a step signal of amplitude V volts is applied to the circuit. As the input changes abruptly
by V volts at t = 0, the voltages across Ci and C2 will also change abruptly. This happens because
at / = 0, the capacitors act as short-circuits and a very large (ideally infinite) current flows though
the capacitors for an irifinitesimally small time so that a finite charge is delivered to
each capacitor. The initial output voltage is determined by the capacitors.
Since the same current flows through the capacitors C1 and C2, we have

Or
The final output voltage is determined by the resistors R\ and R2, because the capacitors C[ and
C2 act as open circuits for the applied dc voltage under steady-state conditions. Hence
Looking back from the output terminals (with the input short circuited) we see a resistor R =
R{R2/(Ri + R2) in parallel with C = C1 + C2. Hence the decay or rise of the output (when the
attenuator is not perfectly compensated) from the initial to the final value takes place
exponentially with a time constant r = RC. The responses of an attenuator for Cj equal to, greater
than, and less than R2C2/R{ are indicated in Figure 1.62.

This is the balanced bridge condition. The extreme values of v0(0+) are 0 for C1 = 0 In the.above
analysis we have assumed that an infinite current flows through the capacitors at t = 0+ and hence
the capacitors get charged instantaneously. This is valid only if the generator resistance is zero.
In general, the output resistance of the generator is not zero but is of some finite value. Hence the
impulse response is physically impossible. So, even though the attenuator is compensated, the
ideal step response can never be obtained. Neverthless, an improvement in rise time does result if
a compensated attenuator is used. For example, if the output is one-tenth of the input, then the
rise time of the output using the attenuator is one-tenth of what it would be without the
attenuator.
The compensated attenuator will reproduce faithfully the signal, which appears at its input
terminals. However, if the output impedance of the generator driving the attenuator is not zero,
the signal will be distorted right at the input to the attenuator. This situation is illustrated in
Figure 1.63(a) in which a generator of step voltage V and of source resistance Rs is connected to
the attenuator. Since the lead which joins the point X and point Y may be open circuited, the
circuit may be redrawn as in Figure 1.63(b). Usually Rs « R1+ R2, so the input to the attenuator
will be an exponential of time constant RsC', where C' is the capacitance of the series
combination of Cj and C2> i.e. C' = C1 C/(C1 + C2). It is this exponential waveform rather than
the step, which the attenuator will transmit faithfully. If the generator terminals were connected
directly to the terminals to which the attenuator output is connected, the generator would see a
capacitance C2. In this case the waveform at these terminals would be an exponential with time
constant T = RsC2.

When the attenuator is used^ the time constant is T' = R$Cf. an
improvement in waveform results. For example, if the attenuation is equal to 10(a = 1/10), then
the rise time of the waveform would be divided by a factor 10.-
Application of Attenuator as a CRO Probe

To measure the signal at a point in the circuit, the input terminals of the oscilloscope are
connected to the signal point. Normally the point at which the signal is available will be at some
distance from the oscilloscope terminals and if the signal appears at a high impedance level, a
shielded cable is used to connect the signal to the oscilloscope. The shielding is necessary in'this
case to isolate the input lead from stray fields such as those of the ever-present power line. The
capacitance seen looking into several feet of cable may be as high as 100 to 150 pF. This
combination of high input capacitance together with the high output impedence of the signal
source will make it impossible to make faithful observations of waveforms. A probe assembly,
which permits the use of shielded cable and still keeps the capacitance low, is indicated in Figure
1.64.
RL CIRCUITS
In previous session we discussed the behaviour of RC low-pass and high-pass circuits for
various types of input waveforms. Suppose the capacitor C and-resistor R in those circuits are
replaced by a resistor R' and an inductor L respectively, then, if the time constant LIR' equals the
time constant RC, all the preceding results remain unchanged.

When a large time constant is required, the inductor is rarely used because a large value
of inductance can be obtained only with an iron-core inductor which is physically large, heavy
and expensive relative to the cost of a capacitor for a similar application. Such an iron-cored
inductor will be shunted with a large amount of stray distributed capacitance. Also the nonlinear
properties of the iron cause distortion, which may be undesirable. If it is required to pass very
low frequencies through a circuit in which L is" a shunt element, then the inductor may become
prohibitively large. Of course in circuits where a small value of /?' is tolerable, a more reasonable
value of inductance may be used. In low time constant applications, a small inexpensive air-
cored inductor may be used.
Figure 1.73(a) shows the RL low-pass circuit. At very low frequencies the reactance of
the inductor is small, so the output across the resistor /?' is almost equal to the input. As the
frequency increases, the reactance of the inductor increases and so the signal is attenuated. At
very high frequencies the output is almost equal to zero. So the circuit in Figure 1.73(a) acts as a
low-pass filter.The circuit of Figure 1.73(b) acts as a high-pass circuit because at low
frequencies, since the reactance of the inductor is small, the output across the inductor is small
and the output increases as the frequency increases because the reactance of the inductor
increases as the frequency increases and at high frequencies the output is almost equal to the
input.
Figure 1.74 shows how a square wave may be converted into pulses by means of the peaking coil
L. It is assumed that the bias voltage and the magnitude of the input are such that the transistor
operates linearly. Since the instantaneous voltage L(dildt) across an inductor cannot be infinite,
the current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously. Hence the inductor acts as an
open circuit at the time of an abrupt change in voltage. Figure 1.74(a) shows a transistor peaking
circuit. The input current waveform is shown in Figure 1.74(b). The output voltage waveform is
shown in Figure 1.74(c).

If the base input is a square wave of current whose peak-to-peak value is /; then the
output voltage will have the waveform as in Figure 1.74(c). The peak voltage is now hfel/hoe and
the time constant is hoeL assuming that the transistor can be replaced by it low-frequency hybrid
parameter model.
RLC CIRCUITS
RLC Series Circuit
Consider a series RLC circuit shown in Figure 1.75.

The response of i(t) and the response of v0(t) for the above three cases are shown in Figures
1.76(a) and 1.76(b) respectively.

RLC Parallel Circuit
In the RL circuit shown in Figure 1.73(b), to include the effect of coil winding
capacitance, output capacitance and stray capacitance to ground, a capacitor is added across the
output. So, the RLC circuit shown in Figure 1.77(a) results. In terms of a current source, the
equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1.77(b) results.
is similar
to that to the current through the RLC series circuit with the difference that the input to the RLC
parallel circuit is a step current.
In the series RLC network, the current response to a step input voltage ultimately dies to
zero because of the capacitor in series. In the parallel RLC circuit the voltage across the RLC
network is zero because of the inductance.

RINGING CIRCUIT
In a previous section it was seen that to obtain a pulse from a step voltage (peaking) the
circuit should operate in the neighbourhood of critical damping. In some applications almost
undamped oscillations are required. A circuit, which can provide as nearly undamped oscillations
as possible is called a ringing circuit. If the damping is very small the circuit will ring for many
cycles. Many times the value of Q of a circuit which has to ring for a given number N of cycles
before the amplitude decreases to 1/6 of its initial value needs to be known. This is given by Q =
nN,
Thus, a circuit with Q = 12 will ring for Q/rc = 4 cycles before the amplitude of the oscillation
decreases to 37 per cent of its initial value. A ringing circuit may be used to generate a sequence
of pulses regularly spaced in time. These pulses find application in many timing operations.

UNIT – II
NON LINEAR WAVESHAPING
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Diode clippers, Transistor clippers, clipping at two independent levels, Transfer characteristics of
clippers, Emitter coupled clipper, Comparators, applications of voltage comparators, clamping
operation, clamping circuits using diode with different inputs, Clamping circuit theorem,
practical clamping circuits, effect of diode characteristics on clamping voltage, Transfer
characteristics of clampers.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
In the previous chapter we discussed about linear wave shaping. We saw how a change of
wave shape was brought about when a non-sinusoidal signal is transmitted through a linear
network like RC low pass and high pass circuit. In this chapter, we discuss some aspects of
nonlinear wave shaping like clipping and clamping. The circuits for which the outputs are non-
sinusoidal for sinusoidal inputs are called nonlinear wave shaping circuits, for example clipping
circuits and clamping circuits.
Clipping means cutting and removing a part. A clipping circuit is a circuit which removes
the undesired part of the waveform and transmits only the desired part of the signal which is
above or below some particular reference level, i.e. it is used to select for transmission that part
of an arbitrary waveform which lies above or below some particular reference. Clipping circuits
are also called voltage (or current) limiters, amplitude selectors or slicers.
Nonlinear wave shaping circuits may be classified as clipping circuits and clamping
circuits. Clipping circuits may be single level clippers or two level clippers.
Single level clippers may be series diode clippers with and without reference or shunt
diode clippers with and without reference. Clipping circuits may use diodes or transistors.
Clamping circuits may be negative clampers (positive peak clampers) with and without
reference or positive clampers (negative peak clampers) with and without reference.
CLIPPING CIRCUITS
In general, there are three basic configurations of clipping circuits.
1. A series combination of a diode, a resistor and a reference voltage.
2. A network consisting of many diodes, resistors and reference voltages.
3. Two emitter coupled transistors operating as a differential amplifier.
Diode Clippers
Figure 2.1(a) shows the v-i characteristic of a practical diode. Figures 2.1(b), (c), (d), and
(e) show the v-i characteristics of an idealized diode approximated by a curve which is piece-
wise linear and continuous. The break point occurs at Vr, where Vr = 0.2 V for Ge and Vr = 0.6 V
for Si. Usually Vr is very small compared to the reference voltage VR and can be neglected.

Shunt Clippers
Clipping above reference level
Using the ideal diode characteristic of Figure 2.2(a), the clipping circuit shown in Figure 2.2(b),
has the transmission characteristic shown in Figure 2.2(c). The transmission characteristic which
is a plot of the output voltage v0 as a function of the input voltage v, also exhibits piece-wise
linear discontinuity. The break point occurs at the reference voltage VR. To the left of the break
point i.e. for vt < VR the diode is reverse biased (OFF) and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure
2.2(d) results. In this region the signal v, may be transmitted directly to the output, since there is
no load across the output to cause a drop across the series resistor /?. To the right of the break
point i.e. for v( > VR the diode is forward biased (ON) and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure
2,2(e) results and increments in the inputs are totally attenuated and the output is fixed at V R.
Figure 2.2(c) shows a sinusoidal input signal of amplitude large enough so that the signal makes
excursions past the break point. The corresponding output exhibits a suppression of the positive
peak of the signal. The output will appear as if the positive peak had been clipped off or sliced off
Clipping below reference level
If this clipping circuit of Figure 2.2(b), is modified by reversing the diode as shown in
Figure 2.3(a), the corresponding piece-wise linear transfer characteristic and the output for a
sinusoidal input will be as shown in Figure 2.3(b). In this circuit, the portion of the waveform
more positive than VR is transmitted without any attenuation but the portion of the waveform less
positive than VR is totally suppressed. For Vj < VR, the diode conducts and acts as a short circuit
and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.3(c) results and the output is fixed at V R. For v, >
VR, the diode is reverse biased and acts as an open circuit and the equivalent circuit shown in
Figure 2.3(d) results and the output is the same as the input.

Figure 2.2 (a) v-i characteristic of an ideal diode, (b) diode clipping circuit, which removes that part of the
waveform that is more positive than VR, (c) the piece-wise linear transmission characteristic of the circuit, a
sinusoidal input and the clipped output, (d) equivalent circuit for v( < VR, and (e) equivalent circuit for v, > VR.

Figure 2.3 (a) A diode clipping circuit, which transmits that part of the sine wave that is more
positive than VR, (b) the piece-wise linear transmission characteristic, a sinusoidal input and the
clipped output, (c) equivalent circuit for v( < VR, and (d) equivalent circuit for v,- > VR.
In Figures 2.1(b) and 2.2(a), we assumed that Rr = °° and Rf = 0. If this condition does
not apply, the transmission characteristic must be modified. The portions of those curves which
are indicated as having unity slope must instead be considered as having a slope of Rrl(Rr + R),
and those, having zero slope as having a slope of /?/(/?/ + /?). In the transmission region of a
diode clipping circuit, it is required that Rr » R, i.e. Rr = kR, where k is a large number, and in the
attenuation region, it is required that R » Rf. From
these equations we can deduce that R = J RrxR^ , i.e. the external resistance R is to be
selected as the geometric mean of Rf and /?,. The ratio RrIRf serves as a figure of merit for the
diodes used in these applications. A zener diode may also be used in combination with a p-n
junction diode to obtain single-ended clipping, i.e. one-level clipping.
Series Clippers
Clipping above the reference voltage Vn
Figure 2.4(a) shows a series clipper circuit using a p-n junction diode. VR is the reference
voltage source. The diode is assumed to be ideal (/?/ = 0, Rr = °°, Vy= 0) so that it acts as a short
circuit when it is ON and as a open circuit when it is OFF. Since the diode is in the series path
connecting the input and the output it is called a series clipper. The v0 versus v, characteristic
called the transfer characteristic is shown in Figure 2.4(b). The output for a sinusoidal input is
shown in Figure 2.4(c).
The circuit works as follows:

For v, < VR, the diode Dj is forward biased because its anode is at a higher potential than
its cathode. It conducts and acts as a short circuit and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure
2.4(d) results. The difference voltage between the input v,- and the reference voltage VR i.e. (VR
– vi) is dropped across . Therefore v0 = vi and the slope of the transfer characteristic for vi < VR is
1. Since the input signal is transmitted to the output without any change, this region is called the
transmission region.

Figure 2.4 (a) Diode series clipper circuit diagram, (b) transfer characteristic, (c) output
waveform for a sinusoidal input, (d) equivalent circuit for v; < VR, and (e) equivalent circuit for
v( > VR.
For v, > VR, the diode is reverse biased because its cathode is at a higher potential than its
anode, it does not conduct and acts as an open circuit and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure
2.4(e) results. No current flows through R and so no voltage drop across it. So the output voltage
v0 = VR and the slope of the transfer characteristic is zero. Since the input signal above V R is
clipped OFF for v, > VR, this region is called the clipping region. The equations V0=Vi for Vi <
VR and V0= VR for Vi > VR are called the transfer characteristic equations.
Clipping below the reference voltage VB
Figure 2.5(a) shows a series clipper circuit using a p-n junction diode and a reference
voltage source VR. The diode is assumed to be ideal (Rf = 0, Rr = °°, Vy = 0) so that it acts as a
short circuit when it is ON and as a open circuit when it is OFF. Since the diode is in the series
path connecting the input and the output it is called a series clipper. The transfer characteristic is
shown in Figure 2.5(b). The output for a sinusoidal input is shown in Figure 2.5(c).
Figure 2.5 (a) Diode series clipper circuit diagram, (b). transfer characteristics, (c) output for a
sinusoidal input, (d) equivalent circuit for vi- < VR, and (e) equivalent circuit for vi- > VR.
The circuit works as follows:
For vi < VR, D is reversed biased because its anode is at a lower potential than its
cathode. The diode does not conduct and acts as an open circuit and the equivalent circuit shown
in Figure 2.5(d) results. No current flows through R and hence no voltage drop across R and

hence vo = VR- So the slope of the transfer characteristic is zero for v, < V R. Since the input is
clipped off for v, < VR, this region is called the clipping region.
For v, > VR, the diode is forward biased because its anode is at a higher potential than its cathode.
The diode conducts and acts as a short circuit and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.5(e)
results. Current flows through /? and the difference voltage between the input and the output
voltages v, - VR drops across /? and the output v0 = vi. The slope of the transfer characteristic for
v, > VR is unity. Since the input is transmitted to the output for v; > VR, this region is called the
transmission region. The equations
are called the transfer characteristic equations.

Some single-ended diode clipping circuits, their transfer characteristics and the output
waveforms for sinusoidal inputs are shown below (Figure 2.6).
Some single-ended clipping circuits

In the clipping circuits, the diode may appear as a series element or as a shunt element.
The use of the diode as a series element has the disadvantage that when the diode is OFF and it is
intended that there be no transmission, fast signals or high frequency waveforms may be
transmitted to the output through the diode capacitance. The use of the diode as a shunt element
has the disadvantage that when the diode is open and it is intended that there be transmission, the
diode capacitance together with all other capacitances in shunt with the output terminals will
round off the sharp edges of the input waveforms and attenuate, the high frequency signals.
Clipping at Two Independent Levels
A parallel, a series, or a series-parallel arrangement may be used in double-ended limiting
at two independent levels. A parallel arrangement is shown in Figure 2.7. Figure 2.8 shows the
transfer characteristic and the output for a sinusoidal input. The input-output characteristic has
two breakpoints, one at v0 = v, = VR1 and the second at v0 = v, = -VR2 and has the following
characteristics.

The two level diode clipper shown in Figure 2.8 works as follows. For v, > V R1, DI is ON
and D2 is OFF and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.9(a) results. So the output v0 = VR1
and the slope of the transfer characteristic is zero.
For v, < - VR2, DI is OFF and D2 is ON and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.9(b) results.
So the output v0 = - VR2 and the slope of the transfer characteristic is zero. For-VR2 < v, < VRI, D!
is OFF and D2 is OFF and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.10 results. So the output v0 =
v/ and the slope of the transfer characteristic is one.
The circuit of Figure 2.7 is called a slicer because the output contains a slice of the input between
two reference levels VR! and VR2. Looking at the input and output waveforms, we observe that
this circuit may be used to convert a sine wave into a square wave, if VDI = Vm. and if the
amplitude of the input signal is very large compared with the difference in the reference levels,
the output will be a symmetrical square wave. Two zener diodes in series opposing may also be
used to form a double-ended clipper.

If the diodes have identical characteristics, then, a symmetrical limiter is obtained. Some double-
ended clippers, their transfer characteristics and the outputs for sine wave inputs are shown in
Figure 2.11.
Some double-ended clipping circuits

Series and Shunt Noise Clippers
Practically actual signals will be mostly associated with unwanted noise signals. The
presence of noise signals may adversely affect sensitive circuits. So the noise signals must be
eliminated to make the actual signal free from distortions and fluctuations.

Noise signals can be eliminated by employing noise clippers. These clippers use two or more
diodes depending upon whether the noise is quite small or considerably large. Noise clippers are
of two types: series noise clippers and shunt noise clippers.
Series noise clipper
Figure 2.12 shows a series noise clipper. This type of clipper circuits are used when the
amplitude of the noise voltage is not greater than Vr the forward voltage drop of the diode and
the signal voltage has an amplitude larger than VY. When the input signal along with noise shown
in Figure 2.13(a) is applied at the input, the diode Dj will conduct when the amplitude exceeds +
Vy, the diode Da will conduct when the amplitude falls below - Vyand no diode will conduct
when the amplitude is between + Vyand - Vy. Therefore, the noise within the limits of + Vyand -
Vy is clipped and the signal above Vy during positive cycle and the signal below - Vy during
negative cycle will appear at the output. The output voltage waveform is shown in Figure
2.13(b). The effective amplitude of the output voltage is ± (Vimax - Vy).
Shunt noise clipper

A shunt noise clipper shown in Figure 2.14 is used when the noise associated with the input
signal at the peaks is to be eliminated. When the input signal with noise shown in Figure 2.15(a)
is applied at the input, for -Vy< v, < Vy, there is no conduction as both the diodes get reverse
biased and are OFF. Hence output voltage will follow the input voltage,V0 = V,-.When v, > Vr ,
the diode Dt is ON and the diode D2 is OFF.Hence the output voltage v0 = Vr and it remains at Vy
until the signal amplitude falls below Vy. Thus the noise riding the signal voltage positive peaks
is eliminated.When v, < -Vy , the diode DI is OFF and the diode D2 is ON. Hence the output
voltage v0 = -Vyand it remains at -Vy until the signal amplitude rises above -Vy. Thus the noise
riding the signal voltage negative peak is eliminated. The output waveform is as shown in Figure
2.15(b).

Compensation for Variation of Temperature
The forward voltage at which.a semiconductor diode breaks and starts conducting depends on its
junction temperature. The break point decreases by 2 mV/°C rise in temperature. In an ideal
diode, the break point occurs at zero voltage. Since the practical clipper circuits use
semiconductor diodes, the exact point on the input signal waveform at which clipping occurs
also depends on temperature.
Several techniques are adopted in practice to compensate for the effect of temperature changes.
A practical diode may be visualized as an ideal diode in series with a voltage source V r as shown
in Figure 2.16(a). A series clipper using a practical diode is shown in Figure 2.16(b).
The following are the techniques adopted for temperature compensation.

1. A diode D2 whose voltage source Vy compensates for Vy of diode D] is connected in series
with D1 as shown in Figure 2.17. A voltage source V in series with a resistance /?' is connected in
parallel with D2 in order to keep D2 conducting all the time for transmission of signal to the
output.
2. Another circuit which provides for temperature compensation is shown in Figure 2.18(a). This
arrangement avoids the use of V. In this arrangement, the battery VR not only acts as the
reference voltage but it also keeps the diode D2 conducting if v, < VR.
3. Another alternative temperature compensated clipping circuit is shown in Figure 2.18(b).

In this arrangement, the clipping level V R is quite independent of Vy and hence is not affected by
changes of temperature.
Transistor Clippers
A nonlinear device is required for clipping purposes. A diode exhibits a nonlinearity,
which occurs when it goes from OFF to ON. On the other hand, the transistor has two
pronounced nonlinearities, which may be used for clipping purposes. One occurs when the
transistor crosses from the cut-in region into the active region and the second occurs when the
transistor crosses from the active region into the saturation region. Therefore, if the peak-to-peak
value of the input waveform is such that it can carry the transistor across the boundary between
the cut-in and active regions, or across the boundary between the active and saturation regions, a
portion of the input waveform will be clipped. Normally, it is required that the portion of the
input waveform, which keeps the transistor in the active region shall appear at the output without
distortion. In that case, it is required that the input current rather than the input voltage be the
waveform of the signal of interest. The reason for this requirement is that over a large signal
excursion in the active region, the transistor output current responds nominally linearly to the
input current but is related in a quite nonlinear manner to the input voltage. So, in transistor
clippers a current drive needs to be used.
A transistor clipper is shown in Figure 2.19. The resistor R which represents either the
signal source impedance or a resistor deliberately introduced must be large compared with the
input resistance of the transistor in the active region. Under these circumstances, the input base
current will very nearly have the waveform of the input voltage, because the base current is
given by where Vr is the base-to-emitter cut-in voltage. Vy » 0.1 V for Ge and Vy ~
0.5 V for Si.

If a ramp input signal vi which starts at a voltage below cut-off and carries the transistor
into saturation is applied, the base voltage, the base current, and the collector current waveforms
of the transistor clipper will be as shown in Figure 2.20.
The waveforms which result when a sinusoidal voltage v, carries the transistor from cut-
off to saturation are shown in Figure 2.21. The base circuit is biased so that cut-in occurs when
VBE reaches the voltage V.

Figure 2.21 Waveforms for the transistor clipper of figure 2.19: (a) in put voltage and the
base –to-emitter voltage (b) the base current (c) the collector current (d) the out put voltage
Emitter-Coupled Clipper
An emitter-coupled clipper is shown in Figure 2.22. It is a two-level clipper using
transistors. The base of Q2 is fixed at a voltage VBB2, and the input is applied to B1. If initially the
input is negative, Q1 is OFF and only Q2 carries the current. Assume that VBB2 has been adjusted
so that Q2 operates in its active region. Let us assume that the current / in the emitter resistance is
constant. This is valid if IVBE2I is small compared to VBB2 + VEE When vt is below the cut-off
point of Q1, all the current 7 flows through Q2. As v, increases, Q1 will eventually come out of
cut-off, both the transistors will be carrying currents but the current in Q 2 decreases while the
current in Q1 increases, the sum of the currents in the two transistors remaining constant and
equal to 7. The input signal appears at the output, amplified but not inverted. As v1 continues to
increase, the common emitter will follow the base of Q1. Since the base of Q2 is fixed, a point
will be reached when the rising emitter voltage cuts off Q 2. Thus, the input signal is amplified
but twice limited, once by the cutoff of Q1 and once by the onset of cut-off in Q2. The total range

Av0, over which the output can follow the input is VE and is constant and therefore adjustable
through an adjustment of 7. The absolute voltage of the portion of the input waveform selected
for transmission may be selected through an adjustment of a biasing voltage on which v, is
superimposed or through an adjustment of VBB2- The total range of input voltage Av, between the
clipping limits is Av0/A, where A is the gain of the amplifier stage. Figure 2.23 shows the transfer
characteristic of an emitter-coupled clipper.
Comparators
A comparator circuit is one, which may be used to mark the instant when an arbitrary
waveform attains some particular reference level. The nonlinear circuits, which can be used to
perform the operation of clipping may also be used to perform the operation of comparison. In
fact, the clipping circuits become elements of a comparator system and are Usually simply
referred to as comparators. The distinction between comparator circuits and the clipping circuits
is that, in a comparator there is 'no interest in reproducing any part of the signal waveform,
whereas in a clipping circuit, part of the signal waveform is needed to be reproduced without any
distortion.

Figure 2.70 shows the circuit diagram of a diode comparator. As long as the input voltage
v, is less than the reference voltage VR, the diode D is ON and the output is fixed at VR. When v,
> VR, the diode is OFF and hence v0 = v,. The break occurs at v, = VR at time t = t\. So, this
circuit can be used to mark the instant at which the input voltage reaches a particular reference
level VR.
Comparators may be non-regenerative or regenerative. Clipping circuits fall into the category of
non-regenerative comparators. In regenerative comparators, positive feedback is employed to
obtain an infinite forward gain (unity loop gain). The Schmitt trigger and the blocking oscillator
are examples of regenerative comparators. The Schmitt trigger comparator generates
approximately a step input. The blocking oscillator comparator generates a pulse rather than a
step output waveform. Most applications of comparators make use of the step or pulse natures of
the input. Operational amplifiers and tunnel diodes may also be used as comparators.
Applications of voltage comparators
Voltage comparators may be used:
1. In accurate time measurements
2. In pulse time modulation
3. As timing markers generated from a sine wave.
4. In phase meters
5. In amplitude distribution analyzers
6. To obtain square wave from a sine wave
7. In analog-to-digital converters.

CLAMPING CIRCUITS
Clamping circuits are circuits, which are used to clamp or fix the extremity of a periodic
waveform to some constant reference level V.R. Under steady-state conditions, these circuits
restrain the extremity of the waveform from going beyond VR. Clamping circuits may be one-
way clamps or two-way clamps. When only one diode is used and a voltage change in only one
direction is restrained, the circuits are called one-way clamps. When two diodes are used and the
voltage change in both the directions is restrained, the circuits are called two-way clamps.
The Clamping Operation

When a signal is transmitted through a capacitive coupling network (RC high-pass
circuit), it looses its dc component, and a clamping circuit may be used to introduce a dc
component by fixing the positive or negative extremity of that waveform to some reference level.
For this reason, the clamping circuit is often referred to as dc restorer or dc reinserter. In fact, it
should be called a dc inserter, because the dc component introduced may be different from the
dc component lost during transmission. The clamping circuit only changes the dc level of the
input signal. It does not affect its shape
Classification of clamping circuits
Basically clamping circuits are of two types: (1) positive-voltage clamping circuits and
(2) negative-voltage clamping circuits.
In positive clamping, the negative extremity of the waveform is fixed at the reference level and
the entire waveform appears above the reference level, i.e. the output waveform is positively
clamped with reference to the reference level. In negative clamping, the positive extremity of the
waveform is fixed at the reference level and the entire waveform appears below the reference,
i.e. the output waveform is negatively clamped with respect to the reference level. The capacitors
are essential in clamping circuits. The difference between the clipping and clamping circuits is
that while the clipper clipps off an unwanted portion of the input waveform, the clamper simply
clamps the maximum positive or negative peak of the waveform to a desired level. There will be
no distortion of waveform.
Negative Clamper
Figure 3.1 (a) shows the circuit diagram of a basic negative clamper. It is also termed a positive
peak clamper since the circuit clamps the positive peak of a signal to zero level. Assume that the
signal source has negligible output impedance and that the diode" is ideal, Rf= 0 n and Vy = 0 V
in that, it exhibits an arbitrarily sharp break at 0 V, and that its input signal shown in Figure
2.71(b) is a sinusoid which begins at t = 0. Let the capacitor C be uncharged at t = 0.
During the first quarter cycle, the input signal rises from zero to the maximum value. The
diode conducts during this time and since we have assumed an ideal diode, the voltage across it
is zero. The capacitor C is charged through the series combination of the signal source and the
diode and the voltage across C rises sinusoidally. At -the end of the first quarter cycle, the
voltage across the capacitor, vc = Vm.When, after the first quarter cycle, the peak has been passed
and the input signal begins to fall, the voltage vc across the capacitor is no longer able to follow
the input, because there is no path for the capacitor to discharge. Hence, the voltage across the
capacitor remains constant at vc = Vm, and the charged capacitor acts as a voltage source of V

volts and after the first quarter cycle, the output is given by v0 = v, - Vm. During the succeeding
cycles, the positive extremity of the signal will be clamped or restored to zero and the output
waveform shown in Figure 2.7 l(c) results. Therefore
Figure 2.71 (a) A negative clamping circuit, (b) a sinusoidal input, and (c) a steady-state
clamped output.
Suppose that after the steady-state condition has been reached, the amplitude of the input signal
is increased, then the diode will again conduct for at most one quarter cycle and the dc voltage
across the capacitor would rise to the new peak value, and the positive excursions of the signal
would be again restored to zero.
Suppose the amplitude of the input signal is decreased after the steady-state condition has been
reached. There is no path for the capacitor to discharge. To permit the voltage across the
capacitor to decrease, it is necessary to shunt a resistor across C, or equivalently to shunt a
resistor across D. In the latter case, the capacitor will discharge through the series combination of
the resistor R across the diode and the resistance of the source, and in a few cycles the positive
extremity would be again clamped at zero as shown in Figure 2.72(b). A circuit with such a
resistor 'R is shown in Figure 2.72(a).

Positive Clamper
Figure 2.73(a) shows a positive clamper. This is also termed as negative peak clamper since this
circuit clamps the negative peaks of a signal to zero level. The negative peak clamper, i.e. the
positive clamper introduces a positive dc.
Let the input voltage be vi = Vm sin (ot as shown in Figure 2.73(b). When v, goes negative, the
diode gets forward biased and conducts and in a few cycles the capacitor gets charged to Vm with
the polarity shown in Figure 2.73(a). Under steady-state conditions, the capacitor acts as a
constant voltage source and the output is
Based on the above relation between v0 and v,, the output voltage waveform is plotted. As
seen in Figure 2.73(c) the negative peaks of the input signal are clamped to zero level. Peak-to-
peak value of output voltage = peak-to-peak value of input voltage = 2Vm. There is no distortion
of waveform. To accommodate for variations in amplitude of input, the diode D is shunted with a
resistor as shown in Figure 2.74(a). When the amplitude of the input waveform is reduced, the
output will adjust to its new value as shown in Figure 2.74(b).

Biased Clamping
If a voltage source of VR volts is connected in series with the diode of a clamping circuit,
the input waveform will be clamped with reference to VR. Depending on the position of the
diode, the input waveform may be positively clamped with reference to V R, or negatively
clamped with reference to VR.
Clamping Circuit Taking Source and Diode Resistances Into Account

In the discussion of the clamping circuit of Figure 2.71, we neglected the output
resistance of the source as well as the diode forward resistance. Many times these resistances
cannot be neglected. Figure 2.79 shows a more realistic clamping circuit taking into
consideration the output resistance of the source Rs, which may be negligible or may range up to
many thousands of ohms depending on the source, and the diode forward resistance Rf which
may range from tens to hundreds of ohms. Assume that the diode break point Vy occurs at zero
voltage.
Figure 2.79 Clamping circuit considering the source resistance and the diode forward resistance.
The precision of operation of the circuit depends on the condition that R » Rf, and Rr » R.
When the input is positive, the diode is ON and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.80(a)
results. When the input is negative, the diode is OFF and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure
2.80(b) results.
Figure 2.80 (a) Equivalent circuit when the diode is conducting and (b) the equivalent circuit
when the diode is not conducting.
The transient waveform

When a signal is suddenly applied to the circuit shown in Figure 2.79 the capacitor
charges (transient period) and gradually the steady-state condition is reached in which the

positive peaks will be clamped to zero. The equivalent circuits shown in Figures 2.80(a) and
2.80(b) may be used to calculate the transient response.
Relation between tilts in forward and reverse directions

The steady-state output waveform for a square wave input. Consider that the square wave input
shown in Figure 2.82(a) is applied to the clamping circuit shown in Figure 2.79. The general
form of the output waveform would be as shown in Figure 2.82(b), extending in both positive
and negative directions and is determined by the voltages V1, V2, V11, and V'2. These voltages
may be calculated as discussed below.
In the interval 0 < t < T, the input is at its higher level; so the diode is ON and the
capacitor charges with a time constant (Rs + Rf)C, and the output decays towards zero with the
same time constant. Hence, ---------- (i)
In the interval T1< t < T1 + T2, the input is at its lower level; so the diode is OFF and the
capacitor discharges with a time constant (R + RS)C, and the output rises towards zero with the
same time constant. Hence ---------(ii)
Considering the conditions at t= 0. At t = 0~, vs = V", v0 = V2, the diode D is OFF and
the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.80(b) results. The voltage across the capacitor is given by
---------(iii)
At t = 0+, the input signal jumps to V, the output jumps to Vt, the diode conducts and the
equivalent circuit of Figure 2.80(a) results. The voltage across the capacitor is given by
----------(iv)
Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously, equating equations
(iii) and (iv), we have
----------(v)

Figure 2.82 (a) A square wave input signal of peak-to-peak amplitude V, (b) the general form
of the steady-state output of a clamping circuit with;' the input as in (a).
Considering the conditions at t= Tr. At t = Tr, vs = V, v0 = V1, the diode D is ON, and
the equivalent circuit of Figure 2,80(a) results. The voltage across the capacitor is given by
-----------(vi)
At t = Tr, , vs = V"=v0 = V2, the diode D is OFF, and the equivalent circuit of Figure 2.80(b)
results.
The voltage across the capacitor is given by
----------(vii)
Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously, equating equations
(vi) and (vii), we get
----------(viii)
From equations (i), (ii), (v) and (viii), the values V1, V’, V2 and V2’ can be computed and
the output waveform determined.
If the source impedance is taken into account, the output voltage jumps are smaller than
the abrupt discontinuity V in the input. Only if Rs = 0, are the jumps in input and output voltages
equal. Thus, when Rs = 0, Observe that the response is independent of the
absolute levels V' and V" of the input signal and is determined only by the amplitude V. It is
possible, for example, for V" to be negative or even for both V and V" to be negative.
The average level of the input plays no role in determining the steady-state output waveform.
Under steady-state conditions, there is a tilt in the output waveform in both positive and
negative directions. The relation between the tilts can be obtained by subtracting Eq. (viii) from
Eq. (v), i.e.

Where,
Since Rs is usually much smaller than R, then, the tilt in the forward direction Ay is almost
always less than the tilt Ar in the reverse direction. Only when Rs « Rf, are the two tilts almost
equal.
Clamping Circuit Theorem
Under steady-state conditions, for any input waveform, the shape of the output waveform
of a clamping circuit is fixed and also the area in the forward direction (when the diode
conducts) and the area in the reverse direction (when the diode does not conduct) are related.
The clamping circuit theorem states that, for any input waveform under steady-state
conditions, the ratio of the area Af under the output voltage curve in the forward direction to
that in the reverse direction Ar is equal to the ratio R//R-
This theorem applies quite generally independent of the input waveform and the magnitude of
the source resistance. The proof is as follows:
Consider the clamping circuit of Figure 2.79, the equivalent circuits in Figures 2.80(a) and
2.80(b), and the input and output waveforms of Figures 2.82(a) and 2.82(b) respectively.
In the interval 0 < t < T, the input is at its upper level, the diode is ON, and the equivalent
circuit of Figure 2.80(a) results. If v/(f) is the output waveform in the forward direction, then the
capacitor charging current is Therefore, -the charge gained by the capacitor during
the forward interval is
In the interval TJ < t < T{ + T2, the input is at its lower level, the diode is OFF, and the
equivalent circuit of Figure 2.80(b) results. If vr(t) is the output voltage in the reverse direction,
then the current which discharges the capacitor is
Therefore, the charge lost by the capacitor during the reverse interval is
Under steady-state conditions, the net charge acquired by the capacitor over one cycle
must be equal to zero. Therefore, the charge gained in the interval 0 < t < T}, will be equal to the
charge lost in the interval T1 < t < T1 + T2, i.e. Qg = Ql

UNIT – III
SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVICES
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SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVICES: Diode as a switch, piecewise linear
diode characteristics, Transistor as a switch, Break down voltage consideration of transistor,
saturation parameters of Transistor and their variation with temperature, Design of transistor
switch, transistor-switching times.
Electronic devices such as junction diodes, thermionic diodes, transistors, and vacuum
tubes all have extreme regions of operation in which they nominally do not conduct even when
large voltages are applied, and there are regions in which they conduct heavily even when
relatively small voltages are applied- In the first of these regions, the device is described as being
OFF, OPEN, or non-conducting. In the other extreme region the device is described as being
ON, CLOSED or conducting, when the device is driven from one extreme condition to the other,
it operates much like a switch.
JUNCTION DIODE—SWITCHING TIMES

Diode forward recovery time
When a diode is driven from the: reverse-biased condition to the forward-biased condition or in
the opposite direction, the diode response is accompanied by a transient, and an interval of time elapses
before the diode recovers to its steady state. The nature of the forward recovery transient depends on the
magnitude of the current being driven through the diode and the rise time of the driving signal.
Consider the voltage which develops across the diode when the input is a current source
supplying a step current Iv as shown in Figure 3,1 (a). If the current amplitude is comparable to or larger
than the diode rated current, and if the rise time of the current step is small enough, then the waveform of
the voltage which appears across the diode is shown in Figure 3.1(b). The overshoot results from the fact
that initially the diode acts not as a p-n junction diffusion device but as a resistor, tn the steady-state
condition, the current which flows through the diode is a diffusion current which results from the gradient
in the density of minority carriers. If the current is large enough, then there will also be an ohmic drop
across the diode. The ohmic drop is initially very large, for immediately after the application of the
current, the holes, say, will npn have time to diffuse very far into the n-side in order to build up a minority
carrier density. Therefore except near the junction, there will be no minority charge to establish a density
gradient, and the current flow through the mechanism of diffusion will not be possible. Indeed, an electric
field will be required to achieve current flow by exerting force on the majority carriers. This electric field
gives rise to the ohmic drop. With the passage of time, however, the ohmic drop will decrease as more
and more minority carriers become available from the junction, and current by diffusion takes over.

Figure 3.1(aj Input step current to a diode, (b) diode voltage when the current is large, arid (c)
diode voltage when the current is small.
The magnitude of the overshoot will increase as the magnitude of the input current
increases. At large current amplitudes, the diode behaves as a combination of a resistor and an
inductor. At low currents the diode is representable by a parallel resistor-capacitor combination.
At intermediate currents, the diode behaves as a resistor, inductor, and capacitor circuit and
oscillations may be produced.
The forward recovery time ffr, for a specified rise time of the input current is the time difference
between the 10% point of the diode voltage and the time when this voltage reaches and remains
within 10% of its final value. The forward recovery time does not usually constitute a serious
problem.
Diode reverse recovery time
When an external voltage is impressed across a junction in the direction that reverse
biases it, very little current called the reverse saturation current flows. This current is because of
the minority carriers.
The density of minority carriers in the neighbourhood of the junction in the steady state is
shown in Figure 3.2(a). Here the levels pnl) and n are the thermal equilibrium values of the
minority carrier densities on the two sides of the junction in the absence of an externally
impressed voltage. When a reverse voltage is applied, the density of minority carriers is shown
by the solid Sines marked pn and np. Away from the junction, the minority carrier density
remains unaltered, but as these carriers approach the junction they are rapidly swept across and
the density of minority carriers diminishes to zero at the junction. The reverse saturation current
which flows is small because the density of thermally generated minority carriers is very small.

Figure 3.2 Minority-carrier density distribution as a function of the distance x from a junction;
(a) a reverse-biased junction and (b) a forward-biased junction.
When the external voltage forward biases the junction, the steady-state density of
minority carriers is as shown in Figure 3.2(b). The injected or excess hole density is (pn - pnQ)
and the excess electron density is (np - npQ).
In a diode circuit which has been carrying current in the forward direction, if the external voltage
is suddenly reversed, the diode current will not immediately fall to its steady-state reverse value.
The current cannot attain its steady-state value until the minority carrier distribution changes the
form in Figure 3.2(b) to the distribution shown in Figure 3.2(a). Until such time as the injected or
excess minority carrier density pn - pnQ (or np -np0) drops nominally to zero, the diode will
continue to conduct easily and the current will be determined by the external resistance in the
diode circuit.
Storage and transition times

The sequence of events which occurs when a conducting diode is reverse biased is shown
in Figure 3.3. The input voltage shown in Figure 3.3(b) is applied to a diode circuit shown in
Figure 3.3(a). Up to t = t\, v, = Vf. The resistance RL is assumed large so that the drop across RL
is large compared with the drop across the diode.
At the time t ~ t[, the input voltage reverses abruptly to the value V; = - VR, the current reverses,
until the time t - t2. At t ~ t^ as shown in Figure 3.3(c), the injected minority carrier
density at the junction drops to zero, that is, the minority carrier density reaches its equilibrium
state. If the diode ohmic resistance is RA, then at time t\, the diode voltage falls slightly by [(VF +
VR)] but does not reverse as shown in Figure 3.3(e). At t = ?2 when the excess minority carriers
in the immediate neighbourhood of the junction have been swept back across the junction, the
diode voltage begins to reverse as shown in Figure 3.3(e) and the magnitude of the diode current
begins to decrease as shown in Figure 3.3(d). The interval from t\ to t2 for the minority charge to
become zero is called the storage time ts. The time which elapses between r2 and the time when
the diode has nominally recovered is called the transition time tt. The recovery interval will be
completed when the minority carriers which are at some distance from the junction have diffused

to the junction, crossed it and then, in addition, the junction transition capacitance across the
reverse-biased junction has charged through RL to the voltage -VR as shown in Figure 3.3(e).
Figure 3.3 The waveform in (b) is applied to the diode circuit in (a), (c) the excess carrier
density at the junction, (d) the diode current, and (e) the diode voltage.
PIECE-WISE LINEAR DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

A large-signal approximation which often leads to a sufficiently accurate engineering
solution is the piece-wise linear representation. The piece-wise linear approximation for a
semiconductor diode characteristic is shown in Figure 3.4. The breakdown is at Vy, which is
called the offset or threshold voltage. The diode behaves like an open-circuit if v < Vr The
characteristic shows a constant incremental resistance r =dvldi if v > Vr Here r is called the
forward resistance. The static resistance Rf = Vγ is not constant and is not useful.

Figure 3.4 The piece-wise linear characteristic of a diode.
The numerical values of Vy and Rf to be used depend upon the type of diode and the
contemplated voltage and current swings. Typically: For current swings from cut-off to 10 mA
For current swings up to 50 mA
BREAKDOWN IN P-N JUNCTION DIODES

When the p-n junction diode is reverse biased, reverse saturation current / 0 flows due to
minority carriers. There is a gradual increase in reverse current with increasing bias due to the
ohmic leakage currents around the surface of the junction. When the reverse bias voltage
approaches the breakdown voltage VBO» tnere 's a sudden increase in reverse current due to
breakdown. Once breakdown occurs, the diode no longer blocks current, and the diode current
can now be controlled only by the resistance of the external circuit.
Avalanche breakdown
Thermally generated minority carriers cross the depletion region and acquire sufficient
kinetic energy from the applied potential to produce new carriers by removing valance electrons
from other bonds. These new carriers will in turn collide with other atoms and thus increase the
number of electrons and holes available for conduction. Because of the cumulative increase in
carrier density after each collision, the process is known as avalanche breakdown.
Zener breakdown
Even if the initially available carriers do not gain enough energy to disrupt bonds, it is
possible to initiate breakdown through a direct rupture of the bonds because of the existence of a
strong electric field. Under these circumstances the breakdown is referred to as zener breakdown.
Zener breakdown occurs at voltages below 6 V. The operating voltages in avalanche breakdown
are from several volts to several hundred volts with power rating up to 50 W. The breakdown in
a p-n junction diode is shown in Figure 3.5.

True zener diode action displays a negative temperature coefficient, i.e. the breakdown voltage
decreases with increase in temperature. True avalanche diode action exhibits a positive
temperature coefficient, i.e. the breakdown voltage increases with increase in temperature.
The breakdown voltage for a particular diode can be controlled during manufacture by altering
the doping levels in the junction. The breakdown voltage for silicon diodes can be made to occur
at a voltage as low as 5 V with 1017 impurity atoms/cm3 or as high as 1000 V when doped to a
level of only 104 impurity atoms/cm3.
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
A transistor can be used as a switch. It has three regions of operation. When both emitter^
base and collector-base junctions are reverse biased, the transistor operates in the cut-o! region
and it acts as an open switch. When the emitter base junction is forward biased and the collector
base junction is reverse biased, it operates in the active region and acts as auf amplifier. When
both the emitter-base and collector-base junctions are forward biased, it! operates in the
saturation region and acts as a closed switch. When the transistor is switched! from cut-off to
saturation and from saturation to cut-off with negligible active region, thej transistor is operated
as a switch. When the transistor is in saturation, junction voltages are'i very small but the
operating currents are large. When the transistor is in cut-off, the currents* are zero (except small
leakage current) but the junction voltages are large.
In Figure 3.6 the transistor Q can be used to connect and disconnect the load RL from the source
Vcc When Q is saturated it is like a closed switch from collector to emitter and when Q is cut-off
it is like an open switch from collector to emitter.
Referring to the output characteristics shown in Figure 3.6(b), the region below the IB = 0
curve is the cut-off region. The intersection of the load line with I B = 0 curve is the cut-off point.
At this point, the base current is zero and the collector current is negligible. The emitter diode
comes out of forward bias and the normal transistor action is lost, i.e, VCE(cut-off) = Vcc. The
transistor appears like an open switch.

The intersection of the load line with the I B - Ie(sat) curve is called the saturation point. At this
point, the base current is IB(sat) and the collector current is maximum. 'At saturation, the
collector diode comes out of cut-off and again the normal transistor action is lost, i.e. Ic(sat) =
Vcc/RL.Ie(sat) represents the minimum base current required to bring the transistor into
saturation. For 0 < IB < IB(sat), the transistor operates in the active region. If the base current is
greater than IB(sat), the collector current approximately equals VCC/IC and the transistor appears
like a closed switch.
TRANSISTOR SWITCHING TIMES

When the transistor acts as a switch, it is either in cut-off or in saturation. To consider the
behaviour of the transistor as it makes transition from one state to the other, consider the circuit
shown in Figure 3,7(a) driven by the pulse waveform shown in Figure 3.7(b). The pulse
waveform makes transitions between the voltage levels V2 and V1. At V2 the transistor is at cut-
off and at V the transistor is in saturation. The input waveform v; is applied between the base and
the emitter through a resistor RB.
Figure 3.7 (a) Transistor as a switch, (b) input waveform, and (c) the response of collector
current versus time.

The response of the collector current ic to the input waveform, together with its time relationship
to the waveform is shown in Figure 3.7(c), The collector current does not immediately respond
to the input signal. Instead there is a delay, and the time that elapses during this delay, together
with the time required for the current to rise to 10% of its maximum (saturation) value (I Cs =
Vcc/Rc) is called the delay time td. The current waveform has a nonzero rise time fr, which is the
rise time required for the current to rise from 10% to 90% of Ics- The total turn-on time TON is
the sum of the delay time and the rise time, i.e. TON = td + tr. When the input signal returns to its
initial state, the collector current again fails to respond immediately. The interval which elapses
between the transition of the input waveform and the time when / c has dropped to 90% of /Cs is
called the storage time ts. The storage interval is followed by the fall time ly, which is the time
required for 7C to fall from 90% to 10% of Ics- The turn-off time ÔFF is defined as the sum of
the storage and fall times, i.e. TOFF = tr + tf We shall now consider the physical reasons for the
existence of each of these times.
The delay time
There are three factors that contribute to the delay time. First there is a delay which results from
the fact that, when the driving signal is applied to the transistor input, a non-zero time is required
to charge up the junction capacitance so that the transistor may be brought, from cut-off to the
active region. Second, even when the transistor has been brought to the point where minority
carriers have begun to cross the emitter junction into the base, a nonzero time is required before
these carriers can cross the base region to the collector junction and be recorded as collector
current. Finally, a nonzero time is required before the collector current can rise to 10% of its
maximum value. Rise time and fall time The rise time and fall time are due to the fact that, if a
base current step is used to saturate the transistor or to return it from saturation into cut-off, the
collector current must traverse the active region. The collector current increases or decreases
along an exponential curve. Storage time The failure of the transistor to respond to the trailing
edge of the driving pulse for the time interval ts, results from the fact that a transistor in
saturation has a saturation charge of excess minority carriers stored in the base. The transistor
cannot respond until the saturation excess charge has been removed.
BREAKDOWN VOLTAGES OF A TRANSISTOR
In a transistor switch", the voltage change which occurs at the collector with switching is
nominally equal to the collector supply voltage Vcc, Since this voltage will be used to operate
other circuits and devices, then for the sake of reliability of operation, VCc should be made as
large as possible. The maximum allowable voltage depends not only on the characteristics of the
transistor but also on the associated transistor base circuitry.
The maximum reverse biasing voltage which may be applied before breakdown between the
collector and base terminals of the transistor, under the condition that the emitter lead be open-
circuited is represented by the symbol BVCB0. This breakdown voltage is a characteristic of the
transistor alone. Breakdown occurs because of the avalanche multiplication of the current ICo
that crosses the collector junction. As a result of this multiplication the current becomes AIco, in
which M is the factor by which the original current ICo is multiplied by the avalanche effect. At a
high enough voltage, namely BVCBO, the multiplication factor M becomes nominally infinite and
the region of breakdown is then attained. Here the current rises abruptly and large changes in
current accompany small changes in applied voltage.
The avalanche multiplication factor M depends on the voltage VCB between the collector
and the base, i.e.

The parameter n lies in the range 2 to 10 and controls the sharpness of the onset of breakdown.
When n is large, M continues at nearly unity until VCB approaches very close to BVcBO at. which
point M soars upwards abruptly. When n is small, the onset of breakdown is gradual.
In Figure 3.8(a) the CB characteristics have been extended into the breakdown region.
The curve for IF = 0 is a plot, as a function of VCB of the product of the reverse collector current
Ico and the avalanche multiplication factor M. The abrupt growth in Ic as BVcBO is approached,
is shown along with the slower increase in Ic over the active region that results from the small
but not negligible avalanche multiplication.
Figure 3.8 (a) CB characteristics extended into the breakdown region and (b) idealized CE
characteristics extended into the breakdown region.
If a current IE is caused to flow through the emitter junction, then neglecting the
avalanche effect, a fraction α IE reaches the collector junction, where a is the common base
current gain. Taking multiplication into account, /c has the magnitude Mα. Consequently it
appears that in the presence of avalanche multiplication, the transistor behaves as though its
common base current gain were
Now α is a positive number with a maximum magnitude less than unity but A/a may equal unity
in magnitude at which point /IFE becomes infinite. Accordingly, any base current no matter how
small, will give rise to an arbitrarily large collector current whenever Ma = 1 . It means
breakdown has occurred. Therefore, whenever the base current is kept fixed, breakdown occurs
at the voltage VCB which satisfies the equation
or breakdown occurs at the voltage VCB given by
Since VCB at breakdown .is much larger than the small forward base-to-emitter voltage
VBE, we may replace VCB by VCE in the above equation. Also

Therefore, the collector-to-emitter breakdown voltage, with open-circuited base, BVCEO is
For an n-p-n Ge transistor, a reasonable value for n is 6. If hfe= 50, then BVCEO -
If BVCEO = 40 V, BVCBO is about half of that, i.e. about 20 V.
The breakdown voltage with base not open-circuited
Assume that the base is returned to the emitter through a resistor RB as shown in Figure
3.9(a). We accept that the breakdown voltage BVCEO lies between BVCER and 5VCBO-To
estimate BVCEO some assumptions are made concerning the emitter-base junction diode. The
semiconductor junction diode exhibits a threshold voltage Vr in the forward direction. That is,
until the forward voltage attains about 0.2 V in Ge or 0.6 V in Si, the forward current is very
small. We shall assume that until the threshold has been reached, the collector current will flow
entirely to the base and hence through I B. We also assume that once the threshold voltage is
exceeded, nearly all the additional collector current will flow through the emitter junction and
the corresponding breakdown voltage is 5VCBO. Therefore, when the collector-to-emitter voltage
is larger than BVceo the threshold voltage of the emitter junction is reached, breakdown will
occur. On this, we accept breakdown when the collector current A//CO satisfies the relation,
Figure 3.9 (a) Plot extended into the breakdown region of collector current against V CE
for various connections to the base. The sustaining voltage is (Vcgo and 0>) common collector
transistor circuit.
This equation is valid if the current in Rs is very large compared with the currents in
collector and emitter. If Rs = 0, i.e. if the base is short-circuited to emitter,

If r'BB is present, then base spreading resistance must also be taken into account along
with is to be considered. Accordingly, even when RB = 0, BVCES is lower in
magnitude than BVCBO After breakdown has occurred, the collector and the emitter currents will
become very large compared with the base current. Therefore, at large currents, the presence of
Ag makes no difference and the voltage across the transistor will drop from #VCER to BVcex The
breakdown voltage may also be increased by returning the resistor J?B to a voltage VBB as shown
in Figure 3.9(b) which provides some back bias for the emitter junction. In this case the
condition which determines the onset of breakdown is and the
breakdown voltage, now represented by the symbol BVcE X is approximately given by
THE TRANSISTOR SWITCH IN SATURATION

When a transistor switch is driven from saturation to cut-off, one of the factors which has
an important effect on the speed of response is the time required to charge the capacitance which
appears in shunt across the output terminals of the transistor. This capacitance must charge
through the load resistance RL, and for this reason, in fast switching circuits, RL must be kept
small. In saturation, the transistor current is nominally VCC/RL, and since RL is small, it may be
necessary to keep Vcc correspondingly small in order to stay within the limitations imposed by
the transistor on the maximum current and dissipation. The total voltage swing at the transistor
switch is Vcc - VCE(sat). The largest possible output swing is desirable in order to reduce the
sensitivity of the switching circuit to noise, supply voltage fluctuations, transistor ageing, and
replacement.
For the transistor switch of Figure 3.10(a), it is difficult to read V CE(sat) from Figure
3.10(b). By changing scale, Figure 3.10(b) can be drawn as shown in Figure 3.10(c).
In these characteristics, the 0 to - 0.5 V region of Figure 3.10(b) has been expanded and
the same load line is drawn. At /B = - 0.15 mA, the transistor is in saturation and 1VCEI = 175
mV. At IB = - 0.35 mA, Ice' has dropped to 100 mV. For a transistor operating in the saturation
region, a quantity of interest is the ratio VCE(sat)/Ic- This parameter is called the common emitter
saturation resistance.
The saturation voltage VCE(sat) depends not only on the operating point but also on the
semiconductor material (Ge or Si) and on the type of transistor construction. Alloy-junction
transistors and epitaxial transistors give the lowest values for V CE(sat), whereas the grown
junction transistors yield the highest. Germanium transistors have lower values for Vc E(sat) than
those for silicon. An alloy-junction Ge transistor may allow, with adequate base currents, values
for VCE(sat) as low as tens of milli-volts at collector currents which are some tens of milli-
amperes. Similarly, epitaxial silicon transistors may yield saturation voltage as low as 0.2 V with
collector currents as high as an ampere. On the other hand, the grown junction Ge transistors
have saturation voltages which are several tenths of a volt and silicon transistors of this type may
have saturation voltages as high as several volts.

In the saturation region, h is a useful parameter and is supplied by the manufacturer. Once we
know, (Ic-VccIRi) and hFE, the amount of base current IB = IC hFE needed to saturate the transistor
can be found.
TEMPERATURE SENSITIVITY OF SATURATION PARAMETERS

At constant base and collector currents, the forward base-to-emitter voltage H/BE' has a
typical temperature sensitivity in the range -1.5 to -2 mV/°C. This applies both to Ge and Si
transistors. A plot for Ge of VBE versus the ambient temperature is shown in Figure 3.1l(a). A
similar characteristic for silicon has approximately the same slope.
In saturation, the transistor consists of two forward-biased junctions back-to-back, series
opposing. It is consequently to be anticipated that the temperature induced voltage change in one
junction will be cancelled in some measure by the change in the other junction. Such is the case
for VBE(sat) as well, as shown in Figure 3.11(b).
The temperature dependence of hFE is shown in Figure 3.11(c). At small and moderate currents,
increases substantially with temperature. At high currents, /IFE may well become rather
insensitive to temperature.

DESIGN OF TRANSISTOR SWITCH
Any transistor amplifier that has the property of inversion, can.be used as an inverter. The
transistor that acts as a switch is driven between cut-off and saturation. A transistor inverter is
shown in Figure 3.12.
For low input vi = V(0), the transistor is kept at cut-off, so the output is Vcc or V(l). For
high input, i.e. for vi = V(l), the transistor is driven into saturation. So the output v0 = VCE(sat) =
V(0). Thus the circuit acts as a switch. To improve the transient response of

UNIT – IV
MULTIVIBRATORS
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MULTIVIBRATORS
Analysis and Design of Bistable, Monostable, Astable Multivibrators and Schmitt trigger using
transistors.
Multi means many; vibrator means oscillator. A circuit which can oscillate at a number
of frequencies is called a multivibrator. Basically there are three types of multivibrators:
1. Bistable multivibrator
2. Monostable multivibrator
3. Astable multivibrator
Each of these multivibrators has two states. As the names indicate, a bistable
multivibrator has got two stable states, a monostable multivibrator has got only one stable state
(the other state being quasi stable) and the astable multivibrator has got no stable state (both the
states being quasi stable). The stable state of a multivibrator is the state in which the device can
stay permanently. Only when a proper external triggering signal is applied, it will change its
state. Quasi stable state means temporarily stable state. The device cannot stay permanently in
this state. After a predetermined time, the device will automatically come out of the quasi stable
state.
In this chapter we will discuss multivibrators with two-stage regenerative amplifiers.
They have two cross-coupled inverters, i.e. the output of the first stage is coupled to the input of
the second stage and the output of the second stage is coupled to the input of the first stage. In
bistable circuits both the coupling elements are resistors (i.e. both are dc couplings). In
monostable circuits, one coupling element is a capacitor (ac coupling) and the other coupling
element is a resistor (dc coupling) In astable multivibrators both the coupling elements are
capacitors (i.e. both are ac couplings).
A bistable multivibrator requires a triggering signal to change from one stable state to
another. It requires another triggering signal for the reverse transition. A monostable
multivibrator requires a triggering signal to change from the stable state to the quasi stable state
but no triggering signal is required for the reverse transition, i.e. to bring it from the quasi stable
state to the stable state. The astable multivibrator does not require any triggering signal at all. It
keeps changing from one quasi stable state to another quasi stable state on its own the moment it
is connected to the supply.
A bistable multivibrator is the basic memory element. It is used to perform many digital
operations such as counting and storing of binary data. It also finds extensive applications in the
generation and processing of pulse type waveforms. The monostable multivibrator finds
extensive applications in pulse circuits. Mostly it is used as a gating circuit or a delay circuit. The
astable circuit is used as a master oscillator to generate square waves. It is often a basic source of
fast waveforms. It is a free running oscillator. It is called a square wave generator. It is also
termed a relaxation oscillator.

BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
A bistable multivibrator is a multivibrator which can exist indefinitely in either of its two
stable states and which can be induced to make an abrupt transition from one state to the other by
means of external excitation. In a bistable multivibrator both the coupling elements are resistors
(dc coupling). The bistable multivibrator is also called a multi, Eccles-Jordan circuit (after its
inventors), trigger circuit, scale-of-two toggle circuit, flip-flop, and binary. There are two types
of bistable multivibrators:
1. Collector coupled bistable multivibrator
2. Emitter coupled bistable multivibrator
There are two types of collector-coupled bistable multivibrators:

1. Fixed-bias bistable multivibrator
2. Self-bias bistable multivibrator
A FIXED-BIAS BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Figure 4.1 shows the circuit diagram of a fixed-bias bistable multivibrator using
transistors (inverters). Note, that the output of each amplifier is direct coupled to the input of the
other amplifier. In one of the stable states, transistor Q[ is ON (i.e. in saturation) and Q 2 is OFF
(i.e. in cut-off), and in the other stable state Qj is OFF and Q2 is ON. Even though the circuit is
symmetrical, it is not possible for the circuit to remain in a stable state with both the transistors
conducting (i.e. both operating in the active region) simultaneously and carrying equal currents.
The reason is that if we assume that both the transistors are biased equally and are carrying equal
currents /[ and 72 and suppose there is a minute fluctuation in the current 1\~—let us say it
increases by a small amount—then the voltage at the collector of Qi decreases. This will result in
a decrease in voltage at the base of Q2. So Q2 conducts less and /2 decreases and hence the
potential at the collector of Q2 increases. This results in an increase in the base potential of Qi.
So, Qi conducts still more and /[ is further increased and the potential at the collector of Qt is
further reduced, and so on. So, the current I\ keeps on increasing and the current /2 keeps on
decreasing till Q( goes into saturation and Q2 goes into cut-off. This action takes place because of
the regenerative feedback incorporated into the circuit and will occur only if the loop gain is
greater than one.A stable state of a binary is one in which the voltages and currents satisfy the
Kirchhoff's laws and are consistent with the device characteristics and in which, in addition, the
condition of the loop gain being less than unity is satisfied.
The condition with respect to loop gain will certainly be satisfied, if either of the two devices is
below cut-off or if either device is in saturation. But normally the circuit is designed such that in
a stable state one transistor is in saturation and the other one is ir cut-off, because if one
transistor is biased to be in cut-off and the other one to be in active region, as the temperature
changes or the devices age and the device parameters vary, the quiescent point changes and the
quiescent output voltage may also change appreciably Sometimes the drift may be so much that
the device operating in the active region may gc into cut-off, and with both the devices in cut-off
the circuit will be useless.

Selection of components in the fixed-bias bistable multivibrator
In the fixed-bias binary shown in Figure 4.1., nearly the full supply voltage V cc will
appear across the transistor that is OFF. Since this supply voltage Vcc is to be reasonably smaller
than the collector breakdown voltage SVce. Vcc *s restricted to a maximum of a few tens of
volts. Under saturation conditions the collector current Ic is maximum. Hence RC must be chosen
so that this value of 7C (= VCC/^G) does not exceed the maximum permissible limit. The values of
R\, /?2 and VBB must be selected such that in one stat>le state the base current is large enough to
drive the transistor into saturation whereas in the second stable state the emitter junction must be
below cut-off. The signal at a collector called the output swing Vw is the change in collector
voltage resulting from a transistor going from one state to the other, i.e. V w = VCi - ^C2- If the
loading caused by RI can be neglected, then the collector voltage of the OFF transistor is Vcc.
Since the collector saturation voltage is few tenths of a volt, then the swing V w = Vcc,
independently of RQ- The component values, the supply voltages and the values of / CBO, h^,
VBE(sat), and VCE(sat) are sufficient for the analysis of transistor binary circuits.
Loading
The bistable multivibrator may be used to drive other circuits and hence at one or both
the collectors there are shunting loads, which are not shown in Figure 4.1. These loads reduce the
magnitude of the collector voltage VC1 of the OFF transistor. This will result in reduction of the
output voltage swing. A reduced VC[ will decrease 7B2 and it is possible that Q2 may not be
driven into saturation- Hence the flip-flop circuit components must be chosen such that under the
heaviest load, which the binary drives, one- transistor remains in saturation while the other is in
cut-off. Since the resistor Rl also loads the OFF transistor, to reduce loading, the value of R]
should be as large as possible compared to the value of Rc. But to ensure a loop gain in excess of
unity during the transition between the states, R^ should be selected such that For some
applications, the loading varies with the operation being performed. In such cases, the extent to
which a transistor is driven into saturation is variable. A constant output swing V\v = V, arid a
constant base saturation current IB2 can be obtained by clamping the collectors to an auxiliary
voltage V < Vcc through the diodes DI and D2 as indicated in Figure 4.2. As Qi cuts OFF, its
collector voltage rises and when it reaches V, the "collector catching diode" D| conducts and
clamps the output to V.

Transistor as an ON-OFF switch
In digital circuits transistors operate either in the cut-off region or in the saturation
region. Specially designed transistors called switching transistors with negligible active region
are used. In the cut-off region the transistor does not conduct and acts as a open switch. In the
saturation region the transistor conducts heavily and acts as a closed switch-In a binary which
uses two cross-coupled transistors, each of the transistors is alternately cut-off and driven into
saturation. Because of regenerative feedback provided both the transistors cannot be.ON or both
cannot be OFF simultaneously. When one transistor is ON, the other is OFF and vice versa.

COMMUTATING CAPACITORS
We know that the bistable multivibrator has got two stable states and that it can remain in either of its two
stable states indefinitely. It can change state only when a triggering signal such as a pulse from some
external source is applied. When a triggering signal is applied, conduction has to transfer from one device
to another. The transition time is defined as the interval during which conduction transfers from one
transistor to another. The reason for this transition time is—even 'though the input signal at the base of a
transistor may be transferred to the collector with zero rise time, the signal at the collector of the transistor
cannot be transferred to the base of the other transistor instantaneously. This is because the input
capacitance C, present at the base of the transistor makes the R\-R2 attenuator act as an uncompensated
attenuator and so it will have a finite rise time, tr = (R[\\R2)Ci. The transition time may be reduced by
compensating this att'.nuator by introducing a small capacitor in parallel with the coupling resistors R{ and
R\ of the binary as shown in Figure 4.21. Since these capacitors are introduced to increase the speed of
operation of the device, they are called speed-up capacitors. They are also called transpose or
commutating capacitors. So, commutating capacitors are small capacitors connected in parallel with the
coupling resistors in order to increase the speed of operation. The commutating capacitors hasten the
removal of charge stored at the base of the ON transistor due to minority carriers. If the commutating
capacitors are arbitrarily large, the /?]-/?2 network acts as an overcompensated attenuator and the signal at
the collector will be transmitted to the base of the other transistor very rapidly, but large values of
capacitors have some disadvantages.
In the flip-flop shown in Figure 4.21, if for example Oj is OFF and Q2 is ON, the voltages across C] and
C'\ are not alike because, when Q2 is ON and Qj is OFF, the voltage across C[ is VCK2(sat) - VBi(off)
which is very small = 0.3 - (-1) = 1.3 V, and the voltage across C\ is equal to Vcc - VBE2(sat) ~ 12 - 0.7 =
11.3 V. When the circuit is triggered so that Q2 is OFF and Oj is ON, then the voltage-across C[ must be
11.3 V and that across C[ must be 1.3 V. The flip-flop would not have settled in its new state until the
interchange of voltages had been completed.
A transistor having been induced to change the state by a triggering signal, a certain minimum time must
elapse before a succeeding signal is able to reliably induce the reverse transition. The smallest allowable
interval between triggers is called the resolving time of the flip-flop, and its reciprocal is the maximum
frequency at which the binary will respond.
The 'complete transfer of conduction from one device to another involves two phases. The first of these is
the transition time during which conduction transfers from one device to another. For this transfer of
conduction to take place, the voltages across the input and output capacitances of the transistor have to
change. The voltages across the commutating capacitors C[ and Cj need not change during this transfer of
conduction. After this transfer of conduction, the capacitors are allowed to interchange their voltages.
This additional time required for the purpose of completing the recharging of capacitors after the transfer
of conduction is called the settling time. Of course, no clear-cut distinction can be made between the
transition time and the settling time. The sum of the transition time and the settling time is called the
resolution time. If the commutating capacitors are too small, the transition time is increased but the
settling time will be small and if the commutating capacitors are too large, -the transition time is reduced
but the settling time will be large. So, a compromise is called for.

The maximum frequency of operation /max is given by
Methods of improving resolution

The resolution of a binary can be improved by taking the following steps:
1 . By reducing all stray , capacitances. Reductions in the values of stray capacitances reduce their
charging time, resulting in a reduction in the time taken by the transistors to go to the opposite state.
2. By reducing the resistors R^, R2, and Rc. Reductions in the values of /?j and /? 2 result in a reduction in
the charging time of the commutating capacitors with a consequent improvement in transition speed.
Reducing resistors also reduces the recovery time.
3. By not allowing the transistors to go into saturation. When the transistors do not saturate, the storage
time will be reduced resulting in fast change from ON to OFF.
A NON-SATURATING BINARY
The binary discussed earlier is a saturated binary. When the transistors are driven into saturation, because
of the storage time delay, the speed of operation is reduced. The speed of operation can be increased by
not allowing the transistors to go into saturation. Such a binary in which the transistors always operate in
the active region only, is called a non-saturating binary.
Figure 4.22 shows the circuit diagram of a non-saturating binary. This is obtained adding two zener
diodes and two p-n junction diodes to the collector-coupled binary sho' in Figure 4.21. These diodes
ensure that the collector ta» junctions are reverse biased hence the transistor is always operating in the
active region. Both the zener diodes D3 D4 are always biased in the breakdown direction and each has a
voltage Vz < VQC it. The voltage across the diode DI or D2 is very small in the forward direction. When is
ON, its emitter junction is forward biased with VBE2 * 0 V. So, the left side of D2 is at Vz and the right side
is at VcE(sat). Therefore, D2 is ON and acts as a short circuit. Hence C2 = ^z> making the collector
junction reverse biased, and the transistor Ch operates in the active region.

Figure 4.22 A non-saturated binary.
This negative voltage keeps Qt cut-off. With Q, cut-off, VCEI is HIGH and so the diode DI is back biased.
The output swing is approximately equal to VCG - Vz.
The non-saturating binary is preferred over the saturated binary only when an extremely high speed of
operation is required because of the following drawbacks:
1. The non-saturating circuits are more complicated than the saturated, circuits.
2. The non-saturating circuits consume more power than the saturated circuits.
3. The voltage swing is less stable with temperature, ageing and component replacement than in the case
of saturated binary.
TRIGGERING THE BINARY

We know that a bistable multivibrator has got two stable states and that it can remain in any one of the
states indefinitely. The process of applying an external signal to induce a transition from one state to the
other is called triggering. The triggering signal, which is usually employed is either a pulse of short
duration or a step voltage. There are two methods of triggering—unsymmetrical triggering and
symmetrical triggering. Unsymmetrical triggering is one in which the triggering signal is effective in
inducing a transition in only one direction. In this, a second triggering signal from a separate source must
be introduced in a different manner to achieve reverse transition, Symmetrical triggering is one in which
each successive triggering signal induces a transition regardless of the state in which the binary happens
to be, i.e..unsymmetrical triggering requires two separate sources whereas symmetrical triggering requires
only one source. Unsymmetrical triggering finds extensive applications in logic circuitry (in registers,
coding, etc.)- It can be used as a generator of a gate whose

Figure 4,23 Unsymmetrical triggering through a resistor and a capacitor (a) at the collectors and
(b) at the bases.
width equals the interval between the triggers. Symmetrical triggering is used in binary counting circuits
and other applications. .
The sensitivity of the binary to a pulse of such polarity as to turn OFF the conducting device will
appreciably exceed the sensitivity to a pulse of opposite polarity. The triggering signal may be applied at
the output of a stage or at the input of a stage. In transistor circuits the triggering signal may be applied at
the collector of the transistor, or at the base.
An excellent method for triggering a binary unsymmetrically on the leading edge of a pulse is to apply the
pulse from a high impedance source to the output of the non-conducting device For p-n-p transistors, a
positive pulse needs to be applied.
The triggering signal may be applied through a resistor and a capacitor or through a unilateral device such
as a diode. Figure 4.23 shows a method of triggering unsymmetncally through a resistor and a capacitor.
If p-n-p transistors are employed, the polarity of the . triggering signal should be reversed.
TRIGGERING UNSYMMETRICALLY THROUGH A UNILATERAL DEVICE (DIODE)

Figure 4.24 shows unsymmetrical triggering through a unilateral device when the signals are applied at
the collectors. Suppose in one stable state Q[ is ON and Q2 is OFF. When Q| is ON, the diode D at the

collector of Qj is back biased by the drop across Rc because its anode is at VCE(sat) and cathode is at Vcc.
So the diode will not transmit a positive pulse and even the negative pulse cannot be transmitted unless it
has an amplitude larger than this voltage drop which anyway cannot affect the state of Q 2. So no change
of state can take place by the application of a pulse at the collector of Qj when Q 1 is ON, When Q2 is
OFF, both anode and cathode of the diode at its collector are at Vcc and so the drop across D is zero. The
diode will still fail to transmit a positive-going trigger, but will transmit a negative pulse or step to the
input (base) of Qj (which is ON) which will result in a change of state. So when Qi is ON and Q 2 is OFF,
only a negative pulse applied at 'R' can change the state. The resistor R must be large enough not to load
down the trigger source. On the other hand, R must be small enough so that any charge which
accumulates on C during the interval when D conducts will have time to decay during the time between
pulses. If the triggering rate is high, then it may be necessary to replace R with a diode.
Figure 4.25 shows unsymmetrical triggering through a diodei when triggering signals are applied at the
bases of the transistors. Here the negative pulse is applied through D to the base of the ON stage. R is
returned to ground rather than to the supply voltage.
If the trigger amplitude available is small, it may be necessary to amplify the signal before applying it to
the flip-flop. In this case a diode need not be used because the amplifier can provide the unilateral action
previously supplied by the diode.
Figure 4.24 Unsymmetrical triggering at collectors.

Figure 4,25 Unsymmetrical triggering at bases.
TRIGGERING SYMMETRICALLY THROUGH A UNILATERAL DEVICE

Figure 4.26(a) shows an arrangement for symmetrical triggering through diodes at the collectors of the
transistors. If Q2 is ON and Qj is OFF in one of the stable states, the collector of Q 2 is at Vcfi(sat) and the
collector of Q[ is at VCc- Therefore, D2 is reverse biased by Vcc and D] is at zero bias. Hence a negative
input signal will be transmitted through D] to the collector of Qi and thus to the base of the ON stage Q 2
via the R\C\ combination connecting the output of Qi to the input of Q2. This negative pulse at the base of
Q2 which is ON, turns it to OFF state thus causing a transition. After the transition is completed, D( will
be reverse biased and D2 will be at zero bias. So the next negative pulse will pass through D2 instead of
through Dj. Hence these diodes are called steering diodes.The binary will transfer at each successive
negative input pulse or step but will not respond to the triggers of opposite polarity. The diode D 3 serves
the purpose of R in unsymmetrical triggering. If p-n-p transistors are used, then the diodes must be
reversed and a positive triggering signal would be required.Figure 4.26(b) shows the arrangement of
symmetrical triggering through the diodes at the bases of the transistors.Triggering may also be done
symmetrically without the use of the auxiliary diodes. The presence of commutating capacitors facilitates
this, but for this, the commutating capacitors

Figure 4.26 Symmetrical triggering through diodes (a) at the collectors iind (b) at the bases.
must be large, and large values of commutating capacitors lengthen the settling time of the binary.
Therefore this method of triggering without the auxiliary steering diodes is not employed where the
shortest possible resolution time is required.
Figure 4.27 shows the arrangement for triggering a self-biased bistable multivibrator without steering
diodes. Here a positive step is applied at the common emitters of the flip-flop.

Figure 4.27 Symmetrical triggering of a self-biased binary.
A DIRECT-CONNECTED BINARY
Figure 4.28 shows a direct-connected binary. No coupling elements are used and the collector of each
transistor is connected to the base 6f the other transistor directly by a wire. In one stable state, transistor
Qi is in saturation and Q2 is conducting slightly, and in the other stable state, Q2 is in saturation and Q! is
conducting slightly.
Figure 4.28 A direct-connected binary.
Initially if we assume that Q] is ON, since its emitter is grounded and since its base and collector are
connected to Vcc through a resistor Rc, then

and hence Q] is driven heavily into saturation. So for a Ge transistor, VCE1 = 0.05 V and VBEi = 0.3 V.
Because of the direct connection between the collector of Qi and the base of Qi> ^BEZ - ^CEI = 0-05 V; a
small positive value. So Q2 is not OFF and it will be conducting slightly. The output swing = VCE2 - VCE1
= VBE »,- VCEi = 0.3 - 0.05 = 0.25 V, Even though it has some advantages, there are many serious
disadvantages too, and so this circuit is not used these days. It was available in 1C form as DCTL earlier,
The advantages of direct connected binary are:
\. Its extreme simplicity
2. Only one supply voltage of low value about 1.5 V is required.
3. Low power dissipation
4. Transistors with low breakdown voltages may be used.
5. The direct connected binary may be easily constructed as an 1C because of the few elements involved.
The disadvantages of direct connected binary are:
\. As temperature increases, the reverse saturation current / CBO may increase sufficiently to bring Qt into
active region and may even take Q2 out of saturation.
2. Since Q2 is driven heavily into saturation, the storage time delay will be large and the switching speed
will be low.
3. The output voltages are equal to their saturation base and collector voltages, and these parameters
may vary appreciably from transistor to transistor.
4. The voltage swing is only a fraction of a volt and hence the binary is susceptible to spurious voltages.
5. Since an OFF collector is tied directly to an ON base, it is difficult to trigger the binary by the usual
method of applying a pulse to the OFF transistor. To supply sufficient current to take the ON transistor
out of saturation, an amplifier trigger circuit is usually required.
THE EMITTER-COUPLED BINARY (THE SCHMITT TRIGGER CIRCUIT)

Figure 4.29 shows the circuit diagram of an emitter-coupled bistable multivibrator using n-p-n
transistors. Quite commonly it is called Schmin trigger after the inventor of its vacuum-tube version.
It differs from the basic collector-coupled binary in that the coupling from the output of the second
stage to the input of the first stage is missing and the feedback is obtained now through a common
emitter resistor RE. It is a bistable circuit and the existence of only two stable states results form the fact
that positive feedback is incorporated into the circuit, and from the further fact that the loop gain of the
circuit is greater than unity. There are several ways to adjust the loop gain. One way of adjusting the loop
gain is.by varying /?C1. Suppose RC] is selected such that the loop gain is less than unity. When fl cl is
small, regeneration is not possible.
For the circuit of Figure 4.29, under quiescent conditions Qi is OFF and Q2 is ON because it gets the
required base drive from VCc through RCi and /?j. So the output voltage
is at its lower level. With Q2 conducting, there will be a voltage drop across RE -7B2)/?E> and this will
elevate the emitter of Q\. As the input v is increased from zero, the circuit will not respond until Qi
reaches the cut-in point (at v = Vt). Until then the output remains at its lower level. With Oj conducting
(for v > V|) the circuit will amplify because Q2 is already conducting and since the gain Av</Av is
positive, the output will rise in response to the rise in input. As v continues to rise, C t and hence B2
continue to fall and E2 continues to rise. Therefore a value of v will be reached at which Qa is turned
OFF. At this point v0 = VCc and the output remains constant at this value of Vcc, even if the input is
further increased. A plot of va versus v is shown in Figure 4.30(a) for loop gain < 1.

Suppose the loop gain is increased by increasing the resistance Rci. Such a change will have negligible
effect on the cut-in point V| of Qj. However in the region of amplification (i.e. for v > V{) the amplifier
gain Av</Av will increase and so the slope of the rising portion of the plot in Figure 4.30(a) will be
steeper. This increase in slope with increase in loop gain continues until at a loop gain of unity where the
circuit has just become regenerative the slope will become infinite. And finally when the loop gain
becomes greater than unity, the- slope becomes negative and the plot of va versus v assumes the S shape
shown in Figure 4.30(b).
Figure 4.30 Response of emitter-coupled binary for (a) loop gain < 1 and (b) loop gain > 1.
The behaviour of the circuit may be described by using this S curve. As v rises from zero voltage, v0 will
remain at its lower level (= VCc ~ 'c2 ^ca) unt*l v reaches V\. (This value of v = V, at which the transistor

Qi just enters into conduction is called the upper triggering point, UTP.) As v exceeds V} the output will
make an abrupt .transition to its higher level (= Vcc). For v > Vh Qj is ON and Q2 is OFF. Similarly if v is
initially greater than V], then as v is decreased, the output will remain at its upper level until v attains a
definite level V2 at which point the circuit makes an abrupt transition to its lower level. For v < ^2> Qi is
OFF and Q2 is ON. (This value of v = V2 at which the transistor Q2 resumes conduction is called the
lower triggering point, LTP.) This circuit exhibits hysteresis, that is, to effect a transition in one direction
we must first pass beyond the voltage at which the reverse transition took place.
A vertical line drawn at v = V which lies between V2 and Vi intersects the S curve at three points a, b and
c. The upper and lower points a and c are points of stable equilibrium.
The S curve is a plot of values which satisfy Kirchhoff's laws and which are consistent with the transistor
characteristics. At v = V, the circuit will be at a or c, depending on the direction of approach of v towards
V. When v = V in the range between V2 and V|, the Schmitt circuit is in one of its two possible stable
states and hence is a bistable circuit.
Applications of Schmitt trigger circuit
Schmitt trigger is also a bistable multivibrator. Hence it can be used in applications where a normal binary
is used. However for applications where the circuit is to be triggered back-and-forth between stable states,
the normal binary is preferred because of its symmetry. Since the base of Q] is not involved in
regenerative switching, the Schmitt trigger is preferred for applications in which the advantage of this free
terminal can be taken. The resistance KC2 m me output circuit of Q2 is not required for the operation of the
binary. Hence this resistance may be selected over a wide range to obtain different output signal
amplitudes.
A most important application of the Schmitt trigger is its use as an amplitude comparator to mark the
instant at which an arbitrary waveform attains a particular reference level. As input v rises to Vi or falls to
V2, the circuit makes a fast regenerative transfer to its other state.
Another important application of the Schmitt trigger is as a squaring circuit. It can convert a sine wave
into a square wave. In fact, any slowly varying input waveform can be converted into a square wave with
faster leading and trailing edges as shown in Figure 4.31, if the input has large enough excursions to carry
the input beyond the limits of the hysteresis range, VH = V\ - V2.
Figure 4.31 Response of the emitter-coupled binary to an arbitrary input waveform.
In another important application, the Schmitt trigger circuit is triggered between its two stable states by
alternate positive and negative pulses. If the input is biased at a voltage V between V2 and V\ and if a

positive pulse of amplitude greater than V\ - V is coupled to the input, then Qj will conduct and Q2 will be
OFF. If now a negative pulse of amplitude larger than V - V2 is coupled to the input, the circuit will be
triggered back to the state where Qj is OFF and Q2 is ON.
Hysteresis
If the amplitude of the periodic input signal is large compared with the hysteresis range V H, then the
hysteresis of the Schmitt trigger is not a matter of concern. In some applications, a large hysteresis range
will not allow the circuit to function properly.
Hysteresis may be eliminated by adjusting the loop gain of the circuit to unity. Such an adjustment may
be made in a number of ways:
(1) The loop gain may be increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing the resistance
^ci-
(2) The loop gain may be increased or decreased by adding a resistance /?E1 in series
with the emitter of Qi, or by adding a resistance 7?^ in series with the emitter of Q2 and then decreasing
or increasing REl and RE2. Since /?C1 and RE] are in series with Qi, these resistors will have no effect on the
circuit when Qi is OFF. Therefore, these resistors will not change V\ but may be used to move V2 closer
to or coincident with V\. Similarly, RE2 will affect V\ but not V2.
(3) The loop gain may also be varied by varying the ratio R[/(Ri + /?2). Such an adjustment will
change both V\ and V2.
(4) The loop gain may be increased by increasing the value of R$.
If /?E1 or RE2 is larger than the value required to give zero hysteresis, then the gain will be less than unity
and the circuit will not change state. So, usually RE\ or /?E2 is chosen so that a small amount of hysteresis
remains in order to ensure that the loop gain is greater than unity.
Vi is independent of Rs but V2 depends on R$ and increases with an increase in the value of Rs. So for a
large value of Rs it is possible for V2 to be equal to V\, Hysteresis is thus eliminated and the gain is unity.
If Rs exceeds this critical value, the loop gain falls below unity and the circuit cannot bs triggered. If Rs is
too small, the speed of operation of the
circuit is reduced.
Derivation of expression for UTP
The upper triggering point UTP is defined as the input voltage Vl at which the transistor Qi just enters into
conduction. To calculate Vb we have to first find the current in Q2 when Q! just enters into conduction.
For this we have to find the Thevenin's equivalent voltage V and the Thevenin's equivalent resistance tfB
at the base of Q2, where
It is possible for Q2 to be in its active region or to be in saturation. Assuming that Q 2 is in its active region
In the circuit shown in Figure 4.32, to calculate V\, we replace Vcc, KCI> î anc* ^2 of Figure 4.29 by V and
RB at the base of Q2.

Figure 4.32 The equivalent circuit of Figure 4.29 with Q| just at cut-in.
Writing KVL around the base loop of Q2,
Since VyJ is the voltage from base to emitter at cut-in where the loop gain just exceeds unity, it differs
from VBE2 in the active region by only 0.1 V for either Ge or Si.
This indicates that V, may be made almost independent of h^, of the emitter resistance RE, of the
temperature and of whether or not a silicon or germanium transistor is used. Hence the discriminator level
Vt is stable with transistor replacement, ageing, temperature changes, provided that (/IPE + l)/?E » RB and
that V" » 0.1. Since V depends on Vcc, RCI, R\ and R2, where stability is required it is necessary that a
stable supply and stable resistors are selected.
Derivation of expression for LTP
The lower triggering point LTP is defined as the input voltage V2 at which the transistor Q2 resumes
conduction. Vi can be calculated from the circuit shown in Figure 4.33 which is obtained by replacing Vcc,

J?C1, RI and R2 of Figure 4.29 by Thevenin's equivalent voltage VTH and Thevenin's equivalent resistance
R at the collector of Q(, where
Figure 433 The equivalent circuit of Figure 4.29 when Q2 just resumes conduction.
The voltage ratio from the collector of Qi to the base of Q2 is Figure 4.33, the input
signal to Qi is decreasing, and when it reaches V2 then Q2 comes out of cut-off.
Writing KVL around the base circuit of Q2,

Since VBE| is higher for silicon than germanium, the LTP Va is a few tenths of a volt higher for a Schmitt
trigger using silicon transistors than for one using germanium transistors.
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
As the name indicates, a monostable multivibrator has got only one permanent stable state, the other state
being quasi stable. Under quiescent conditions, the monostable multivibrator will be in its stable state
only. A triggering signal is required to induce a transition from the stable state to the quasi stable state.
Once triggered properly the circuit may remain in its quasi stable state for a time which is very long
compared with the time of transition between the states, and after that it will return to its original state. No
external triggering signal is required to induce this reverse transition. In a monostable multivibrator one
coupling element is a resistor and another coupling element is a capacitor.
When triggered, since the circuit returns to its original state by itself after a time T, it is known as a one-
shot, a single-step, or a univibrator. Since it generates a rectangular waveform which can be used to gate
other circuits, it is also called a gating circuit. Furthermore, since it generates a fast transition at a
predetermin6d time T after the input trigger, it is also referred to as a delay circuit. The monostable
multivibrator may be a collector-coupled one, or an emitter-coupled one.
THE COLLECTOR COUPLED MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Figure 4.41 shows the circuit diagram of a collector-to-base coupled (simply called collector-
coupled) monostable multivibrator using n-p-n transistors. The collector of Q2 is coupled to the base of Qi
by a resistor R} (dc coupling) and the collector of Qt is coupled to the base of Q2 by a capacitor C (ac
coupling). Ci is the commutating capacitor introduced to increase the speed of operation. The base of Qi
is connected to -VBB through a resistor R2, to ensure that Q! is cut off under quiescent conditions. The base
of Q2 is connected to VCc through R to ensure that Q2 is ON under quiescent conditions. In fact, R may be
returned to even a small positive voltage but connecting it to Vcc is advantageous.
The circuit parameters are selected such that under quiescent conditions, the monostable multivibrator
finds itself in its permanent stable state with Q2ON (i.e. in saturation) and Q! OFF (i.e. in cut-off)- The
multivibrator may be induced to make a transition out of its stable state by the application of a negative

trigger at the base of Q2 or at the collector of Q|. Since the triggering signal is applied to only one device
and not to both the devices simultaneously, unsymmetrical triggering is employed.
When a negative signal is applied at the base of Q2 at t ~ 0, due to regenerative action Q2 goes to OFF
state and Qi goes to ON state. When Q, is ON, a current /i flows through its Rc and hence its collector
voltage drops suddenly by I\RC This drop will be instantaneously
Figure 4.41 Circuit diagram of a collector-coupled monostable multivibrator.
transmitted through the coupling capacitor C to the base of Q 2. So at t = 0+, the base voltage of Q2 is
The circuit cannot remain in this state for a long time (it stays in this state only for a finite time T) because
when Qt conducts, the coupling capacitor C charges from Vcc through the conducting transistor Qi and
hence the potential at the base of Q2 rises exponentially with a time constant
where R0 is the conducting transistor output impedance including the resistance Rc. When it passes the
cut-in voltage Vy of Q2 (at a time t = T), a regenerative action takes place turning Q| OFF and eventually
returning the multivibrator to its initial stable state.
The transition from the stable state to the quasi-stable state takes place at t = 0, and the reverse transition
from the quasi-stable state to the stable state takes place at t = T. The time T for which the circuit is in its
quasi-stable state is also referred to as the delay time, and also as the gate width, pulse width, or pulse
duration. The delay time may be varied by varying the time constant t(= RC).
Expression for the gate width T of a monostable multivibrator neglecting the reverse saturation
current /CBO
Figure 4.42(a) shows the waveform at the base of transistor Q2 of the monostable multivibrator shown in
Figure 4.41.
For t < 0, Q2 is ON and so vB2 = VBE(sat). At t = 0, a negative signal applied brings Q2 to OFF state and
Q[ into saturation. A current /| flows through Rc of Qt and hence vci drops abruptly by /|7?c volts and so vB2
also drops by I\RC instantaneously. So at t - 0, vB2 = VBE(sat) - I}RC. For t > 0, the capacitor charges with a
time constant RC, and hence the base voltage of Q2 rises exponentially towards VCc with the same time
constant. At t = T, when this base voltage rises to the cut-in voltage level Vy of the transistor, Q2 goes to
ON state, and Qj to OFF state and the pulse ends.

In the interval 0 < t < 7", the base voltage of Q2, i.e. vB2 is given by
Figure 4.42(a) Voltage variation at the base of Q2 during the quasi-stable state (neglecting /cuoX
Normally for a transistor, at room temperature, the cut-in voltage is the average of the saturation junction
voltages for either Ge or Si transistors, i.e.
Neglecting the second term in the expression for T

but for a transistor in saturation Ra « R.
Gate width, T = 0.693KC
The larger the Vcc is, compared to the saturation junction voltages, the more accura the result is.
The gate width can be made very stable (almost independent of transistor characteristic supply voltages,
and resistance values) if Ql is driven into saturation during the quasi-stab state.
Expression for the gate width of a monostable multivibrator considering th reverse
saturation current /CBO
In the derivation of the expression for gate width T above, we neglected the effect of tt reverse saturation
current /CBO on the gate width T. In fact, as the temperature increases, tt reverse saturation current
increases and the gate width decreases.
In the quasi-stable state when Q2 is OFF, /CBO flows out of its base through R to th supply Vcc. Hence the
base of Q2 will be not at Vcc but at Vcc + /CBO^> ^ C *s disconnect from the junction of the base of Q2
with the resistor R. It therefore appears that the capacitt C in effect charges through R from a source Vcc +
/CBO^- See Figure 4.42(b).
Figure 4.42(b) Voltage variation at the base of Q2 during the quasirstable state (considering

Neglecting the junction voltages and the cut-in voltage of the transistor,
Since /CBO increases with temperature, we can conclude that the delay time T decreases as
temperature increases.
Waveforms of the collector-coupled monostable multivibrator
The waveforms at the collectors and bases of both the transistors Q] and Q 2 of the monostable
multivibrator of Figure 4.41 are shown in Figure 4.44.
The triggering signal is applied at t = 0, and the reverse transition occurs at t = T.
The stable state. For t < 0, the monostable circuit is in its stable state with Q2 ON and Q, OFF. Since Q2 is
ON, theâse voltage of Q2 is vB2 = VBE2(sat) and the collector voltage of Q2 is vC2 = VCE2(sat). Since Q, is
OFF, there is no current in Rc of Q! and its base voltage must be negative. Hence the voltage at the
collector of Q| is, vC1 = VCC
and the voltage at the base of Q] using the superposition theorem is
The quasi-stable state. A negative triggering signal applied at t = 0 brings Q2 to OFF state and Qi to ON
state. A current /, flows in tf c of Q]. So, the collector voltage of Qj drops suddenly by I}RC volts. Since the
voltage across the coupling capacitor C cannot change instantaneously, the voltage at the base of Q 2 also
drops by /itfc, where I{RC = Vcc -VcE2(sat)- Since Qi is ON,
In the interval 0 < t < T, the voltages VGI, VBI and Vc2 remain constant at their values at f = 0, but the
voltage at the base of. Q2, i.e. vB2 rises exponentially towards Vcc with a time constant, t - RC, until at t =
T, vB2 reaches the cut-in voltage Vx of the transistor.
Waveforms for t > T. At / = 7*1", reverse transition -takes place. Q2 conducts and Qi is cut-off. The
collector voltage of Q2 and the base voltage of Qi return to their voltage levels for / < 0. The voltage vcl

now rises abruptly since Qt is OFF. This increase in voltage is transmitted to the base of Q 2 and drives Q2
heavily into saturation. Hence an overshoot develops in vB2 at t = 7**", which decays as the capacitor
recharges because of the base current. The magnitude of the base current may be calculated as follows.
Replace the input circuit of Q2 by the base spreading resistance rBB in series with the voltage VsE(sat) as
shown in Figure 4.43. Let 7B be the base current at t = 1*. The current in R may be neglected compared to
/'B.
From Figure 4.43,
Figure 4.43 Equivalent circuit for calculating the overshoot at base 62 of Q3.
The jumps in voltages at B2 and C| are, respectively, given by
Since C] and B2 are connected by a capacitor C and since the voltage across the capacitts cannot change
instantaneously, these two discontinuous voltage changes 5 and 5' must bl equal.
Equating them,
vB2 and vcl decay to their steady-state values with a time constant

Figure 4.44 Waveforms at the collectors and bases of the collector-coupled monostable multivibrator. (a) at the base
of Q2, (b) at the collector of Qt, (c) at the collector of Q2, and (d) at the base o
Monostable multivibrator as a voltage-to-time converter (as a pulse width modulator)

Figure 4.45(a) shows the circuit diagram of a monostable multivibrator as a voltage- to-time
converter. By varying the auxiliary supply voltage V, the pulse width can be changed. It can
be seen that the resistor R is connected to the auxiliary voltage source V instead of to
The waveform of the voltage vB2 at the base of Q2 is shown in Figure 4.45(b).

Figure 4.45 Monostable multivibrator.
Thus the pulse width is a function of auxiliary voltage V. For this reason the monostable multivibrator
shown in Figure 4 .45 (a) is termed a voltdge-to-time converter. It is also called a pulse width modulator.
THE EMITTER-COUPLED MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Figure 4.51 shows the circuit diagram of an emitter-coupled monostable multivibrator. It differs from the
collector-coupled one-shot in that the collector of Q2 is not coupled to the base of Q] and instead the
feedback has been provided through a common emitter resistance R& Also, there is no need for a negative
power supply. Since the signal at C2 is not directly involved in the regenerative loop, this collector makes
an ideal point from which to obtain an output voltage waveform. Since the base of Qj is not connected to
any other point in the circuit, it makes a good point at which to inject a triggering signal. Hence the
trigger source cannot load the circuit. The gate width of a one-shot can be controlled through /,. In the
case of collector-coupled one-shot it is not possible to stabilize 7j, but in an emitter-coupled one-shot, the
presence of the emitter resistance RE serves to stabilize /]. The current l\ may be adjusted through the bias

voltage V, and T varies linearly with V. Hence an emitter-coupled configuration makes an excellent gate
wave generator whose width is easily and linearly controllable by means of an electrical signal.
Figure 4.51 An emitter-coupled monostable multivibrator.

The waveforms of the emitter-coupled monostable multivibrator are shown in Figure 4.52.
Figure 4.52 Waveforms of emitter-coupled monostable multivibrator

In the stable state, Q2 is ON because it gets the required base drive from Vcc through R and develops a
potential VEN across the resistor RE. The biasing resistors R] and R2 are selected such that VBi is smaller
than VEN to ensure that Ch is OFF. This is the stable state. When a positive going triggering pulse is
applied at the base of Q,, the circuit goes into the quasi-stable state because VB1 > VEN2. When Q[ goes
ON its collector potential drops, consequently a negative step is applied to the base of Q 2 turning Q2 OFF.
Due to conduction of Ch, a voltage drop VEN| is developed across KE. In the quasi-stable state, VBI > VENI
an
d Q! is ON and Q2 is OFF. However when Q, is ON, the capacitor C charges from Vcc through R. When
the potential VBN2 reaches the value of VEN, + Vr the transistor Q2 conducts and due to regenerative
feedback Q2 goes into saturation and Q! into cut-off and the pulse ends.
Expression for gate width
When Q2 is ON, voltage across RE = VEN2. Hence
When Q| conducts, the voltage at the collector of Qj and hence the voltage at the base of Q 2 drops by
I\Rc\- Therefore,
If Q2 did not conduct, then as t —» «, VBN2 would approach VCc- Hence the instantaneous voltage at the
base of Q2 is given by
TRIGGERING THE MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

A monostable multivibrator needs to be triggered by a suitable signal in order to switch it from the stable
state to the quasi stable state. However after remaining in the quasi stable state for a time T = 0.693 RC, it
automatically switches back to the original stable state, without any triggering signal applied. Thus unlike
a bistable multivibrator, a monostable multivibrator requires only one triggering signal. Hence only
unsymmetrical triggering techniques are adopted for monostable multivibrators. Generally speaking, all
the triggering methods which are applicable to the binary are also applicable to the monostable
multivibrator. The collector-coupled monostable multivibrator is normally triggered by applying a
negative pulse at the collector of the OFF transistor (n-p-n) Qi through an RC differentiator circuit which
converts it into positive and negative spikes as shown in Figure 4.50. The positive spike is blocked by the
diode and the negative spike is transmitted through it and the capacitor C to the base of the ON transistor
Q2. So Q2 goes to the OFF state and Qi to the ON state. This method has two advantages: one is as we
know; the multivibrator is more sensitive to a pulse of such a polarity which brings the ON device to the
OFF state. The second is, at the instant of the transition, the collector of Qi drops, the diode no longer
conducts, and the multivibrator does not respond to the triggering signal till the quasi-stable state is
completed. The emitter-coupled monostable multivibrator may be triggered by applying a positive pulse
of sufficient amplitude at the base of Qt to bring the OFF transistor Q! to the ON state as shown in Figure
4.51.
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
As the name indicates an astable multivibrator is a multivibrator with no permanent stable state. Both of
its states are quasi stable only. It cannot remain in any one of its states indefinitely and keeps on

oscillating between its two quasi stable states the moment it is connected to the supply. It remains in each
of its two quasi stable states for only a short designed interval of time and then goes to the other quasi
stable state. No triggering signal is required. Both the coupling elements are capacitors (ac coupling) and
hence both the states are quasi stable. It is a free running multivibrator. It generates square waves. It is
used as a master oscillator.
There are two types of astable multivibrators:
1. Collector-coupled astable multivibrator
2. Emitter-coupled astable multivibrator
THE COLLECTOR-COUPLED ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
Figure 4.53 shows the circuit diagram of a collector-coupled astable multivibrator using n-p-n transistors.
The collectors of both the transistors Qj and Q2 are connected to the bases
Figure 4.53 A collector-coupled astable multivibrator.
of the other transistors through the coupling capacitors C s and C2. Since both are ac couplings, neither
transistor can remain permanently at cut-off. Instead, the circuit has two quasi-stable states, and it makes
periodic transitions between these states. Hence it is used as a master oscillator. No triggering signal is
required for this multivibrator. The component values are selected such that, the moment it is connected
to the supply, due to supply transients one transistor will go into saturation and the other into cut-off, and
also due to capacitive couplings it keeps on-oscillating between its two quasi stable states.
The waveforms at the bases and collectors for the astable multivibrator, are shown in Figure 4.54. Let us
say at t = 0, Q2 goes to ON state and Q] to OFF state. So, for t < 0, Q2 was OFF and Qi was ON. Hence
for t < 0, vB2 is negative, vC2 = Vcc, VB! = VBE(sat) and vcj = VCE(sat). The capacitor C2 charges from Vcc
through R2 and vB2 rises exponentially towards Vcc. At t = 0, vB2 reaches the cut-in voltage Vy and Q2
conducts. As Q2 conducts, its collector voltage Vc 2 drops by /2/?c - ^cc ~ VcE(saO- This drop in vc2 is
transmitted to the base of Qj through the coupling capacitor C 2 and hence vB1 also falls by /2/?c- Qi goes
to OFF state. So, VB] = VBE(sat) - /2tfc, and its collector voltage vcl rises towards VCc- This rise in vc] is
coupled through the coupling capacitor C2 to the base of Q2, causing an overshoot § in vB2 and the abrupt
rise by the same amount 8 in VCL as shown in Figure 4.51(c). Now since Q2 is ON, C\ charges from Vcc
through Rlt and hence VB] rises exponentially. At t = 7"], when VB! rises to VY, Qi conducts and due to
regenerative action Qi goes into saturation and Q2 to cut-off. Now, for t > T\, the coupling capacitor C2
charges from Vcc through R2 and at / = 7", + 7"2, when vB2 rises to the cut-in voltage Vr, Q2 conducts and
due to regenerative feedback Q2 goes to ON state and Q| to OFF state. The cycle of events repeats and the
circuit keeps on oscillating between its two quasi-stable states. Hence the output is a square wave. It is
called a square wave generator or square wave oscillator or relaxation oscillator. It is a free running
oscillator.

Expression for the frequency of oscillation of an astable multivibrator
On similar lines considering the waveform of Figure 4.54(b), we can show that the time T2 for which Q2 is
OFF and Qj is ON is given by The period of the waveform,
The frequency of oscillation,
If R{ = R2 = R, and Cs = C2 = C, then TI = T2 = 772
The frequency of oscillation may be varied over the range from cycles to mega cycles by varying RC. It is
also possible to vary the frequency electrically by connecting R\ and R2 to an auxiliary voltage source V
(the collector supply remains +VCC) and then varying this voltage V.

The astable multivibrator as a voltage-to-frequency converter
Figure 4.55 shows the circuit diagram of an astable multivibrator used as a voltage-to-frequency
converter. The frequency can be varied by varying the magnitude of the auxiliary voltage source V. Now
the supply voltage is VCG only> but the voltage level to which the coupling capacitors Q and C 2 try to
charge is not Vcc but V.

For 0 < t < TI, Qi is OFF and Q2 is ON. From the base waveform shown in Figure 4.56(a) the voltage at
the base of Qi is given by
Neglecting the junction voltages and the cut-in voltage of the transistor
Figure 4.55 The astable multivibrator as a voltage-to-frequency converter.
Figure 4.56 (a) Waveform at the base of Q, and (b) waveform at the base of Q2 for the circuit of Figure 4.55.

This shows that by varying V, the frequency / can be varied and hence this circuit acts as a voltage-
to-frequency converter.
The astable multivibrator with vertical edges
The collector-coupled astable multivibrator shown in Figure 4.53 produces the output waveforms at
the collectors of Qi and Q2 with rounded edges as shown in Figure 4.54. An astable multivibrator
which can generate collector waveforms with vertical edges can be obtained by the addition of two
diodes and two resistors as shown in Figure 4.57. If Q 2 is driven OFF, its collector voltage rises
immediately to Vcc so that D2 is reverse biased and Qj goes into saturation, The saturation base
current of Qi passes through Ci and R^ rather than through RQ. Since /B no longer passes through Kc,
the collector waveform now has vertical edges as desired.
Figure 4.57 The astable multivibrator with vertical edges.

The astable multivibrator which does not block
For the astable multivibrator shown in Figure 4.53 if the supply voltage is increased slowly from zero to
its full value Vcc, both the transistors may go into saturation simultaneously and remain in that state. This
blocked condition does not occur if the voltage is applied suddenly. A circuit which cannot block is
shown in Figure 4.58.
Figure 4.58 The astable multivibrator which does not block.

The gated astable multivibrator
Figure 4.59 shows the circuit diagram of a gated astable multivibrator. This is obtained by adding a
transistor Q3 in series with the emitter of Q| or Q2 of the collector-coupled astable multivibrator. This
gated astable multivibrator can start or stop oscillating at definite times.
Figure 4.59 The gated astable multivibrator.
The input v, to Q3 can assume one of two values. One level is chosen such that Q3 is OFF. With Q3 OFF,
Qj will be OFF, and Q2 will be ON and the circuit is quiescent, i.e. it does not oscillate. The second binary
level is chosen such that Q^ is driven into saturation. Hence, at any instant (say t - 0) that this voltage is
applied, Q, goes ON and Q2 is driven OFF. The circuit operates as an astable multivibrator with
waveforms which are essentially those in Figure 4.54 starting at t = 0.

THE EMITTER-COUPLED ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
An emitter-coupled astable multivibrator may be obtained by using three power supplies or a single
power supply.
Figure 4.63 shows the circuit diagram of a free-running emitter coupled multivibrator using n-p-n
transistors. Figure 4.64 shows its waveforms. Three power supplies are indicated for the sake of
simplifying the analysis. A more practical circuit using a single supply is indicated in Figure 4.65. Let us
assume that the circuit operates in such a manner that Qi switches between cut-off and saturation and Q2
switches between cut-off and its active region.

Figure 4.63 The astable emitter-coupled multivibrator.
During the interval preceding t = t\, the capacitor C charges from a fixed voltage ^BB ~ V0 through the
resistor RE2. All circuit voltages remain constant except vEN2, which falls asymptotically towards zero.
The transistor Q2 will begin to conduct when vEN2 falls to
Calculations at f = tf
When Q2 conducts, vEN2 and vEN1 rise. As vENi rises, Q] comes out of saturation and vCN1 (= vBN2) also
increases, causing a further increase in the current in Q2. Because of this regenerative action, Qi is driven
OFF and Q2 is driven into its active region where its base-to-emitter voltage is VBE2, its base current is /B2
and its collector current is /C2. From Figure 4.64, we see that after transition, at t = rf.
At t\ there is an abrupt change Vp in vEN2.

Because of the capacitive coupling between emitters there must also be the same discontinuity VD in
VENI. Hence,
Neglecting junction voltages and /B2^ci compared with VCCi

The period
The interval T\ when Q2 conducts and Qi is OFF ends at t = t2- The transistor Qt will turn ON when the
base-to-emitter voltage reaches the cut-in value Vy or when VENi reaches the voltage
Since the base voltage of Qi is fixed, then to carry the transistor from the cut-in point to
saturation the emitter must drop. However this drop S is small, since S = Va~ Vr= 0.2 V. Because the
emitters are capacitively coupled there will be an identical jump S in vEN2, After / = t2, in the interval T2,
conditions are the same as they were for t < t\.
Therefore, the cycle of events described above is repeated and the circuit behaves as an
astable multivibrator.
From Figure 4.64(a), we see that the voltage VENI starts at V\ at t = t\ and falls to
*^BB - Vj,at f = t2. Since this decay is exponential with a time constant #E|C and approaches
zero asymptotically,

Assuming that the supply voltages are large compared with the junction voltages and assuming also that
/B2Êi « ^ccb we find
Subject to the same approximations, T 2 is given by
If VCC| and VBB are arranged to be proportional to one another, then the frequency is independent of the
supply voltages.
When QJ is OFF, its collector-to-ground voltage is approximately VCC1 and equals the base-to-ground
voltage of Q2. Since it is desired that Q2 be in its active region, then VBN2 should be less than VCN2 or VCC[
< VCC2. Since Qj is to be driven into saturation, then its base voltage may be almost as large as its
collector supply voltage. However, to avoid driving Q\ too deeply into saturation it is better to arrange
that VBB < VCC1, A circuit which uses a single supply and which satisfies the requirements that VBB be
proportional to Vca and that VBB < VCC1 < VCC2 is shown in Figure 4.65. Since C' is a bypass capacitor
intended to maintain VBB constant, it is not involved in the operation of the circuit. We assume that /?!
and RI are small enough so that the voltage VBB at the junction of R} and R2 remains normally constant
during the entire cycle of operations of the multivibrator. Using Thevenin's theorem we see that the circuit
of Figure 4.65 is of the same form as that of Figure 4.63 with VCc2 ~ ^cc a°d with
The advantages and disadvantages of the emitter-coupled astable multivibrator over the collector-coupled
astable multivibrator are given below:
Advantages
1. It is inherently self-starting.
2. The collector of Q2 where the output is taken may be loaded heavily even capacitively.
3. The output is free of recovery transients.
4. Because it has an isolated input at the base of Qi, synchronization is convenient.

5. Frequency adjustment is convenient because only one capacitor is used.

Figure 4.65 The emitter-coupled multivibrator.
Disadvantages
1. This circuit is more difficult to adjust for proper operating conditions.
2. This circuit cannot be operated with T\ and T2 widely different.
3. This circuit uses more components than does the collector-coupled circuit.

TIME BASE GENERATORS
TIME BASE GENERATORS
General features of a time base signal, methods of generating time base waveform, Miller and Bootstrap
time base generators - basic principles, Transistor miller time base generator, Transistor Bootstrap time
base generator, Current time base generators.
A time-base generator is an electronic circuit which generates an output voltage or current

waveform, a portion of which varies linearly with time. Ideally the output waveform should be a ramp.
Time-base generators may be voltage time-base generators or current time-base generators. A voltage
time-base generator is one that provides an output voltage waveform, a portion of which exhibits a linear
variation with respect to time. A current time-base generator is one that provides an output current
waveform, a portion of which exhibits a linear variation with respect to time. There are many important
applications of time-base generators, such as in CROs, television and radar displays, in precise time
measurements, and in time modulation. The most important application of a time-base generator is in
CROs. To display the variation with respect to time of an arbitrary waveform on the screen of an
oscilloscope it is required to apply to one set of deflecting plates a voltage which varies linearly with
time. Since this waveform is used to sweep the electron beam horizontally across the screen it is called
the sweep voltage and the time-base generators are called the sweep circuits.
GENERAL FEATURES OF A TIME-BASE SIGNAL

Figure 5.1(a) shows the typical waveform of a time-base voltage. As seen the voltage starting
from some initial value increases linearly with time to a maximum value after which it returns again to its
initial value. The time during which the output increases is called the sweep time and the time taken by
the signal to return to its initial value is called the restoration time, the return time, or the flyback time. In
most cases the shape of the waveform during restoration time and the restoration time itself are not of
much consequence. However, in some cases a restoration time which is very small compared with the
sweep time is required. If the restoration time is almost zero and the next linear voltage is initiated the
moment the present one is terminated then a saw-tooth waveform shown in Figure 5.1(b) is generated.
The waveforms of the type shown in Figures 5.1 (a) and (b) are generally called sweep waveforms even
when they are used in applications not involving the deflection of an electron beam.
In fact, precisely linear sweep signals are difficult to generate by time-base generators and moreover
nominally linear sweep signals may be distorted when transmitted through a coupling
network.
Figure 5.1 (a) General sweep voltage and (b) saw-tooth voltage waveforms.

The deviation from linearity is expressed in three most important ways:
1 . The slope or sweep speed error, es
2. The displacement error, ed
3. The transmission error, e,
The slope or sweep-speed error, es
An important requirement of a sweep is that it must increase linearly with time, i.e. the rate of change of
sweep voltage with time be constant. This deviation from linearity is defined as
The displacement error, ed

Another important criterion of linearity is the maximum difference between the actual sweep voltage
and the linear sweep which passes through the beginning and end points of the actual sweep. The
displacement error ed is defined as
As shown in Figure 5.2(a), vs is the actual sweep and v's is the linear sweep.
The transmission error, et

When a ramp signal is transmitted through a high-pass circuit, the output falls away from the input as
shown in Figure 5.2(b). This deviation is expressed as transmission error et, defined as the difference
between the input and the output divided by the input at the end of the sweep
where as shown in Figure 5.2(b), V's is the input and Vs is the output at the end of the sweep, i.e.
at t = TS

Figure 5.2 (a) Sweep for displacement error and (b) sweep for transmission error.
If the deviation from linearity is small so that the sweep voltage may be approximated by the sum
of linear and quadratic terms in t, then the above three errors are related as
which implies that the sweep speed error is the more dominant
one and the displacement error is the least severe one.
METHODS OF GENERATING A TIME-BASE WAVEFORM

In time-base circuits, sweep linearity is achieved by one of the following methods.
1. Exponential charging. In this method a capacitor is charged from a supply voltage through a resistor
to a voltage which is small compared with the supply voltage.
2. Constant current charging. In this method a capacitor is charged linearly from a constant current
source. Since the charging current is constant the voltage across the capacitor increases linearly.
3. The Miller circuit. In this method an operational integrator is used to convert an input step voltage
into a ramp waveform.
4. The Phantastron circuit. In this method a pulse input is converted into a ramp. This is a version of the
Miller circuit.
5. The bootstrap circuit. In this method a capacitor is charged linearly by a constant current which is
obtained by maintaining a constant voltage across a fixed resistor in series with the capacitor.
6. Compensating networks. In this method a compensating circuit is introduced to improve the linearity
of the basic Miller and bootstrap time-base generators.
7. An inductor circuit. In this method an RLC series circuit is used. Since an inductor does not allow the
current passing through it to change instantaneously, the current through the capacitor more or less
remains constant and hence a more linear sweep is obtained.
EXPONENTIAL SWEEP CIRCUIT
Figure 5.3(a) shows an exponential sweep circuit. The switch S is normally closed and is open at t = 0. So
for t > 0, the capacitor charges towards the supply voltage V with a time constant RC. The voltage across
the capacitor at any instant of time is given by After an interval of time Tx when
the sweep amplitude attains the value Vs, the switch again closes. The resultant sweep waveform is shown
in Figure 5.3(b).

Figure 5.3 (a) Charging a capacitor through a resistor from a fixed voltage and (b) the resultant exponential waveform
across the capacitor.
The relation between the three measures of linearity, namely the slope or sweep speed error es,
the displacement error ed, and the transmission error e, for an exponential sweep circuit is derived below.
Slope or sweep speed error, es

We know that for an exponential sweep circuit of Figure 5.3(a),
Rate of change of output or slope is
For small Ts, neglecting the second and higher order terms
Neglecting the second and higher order terms

So the smaller the sweep amplitude compared to the sweep voltage, the smaller will be the slope error.
The transmission error, e,
From Figure 5.2(b),
The displacement error, ed

From Figure 5.2(a), we can see that the maximum displacement between the actual sweep and the linear
sweep which passes through the beginning and end points of the actual sweep occurs at t =T S / 2
The actual sweep vs is given by

The displacement error ed is given by
If a capacitor C is charged by a constant current /, then the voltage across C is ft/C. Hence the rate of
change of voltage with time is given by
Sweep speed = I/C
UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR
As the name implies a UJT has only one p-n junction, unlike a BJT which has two p-n junctions.
It has a p-type emitter alloyed to a lightly doped n-type material as shown in Figure 5.4(a). There are two
bases: base B| and base B2, base B] being closer to the emitter than base B 2. The p-n junction is formed
between the p-type emitter and n-type silicon slab.
Originally this device was named as double base diode but now it is commercially known as UJT.
The equivalent circuit of the UJT is shown in Figure 5.4(b). /?B] is the resistance between base B! and the
emitter, and it is basically a variable resistance, its value being dependent upon the emitter current i'E. /?B2
is the resistance between base 62 and the emitter, and its value is fixed.

Figure 5.4 (a) Construction of UJT, (b) equivalent circuit of UJT, and (c) circuit when i E = 0.
If IE = 0, due to the applied voltage VBB, a current i results as shown in Figure 5.4(c).
From the equivalent circuit, it is evident that the diode cannot conduct unless the emitter voltage
where Vy is the cut-in voltage of the diode.

This value of emitter voltage which makes the diode conduct is termed peak voltage and is denoted by VP.
It is obvious that if VE < VP, the UJT is OFF and if VE > VP, the UJT is ON.
The symbol of UJT is shown in Figure 5.5(a). The input characteristics of UJT (plot of VE versus /E) are
shown in Figure 5.5(b). The main application of UJT is in switching circuits wherein rapid discharge of
capacitors is very essential. UJT sweep circuit is called a relaxation oscillator.

SWEEP CIRCUIT USING UJT
Many devices are available to serve as the switch S. Figure 5.6(a) shows the exponential sweep circuit in
which the UJT serves the purpose of the switch. In fact, any current-controlled negative-resistance device
may be used to discharge the sweep capacitor.
The supply voltage VyY and the charging resistor R must be selected such that the load line intersects the
input characteristic in the negative-resistance region. Assume that the UJT is OFF. The capacitor C
charges from VYY through R. When it is charged to the peak value VP, the UJT turns ON and the
capacitor now discharges through the UJT. When the capacitor discharges to the valley voltage Vv» tne
UJT turns OFF, and again the capacitor starts charging and the cycle repeats. The capacitor voltage
appears as shown in Figure 5.6(b). The expression for the sweep time Ts can be obtained as follows.
Figure 5.6 (a) UJT sweep circuit and (b) output waveform across the capacitor.

SWEEP CIRCUIT USING A TRANSISTOR SWITCH
Figure 5.8(a) shows the circuit diagram of a sweep circuit using a transistor switch. The input gating
waveform v,- may be the output of a monostable circuit in which case we get a triggered sweep circuit or
it might be the output of an astable circuit in which case we get a free-running sweep circuit. The input
and output waveforms are shown in Figure 5.8(b).
In the quiescent state, i.e. for t < 0, the input is clamped near ground and hence the transistor gets enough
base drive from VYY through R' and therefore goes into saturation. Hence the output voltage is at its
lowest magnitude (= VCE(sat) = Vv). At t = 0, the input goes to its lower level and remains at that level for
t = Ts. So for 0 < t < Ts, the transistor remains cut-off, the capacitor charges through R towards VYy with a
time constant RC. At t = Ts, the output is at its peak value. At the end of sweep time Ts, the capacitor
discharges and its final value is Vv.

A TRANSISTOR CONSTANT-CURRENT SWEEP
For a transistor in the common base configuration, except for very small values of collector-to-base
voltage, the collector current is very nearly constant when the emitter current is held constant. This
characteristic may be used to generate a quite linear sweep by causing a constant current to flow through a
capacitor connected in the collector circuit.
Figure 5.9(a) shows the circuit diagram of a transistor constant-current sweep circuit. In Figure 5.9(a), if
VEB is the emitter-to-base voltage, the emitter current is
The switch S is opened at t = 0. Assuming that VEB remains constant for t > 0, the collector current will
be a constant whose nominal value is
So the capacitor charges linearly with time and a sweep is obtained. The equivalent circuit from which to
determine the sweep voltage v, is shown in Figure 5.9(b).When
On applying KVL to the input mesh and KCL to the output node of Figure 5.9(b), we have

At t - 0, vs = 0, the solution to these equations is given by
Expanding the exponential into a power series in t/T and retaining only the first term,
If the capacitor current were to remain constant at this value, then
At t = TS

MILLER AND BOOTSTRAP TIME-BASE GENERATORS—BASIC PRINCIPLES
The linearity of the time-base waveforms may be improved by using circuits involving feedback. Figure
5.10(a) shows the basic exponential sweep circuit in which S opens to form the sweep. A linear sweep
cannot be obtained from this circuit because as the capacitor charges, the charging current decreases and
hence the rate at which the capacitor charges, i.e. the slope of the output waveform decreases. A perfectly
linear output can be obtained if the initial charging current / = VIR is maintained constant. This can be
done by introducing an auxiliary variable generator v whose generated voltage v is always equal to and
opposite to the voltage across the capacitor as shown in Figure 5.10(b). Two methods of simulating the
fictitious generator are discussed below.
Figure 5.10 (a) The current decreases exponentially with time and (b) the current remains constant.
In the circuit of Figure 5.10(b) suppose the point Z is grounded as in Figure 5.11(a). A linear sweep will
appear between the point Y and ground and will increase in the negative direction. Let us now replace the
fictitious (imaginary) generator by an amplifier with output terminals YZ and input terminals XZ as
shown in Figure 5.11(b). Since we have assumed that the generated voltage is always equal and opposite
to the voltage across the capacitor,
Figure 5.11 (a) Figure 5.10(b) with Z grounded and (b) Miller integrator circuit.

the voltage between X and Z is equal to zero. Hence the point X acts as a virtual ground. Now for the
amplifier, the input is zero volts and the output is a finite negative value. This can be achieved by using an
operational integrator with a gain of infinity. This is normally referred to as the Miller integrator circuit or
the Miller sweep.
Suppose that the point Y in Figure 5.10(b) is grounded and the output is taken at Z. A linear sweep will
appear between Z and ground and will increase in the positive direction. Let us now replace the fictitious
generator by an amplifier with input terminals XY and output terminals ZY as shown in Figure 5.12.
Since we have assumed that the generated voltage v at any instant is equal to the voltage across the
capacitor vc, then v0 must be equal to v,-, and the amplifier voltage gain must be equal to unity. The
circuit of Figure 5.12 is referred to as the Bootstrap sweep circuit.
Figure 5.12 Bootstrap sweep circuit.
The Miller sweep

The Miller integrating circuit of Figure 5.11(b) is redrawn in Figure 5.13(a). A switch S at the closing of
which the sweep starts is included. The basic amplifier has been replaced at the input side by its input
resistance and on the output side by its Thevenin's equivalent. R0 is the output resistance of the amplifier
and A its open circuit voltage gain. Figure 5.13(b) is obtained by replacing V, R and tf, on the input side
by a voltage source V in series with a resistance R' where
Neglecting the output resistance in the circuit of Figure 5.13{b), if the switch is closed at t = 0 and if the
initial voltage across the capacitor is zero, then v0 (f = 0+) = 0, because at / = 0~, V; ~ 0 and since the
voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
This indicates that the sweep starts from zero.

At t = ∞, the capacitor acts as an open-circuit for dc. So no current flows and therefore

Figure 5.13 (a) A Miller integrator with switch S, input resistance Rf and Thevenin's equivalent on the output side
and (b) Figure 5.13(a) with input replaced by Thevenin's equivalent.
This indicates that the output is exponential and the sweep is negative-going since A is a negative number.
where Vs is the sweep amplitude and V is the peak-to-peak value of the output.
The deviation from linearity is times that of an RC circuit charging directly from a source V.
If R0 is taken into account, the final value attained by v0 remains as before, AV = - \A\V. The initial value
however is slightly different.
To find v0 at t = 0+, writing the KVL around the mesh in Figure 5.13(b), assuming zero voltage across the
capacitor, we have
From the above equations, we find

Therefore, if R0 is taken into account, v0(t = 0+) is a small positive value and still it will be a negative-
going sweep with the same terminal value. Thus the negative-going ramp is preceded by a small positive
jump. Usually this jump is/small compared to the excursion AV', Hence, improvement in linearity because
of the increase in total excursion is negligible.
The bootstrap sweep
Figure 5.14 shows the bootstrap circuit of Figure 5.12. The switch S at the opening of which the sweep
starts is in parallel with the capacitor C. Here, /?,- is the input resistance, A is the open-circuit voltage
gain, and R0 is the output resistance of the amplifier.
Figure 5.14 Bootstrap circuit of Figure 5.12 with switch S which opens at ( = 0, input resistance Rf, and
Thevenin's equivalent of the amplifier on the output side.
At t = 0~, the switch was closed and so vt - 0, Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change
instantaneously, at t = 0* also, v(- = 0 and hence Av, = 0, and the circuit shown in Figure 5.15 results.
The output has the same value at t = 0 and hence there is no jump in the output voltage at t = 0.
Figure 5.15 Equivalent circuit of Figure 5.14 aU = 0.
At t = <*>, the capacitor acts as an open-circuit and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 5.16 results.

Writing KVL in the circuit of Figure 5.16,
Since A « 1, and if R0 is neglected, we get
Since R0 « /?, v0 at t = 0 can be neglected compared to the value of v0 at t - <». Then the total excursion of
the output is given by
and the slope error is
This shows that the slope error is [1 - A + (R/Rj)] times the slope error that would result if the capacitor is
charged directly from V through a resistor.
Comparing the expressions for the slope error of Miller and bootstrap circuits, we can see that it is more
important to keep R/Rj small in the bootstrap circuit than in the Miller circuit. Therefore, the Miller
integrator has some advantage over the bootstrap circuit in that in the Miller circuit a higher input
impedance is less important.
THE TRANSISTOR MILLER TIME-BASE GENERATOR
Figure 5.17 shows the circuit diagram of a transistor Miller time-base generator. It consists of a three-
stage amplifier. To have better linearity, it is essential that a high input impedance amplifier be used for
the Miller integrator circuit. Hence the first stage of the amplifier of Figure 5.17 is an emitter follower.
The second stage is a common-emitter amplifier and it provides the necessary voltage amplification. The
third stage (output stage) is also an emitter follower for two reasons. First, because of its low output
impedance R0 it can drive a load such as the horizontal amplifier. Second, because of its high input

impedance it does not load the collector circuit of the second stage and hence the gain of the second stage
can be very high. The capacitor C placed between the base of Qi and the emitter of Q 3 is the timing
capacitor. The sweep speed is changed from range to range by switching R and C and may be varied
continuously by varying VBB.
Under quiescent condition, the output of the Schmitt gate is at its lower level. So transistor Q 4 is ON. The
emitter current of Q4 flows through RI and hence the emitter is at a negative potential. Therefore the diode
D conducts. The current through R flows through the diode D and the transistor Q4. The capacitor C is
bypassed and hence is prevented from charging. When a triggering signal is applied, the output of the
Schmitt gate goes to its higher level. So the base voltage of Q4 rises and hence the transistor Q4 goes OFF.
A current flows now from 10 V source through RI. The positive voltage at the emitter of Q4 now makes
the diode D reverse biased. At this time the upper terminal of C is connected to the collector of Q4 which
is in cut-off. The capacitor gets charged from VBB and hence a run down sweep output is obtained at the
emitter of Q3. At the end of the sweep, the capacitor C discharges rapidly through D and Q4.
Considering the effect of the capacitance C\, the slope or sweep speed error is given by
THE TRANSISTOR BOOTSTRAP TIME-BASE GENERATOR

Figure 5.18 shows a transistor bootstrap time-base generator. The input to transistor Q] is the gating
waveform from a monostable multivibrator (it could be a repetitive waveform like a square wave). Figure
5.19(a) shows the base voltage of Qj. Figure 5.19(b) shows the collector current waveform of Qj and
Figure 5.19(c) shows the output voltage waveform at the emitter of q 2

Figure 5.18 A voltage time-base generator.
Quiescent conditions
Under quiescent conditions, i.e. before the application of the gating waveform at t - 0, Q| is in saturation
because it gets enough base drive from YCC through ^B- So the voltage across the capacitor which is also
the voltage at the collector of Qj and the base of Q2 is VCE (sat). Since Q2 is conducting and acting as an
emitter follower, the voltage at the emitter of Q2 which is also the output voltage is less than this base
voltage by VBE2, i.e.
is a small negative voltage (a few tenths of a volt negative). If we neglect this small voltage as well as the
small drop across the diode D, then the voltage across C\ as well as across R is Vcc-Hence the current i>
through R i§ Vcc/R- Since the quiescent output voltage at the emitter of Q 2 is close to zero, the emitter
current of Q2 is VEE/J?E. Hence the base current of Q2 is iB2 = VEE / hFE RE
iR = iC1 + iB2
Since the base current of Q2, i.e. /B2 is very small compared with the collector current i C1 of Q1
For Qj to be really in saturation under quiescent condition, its base current (( Bi = VCC/RB) t be at least
equal to I'CI#*FE> i.e. VCC//IFE^. so that
Formation of sweep
When the negative-going gating waveform is applied at t - 0, the transistor Q] is driven OFF. The current
/Ci now flows into the capacitor C and so the voltage across the capacitor rises according to the equation
Assuming unity gain for the emitter follower,

Since the voltage across C\ is constant and equal to VGO when the sweep starts, the diode is reverse biased
and the current through R is supplied by the capacitor C\ .
The equation, v0 ~ Vcct/RC is valid only if the gate duration Tg is small enough so that the calculated value
of v0 does not exceed Vcc- From Figure 5.18 it can be seen that when v0 approaches VCG, the voltage VCE
of Q2 approaches zero and the transistor Q2 goes into saturation. Then it no longer acts as an emitter

follower. Hence v0 (also vc) remains constant at Vcc. The current Vcc/K through Ci and R now flows from
base to emitter of Q2.
If the output v0 reaches the voltage Vcc m a time Ts < Tg, then Vcc = Vcc TS / RC or TS = RC
Figure 5.19 Voltage time-base generator of Figure 5.18: (a) the base voltage of Q1% (b) the collector current of
Qi, and (c) the output voltage at the emitter of Q2-
whereas if the sweep amplitude Vs is less than Vcc> then the maximum ramp voltage is given by
Retrace interval
At t = Tg, when the gate terminates, the transistor Qi goes into conduction and a current r' Bi = VCC/R-Q
flows into the base of Qi. Hence a current/ci =/IFE*BI flows into the collector of Qj. This current remains
constant till the transistor goes into saturation. Since Q] is ON the capacitor C discharges through Qi.
Because of emitter follower action, when vc falls, v0 also falls by the same amount and so the voltage
across R remains constant at Vcc. The constant current iR = Vcc/R also flows through Qi. Applying KVL
at the collector of Qi and neglecting /B2,
Since the discharging current of C, i.e. IA is constant, the voltage across C and hence the output voltage
falls linearly to its initial value.

If the retrace time is Tr, then the charge lost by the capacitor = IA Tr
where Vs is the sweep amplitude. That is,
After C is discharged, the collector current is now supplied completely through R and becomes
established at the value V^c/R-
The retrace time can be reduced by choosing a small value of Rs. However if RR is reduced
greatly, then the collector current may increase to the point where the transistor
dissipation may be excessive.
The recovery process
During the entire interval the capacitor C[ discharges at a constant rate because the
Current through it has remained constant. So it would have lost a charge

Hence at the time T when the voltage across C and at the base of Q2 returns to its value for t< 0, the
voltage across Ci is smaller than it was at the beginning of the sweep. The diode D starts conducting at t -
T, and the end of Ci, which is connected to D, returns to its initial voltage, i.e. Vcc- Therefore,.the other
terminal of Ci which is connected to the emitter of Ch is at a more positive potential than it was at t = 0
and so Q2 goes to cut-off. So the capacitor Ci charges through the resistor RE with a current,
The maximum recovery time T\ for C\ can be calculated as follows.
Charge lost by capacitor Ci in time T is
Charge gained by capacitor Ci in minimum recovery time T\ is
This shows that T\ is independent of C\ and varies inversely with VEE. T\ can be reduced by increasing
VEE. However this modification will increase the quiescent current in Q 2 and hence its dissipation.
CURRENT TIME-BASE GENERATORS

We have mentioned earlier that a linear current time-base generator is one that provides an output current
waveform a portion of which exhibits a linear variation with respect to time. This linearly varying current
waveform can be generated by applying a linearly varying voltage waveform generated by a voltage time-
base generator, across a resistor. Alternatively, a linearly varying current waveform can be generated by
applying a constant voltage across an inductor. Linearly varying currents are required for magnetic
deflection applications.

A SIMPLE CURRENT SWEEP
Figure 5.26(a) shows a simple transistor current sweep circuit. Here the transistor is used as a switch and
the inductor L in series with the transistor is bridged across the supply voltage. Rd represents the sum of
the diode forward resistance and the damping resistance. The gating waveform shown in Figure 5.26(b)
applied to the base of the transistor is in two levels. These levels are selected such that when the input, is
at the lower level the transistor is cut-off and when it is at the upper level the transistor Is in saturation.
For t < 0, the input to the base is at its lower level (negative). So the transistor is cut-off. Hence no
currents flow in the transistor and iL = 0 and VCE = Vcc- At f = 0, the gate signal goes to its upper level
(positive). So the transistor conducts and goes into saturation. Hence the collector voltage falls to v CE(sat)
and the entire supply voltage Vcc is applied across the inductor. So the current through the inductor
increases linearly with time. This continues till t = Tg, at which time the gating signal comes to its lower
level and so the transistor will be cut-off. During the sweep interval Ts (i.e. from t = 0 to t = Tg), the diode
D is reverse biased and hence it does not conduct. At t ~ Ts, when the transistor is cut-off and no current
flows through it, since the current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously it flows through the
diode and the diode conducts. Hence there will be a voltage drop of lLRd across the resistance Rd. So at t =
Tg, the potential at the collector terminal rises abruptly to Vcc + fiftd* i-e- there is a voltage spike at the
collector at t = Tg. The duration of the spike depends on the inductance of Z-^but the amplitude of the
spike does not. For t > Tg, the inductor current decays exponentially to zero with a time constant T- LIRd.
So the voltage at the collector also decays exponentially and settles at Vcc under steady-state conditions.
The inductance L normally represents a physical yoke and its resistance RL may not be negligible. If RCs
represents the collector saturation resistance of the transistor, the current increases in accordance with the
equation
If the current increases linearly to a maximum value IL, the slope error is given by
The inductor current waveform and the waveform at the collector of the transistor are shown in Figures
5.26(c) and 5.26(d) respectively. To maintain linearity, the voltage (RL + /?csXt across the total circuit
resistance must be kept small compared with the supply voltage Vcc.
A TRANSISTOR CURRENT TIME-BASE GENERATOR

Figure 5.30 shows the circuit diagram of a transistor current time-base generator. Transistor Q! is a switch
which serves the function of S in Figure 5.29. Transistor Qi gets enough base drive from VCC1 through KB
a
°d hence is in saturation under quiescent conditions. At / = 0, when the gating signal is applied it turns
off Qi and a trapezoidal voltage waveform appears at the base of Q2. Transistors Q2 and Q3 are connected
as darlington pair to increase the input impedance so that the trapezoidal waveform source is not loaded.
Such loading would cause nonlinearity in the ramp part of the trapezoid.
The emitter resistor RE introduces negative current feedback into the output stage and thereby improves
the linearity with which the collector current responds to the base voltage. For best linearity it is necessary

to make the emitter resistance as large as possible. RE is selected so that the voltage developed across it
will be comparable to the supply voltage

UNIT – V
SYNCHRONIZATION & FREQUENCY DIVISION
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SYNCHRONIZATION AND FREQUENCY DIVISION
Principles of Synchronization, Frequency division in sweep circuit, Astable relaxation circuits, Monostable relaxation
circuits, Synchronization of a sweep circuit with symmetrical signals, Sine wave frequency division with a sweep
circuit.
A pulse or digital system may involve several different basic waveform generators and the system
may require that all these generators be operated synchronously—in step with one another, i.e. each one
of them arrives at some reference point in the cycle at exactly the same time. Two or more waveform
generators are said to operate in synchronism if each one of them arrives at some reference point in its
cycle at the same time. Synchronization is the process of making two or more waveform generators arrive
at some reference point in the cycle at exactly the same time. Synchronization may be on a one-to-one
basis or with frequency division. Synchronization is said to be on a one-to-one basis if all the generators
operate at exactly the same frequency and arrive at some reference point in the cycle exactly at the same
time. Synchronization is said to be with frequency division if the generators operate at different
frequencies which are integral multiples of each other but arrive at some reference point at the same time.
The two processes, i.e. (i) synchronization and (ii) synchronization with frequency division are basically
very nearly alike and no clear-cut distinction can be drawn between them. Counting circuits are an
example of frequency division.
PULSE SYNCHRONIZATION OF RELAXATION DEVICES

Relaxation circuits are circuits in which the timing interval is established through the gradual
charging of a capacitor, the timing interval being terminated by the sudden discharge (relaxation) of a
capacitor. The multivibrator, the sweep generator, the blocking oscillator which we have discussed in
earlier chapters are examples of relaxation circuits. All these circuits have in common a timing interval
and a relaxation (or recovery) interval and each exists in an astable or monostable form. The mechanism
of synchronization and frequency division is the same for all these devices.
In the monostable circuits the matter of synchronization is a trivial one. The monostable circuit normally
remains in its quiescent condition and a single cycle of operation is initiated by the application of a
triggering pulse. The only requirement is that the interval between triggers should be larger than the
timing interval and the recovery period should be combined.
Figure 6.1 shows an arrangement for pulse synchronization of a sweep generator using UJT. In
the absence of an external synch, signal, the capacitor stops charging when the voltage v c reaches the peak
or breakdown voltage VP of the negative-resistance device. Thereafter, the capacitor discharges abruptly
through the negative resistance device UJT. When the capacitor voltage vc falls to the valley voltage Vy,
the UJT goes OFF and the capacitor begins to recharge. A negative pulse applied at the base B 2 of the
UJT will lower Vp. In fact, any current-controlled negative-resistance device such as a silicon-controlled
switch, thyristor, etc. can be used in place of the UJT. In such a case, a positive pulse applied at the gate
or base will lower the breakdown voltage.

Figure 6.2(a) shows the situation which results when synchronizing pulses are applied. The effect
of the synchronization pulse is to lower the peak or breakdown voltage Vp for the duration of the pulse. A
pulse train of regularly-spaced pulses is shown in Figure 6.2(a), starting at an arbitrary time t = 0. The
first several pulses have no influence on the sweep generator, because the amplitude of the sweep at the
occurrence of the pulse plus the amplitude of the pulse is less than VP. Hence, the sweep generator runs
unsynchronized. Eventually, however, the exact moment at which the UJT goes ON is determined by the
instant of occurrence of a pulse [at time T in Figure 6.2(a)] as is also each succeeding beginning of the
ON interval. From this point onwards, the sweep generator runs synchronously with the pulses.
For synchronization to result, the time of occurrence of the pulse should be such that it can serve to
terminate the cycle prematurely. This requirement means that the interval between pulses Tpt must be less
than the natural period T0 of the generator. Figure 6.2(b) shows the case in which Tp > T0. Here
synchronization of each cycle does not occur. The pulses do serve to establish that four sweep cycles shall
occur during the course of three pulse periods, but synchronization of this type is normally of no use.
Figure 6.2(c) shows a case in which Tp < T0 as required, but synchronization does not result because the
pulse amplitude is too small. In fact, even if the requirement Tp < T0 is met, synchronization cannot result
unless the pulse amplitude is at least large enough to bridge the gap between the quiescent breakdown
voltage and the sweep voltage vc.

Figure 6.2 (a) Tp < T0: synchronization results, (b) Tp > TQ: no synchronization results and (c) Tp < T0 but
amplitude of synch pulse is small, hence no synchronization results.
FREQUENCY DIVISION IN THE SWEEP CIRCUIT

In Section 6.1 we saw that synchronization (1:1 division) occurs when Tp < TQ and the amplitude of
the pulse is sufficient to terminate each cycle prematurely. Even if Tp < T0, if the pulse amplitude is
too small, then each cycle may not get terminated. Figure 6.3 shows a case in which the sweep
cycles- are terminated only by alternate pulses marked "2". The pulses marked "1" would be required
to have an amplitude at least equal to Vl if they were to be effective. The pulses marked "2" are
effective because they occur closer to the time when the cycle would terminate of its own accord.
The sweep generator now acts as a divider, the division factor being 2, since exactly one sweep cycle
occurs for every two synchronizing pulses. If Ts is the sweep generator period after synchronization,
TJTp = 2.
Observe that the amplitude V's of the sweep after synchronization is less than the unsynchronized
amplitude Vs.
Suppose Tp in Figure 6.3 is progressively decreased, eventually a point would be reached where
even the alternate pulses would be too small in amplitude to fire the switch device. At this point, if 7" 0 >
3Tp, division by a factor of 3 would result. If the condition T0 > 3Tp were not met, then again there would
be no synchronization. On the other hand, if the pulse is made large enough, every (« + l)st pulse will be
in a position to ensure synchronization before the nth pulse loses control.
Figure 6.3 Frequency division by a factor of 2 in a sweep generator.

The basic principle of synchronization and use for counting purposes of other relaxation devices is same
as the basic principle of synchronization of the sweep generator.

OTHER ASTABLE RELAXATION CIRCUITS
Blocking oscillator
Figure 6.4 shows the circuit diagram indicating the use of an ffC-controIled astable blocking oscillator to
obtain frequency division by 4. Positive synch triggers are introduced through a separate transistor Q2.
These positive triggers applied at the base of Q2, appear as negative triggers at the common collector, and
because of the polarity inversion of the transformer windings they appear as positive triggers at the base
of Qj. The waveform vj across the R\C{ combination of Figure 6.4 is shown in Figure 6.5(a).
During the interval tp the capacitor charges and the pulse is generated. At the end of the pulse (at t = tp),
V] = Vi, Qi goes OFF and the capacitor discharges through /?j, and so the voltage vj decreases. In the
absence of the synchronizing pulse, a new blocking oscillator pulse will form when v\ falls to the level
VBB - Vy. In Figure 6.5(a) the injected triggers are shown superimposed on the level VBB - Vy The pulse
number 4 occurs at this time and has sufficient amplitude to cause a premature firing of the oscillator. The
oscillator therefore fires at a moment dictated by the occurrence of a trigger and is not permitted to
terminate its cycle naturally.
Figure 6.4 Frequency division by an tfC-controlled astable blocking oscillator.
Figure 6.5 The waveform Vj across of Qi showing frequency division by 4.

Astable multivibrator
The astable multivibrator shown in Figure 6.6 may be synchronized or used as a divider by applying
either positive or negative triggering pulses to either transistor or to both the transistors simultaneously.
These pulses may be applied to the collector, base, or emitter. If for example, positive pulses are applied
to Bt or C2 or negative pulses to E\, these triggers may produce synchronization by establishing the exact
instant at which Qj comes out of cut- off. If negative pulses are applied to B2 or Q or positive pulses to E2,
then when Q2 conducts, these pulses will be amplified and inverted and appear as positive pulses at B].
Hence again the pulses may establish the instant when Qt comes out of cut-off. The negative pulses will
not be effective unless they succeed in moving the transistor at least slightly into the active region.
Therefore, such negative pulses must be large enough in amplitude and be supplied from a low impedance
source to divert enough current from the base to draw the transistor out of saturation.
In Figures 6.7(a) and (b) are shown the waveforms for the case where positive pulses are applied to one
base, say BI- The division ratio is 6. The cycle would normally have terminated at t = T0, when the base
voltage reached the cut-in level Vy, as shown by the dashed extension of the base waveform in Figure
6.7(a). The cycle is prematurely terminated at the sixth pulse since the amplitude of the sixth pulse added
to the base waveform Bj, at the time of the sixth pulse, raises the base voltage above VT Observe that
while the complete multi period has been synchronized, the individual portions have not been
synchronized. Thus T' in Figure 6.7(a) is the same as it would be without synchronization because the
waveform at B2 is unaltered by the application of the synch pulses.
Figures 6.7(c) and (d) show the base waveforms for the case where negative pulses are applied to both
multi bases simultaneously. Here the division ratio is 5. Both timing portions of the multi waveform are
synchronized and are necessarily of unequal duration since the division ratio is an odd number. The
positive pulses superimposed on the exponential portions of the waveforms result from the combination
of the negative pulses applied directly and the inverted and amplified (hence positive and larger) pulses
received from the other transistor.
A special situation of interest is illustrated in Figure 6.8. Here positive pulses are being applied to BI
through a small capacitor from a low-impedance source. During the time when Q! is conducting, the base
draws current at each input pulse. At the end of the pulse the input capacitor discharges, giving rise to a
negative overshoot. Alternatively, we may say that during the conduction period of Qj, the pulse input
time constant is small and the input pulse is quasi differentiated. The negative overshoot is amplified and
inverted by Q! arid appears a t Q2 as a positive overshoot, which may then serve to mark the end of the
cut-off period of Q2. Hence the net result is that both portions of the multi cycle have been synchronized
without the need for applying pulses to both transistors simultaneously. Observe that one portion of the

cycle is terminated at the leading edge of a synch, pulse and the second portion is terminated at the
trailing edge of another pulse.
Figure 6.7 (a) and (b) base waveforms for division by 6 through the application of positive pulses to one base, (c)
and (d) base waveforms for division by 5 through the application of negative pulses to both bases.

MONOSTABLE RELAXATION CIRCUITS AS DIVIDERS
Figure 6.9(a) shows the use of a monostable relaxation device, a monostable multivibrator for
frequency division. The input pulses may be applied at Bf or Cj depending on the polarity. A coupling
diode may be used to minimize the reaction of the multivibrator on the pulse source. The waveforms of
Figure 6.9(b) show the voltage at BI and B2- Each fourth pulse causes a transition of the multivibrator, the
remaining pulses occurring at a time when they are ineffective. Observe that while the total multivibrator
cycle consisting of timing portion and recovery period is synchronized, the two separate portions are not
synchronized. If positive pulses are applied, say, directly at B! through a small capacitance from a low
impedance source, the pulses are quasi differentiated during the conduction period of Qj. The negative
overshoot is amplified and inverted by Q[ and appears as positive overshoot at B2, and it may serve to
terminate the cycle prematurely as shown in Figure 6.9(c). In this case, the two portions of the
multivibrator waveform would be synchronized. Also, the counting ratio will change with increasing
amplitude of pulse input. If the overshoot is large enough, the exponential will be terminated by the
overshoot at-pulse 2 or pulse 1 and in

Figure 6.9 (a) Monostable multivibrator for frequency division, (b) waveform at 62 with no pulse overshoot and
(c) waveform at B2 with pulse overshoot.
which case the counting ratio will become respectively 3 or 2. Finally, with a large overshoot, the timing
portion will terminate at the trailing edge of pulse 4, and the circuit will not operate as a multivibrator at
all.
PHASE DELAY AND PHASE JITTERS
The delay between the input pulse to a divider and the output pulse is referred to as phase delay. It results
from the finite rise time of the input trigger pulse and the finite response time of the relaxation time
devices. The phase delay may vary with time due to variations in device characteristics, supply voltages,
etc.Occasionally some extraneous signal may be coupled unintentionally into the divider. Such a signal
may have an influence on the exact moment at which a basic waveform, say, reaches cut-off. In this case
the phase delay may be subject to periodic variations. All these factors which affect the phase delay give
rise to what is termed phase jitter. In large-scale counters consisting of many stages, the phase jitter is
compounded. In many applications, phase jitter is of no particular consequence but it constitutes an
important difficulty in connection with nanosecond pulses.
A method for achieving division without phase jitter is illustrated in Figure 6.10. The train of regularly
spaced input pulses (I) is applied to the divider input. The output of the divider consists of the pulses (D).
These latter pulses trigger a gating waveform generator, say, a monostable multivibrator which provides a
gate of duration Tg adequate to encompass each pulse labeled T. This waveform is applied to a sampling
gate which opens for a time Tg. The input pulse train is sampled and the output waveform then consists of
each pulse labeled T. The condition for proper transmission is Tp < Tg < 2Tp, i.e. it is enough if Tg

is longer than the interval between the pulses Tp and shorter than the interval between the alternate pulses.
SYNCHRONIZATION OF A SWEEP CIRCUIT WITH SYMMETRICAL SIGNALS
In the previous sections we discussed the phenomenon of synchronization only for the case of pulse-type
synchronizing signals. It was assumed that the synchronizing signal consists of a train of waveforms with
leading edges which rise abruptly. In this section we will consider the case in which the voltage variation
is gradual rather than abrupt. The mechanism of synchronization for a gradually varying synch signal is
very nearly identical for all types of relaxation oscillators. Let us consider the synchronization of a ramp
generator for illustration.
Sinusoidal synchronization signal
Consider the sweep generator of Figure 6.1, which uses a current-controlled negative-resistance device, a
UJT, as a switch. Let us assume for simplicity that as a result of the synchronization signal, the
breakdown voltage of the negative-resistance device varies sinusoidally. The polarity and the precise
waveform required of the synchronization signal for such sinusoidal variation will depend on the
particular negative-resistance device being employed. It is to be noted, however, that the circuit behaviour
to be described does not depend on the sinusoidal nature of the breakdown voltage variation. The results
depend only on the relatively gradual variation of the breakdown voltage in contrast to the abrupt
variation with pulse-type sync signals.
In Figure 6.11, the dashed voltage level VPO is the breakdown voltage of the negative-resistance device in
the absence of a synch signal and the solid curve Vp is the breakdown voltage in the presence of the
synchronization signal. The sync signal has a period T, and the natural period is TQ. Consider that
synchronization has been established with T = TQ.
Figure 6.11 The

timing relationship that must exist between VP and the sweep voltage in a synchronized sweep when T = T0.

Such synchronization requires that the period of the sweep shall not be changed in the sync signal. Hence
the voltages which mark the limits of the excursion of the sweep voltage must remain unaltered. The
sweep cycle must therefore continue to terminate at Vpo- This result, in turn, means that the intersection
of the sweep voltage with the waveform Vp must occur as shown in Figure 6.11, at the time when VP
crosses Vpo, at the points labeled O in the figure. It is possible that the sweep will terminate at the points
marked O' in the figure. In the case of pulse synchronization, we noted that synchronism could result only
if the synch signal period was equal to or less than the natural period. This feature resulted from the fact
that a pulse could serve reliably only to terminate a timing cycle prematurely and not to lengthen it. In the
case of synchronization with symmetrical signals, however, synchronization is possible both when T < TQ
and when T > TQ. The timing relationship between the sweep voltage and the breakdown voltage for both
the cases is shown in Figure 6.12(a). The sweep voltage drawn as a solid line has a natural period TQ > T.
The sweep voltage meets the VP curve at a point below VPO and is consequently prematurely terminated.
The sweep voltage drawn as a dashed line has a natural period T'Q < T. This sweep meets the VP curve at
a point above VPQ and is consequently lengthened. In each case the synchronized period Ts equals the
period 7".
Figure 6.12 (a) Shows the timing of the sweep voltage with respect to Vp for a case in which T < TQ = TO'(dashed
line) and (b) pertains to the general case, T * T0.
The general situation may be described by reference to Figure 6.12(b). When T = TQ, the sweep is
terminated at point O, leaving the period unaltered. When T > TQ, the sweep terminates at a point such as
X—between O and the positive maximum A. When T < TQ, the sweep terminates at a point such as Y—
between O and the negative maximum B. When the period T is such that the sweep terminates either at
the point A or B, the limits of synchronization have been reached since at A the sweep period has been
lengthened to the maximum extent possible whereas at B the shortening is at maximum.
SINE WAVE FREQUENCY DIVISION WITH A SWEEP CIRCUIT
In Section 6.6, we discussed synchronization of a sweep generator using a symmetrical (sinusoidal)
signal. The operation of a sweep circuit as a divider is an extension of the process of synchronization.
Figure 6.13 shows the operation of the sweep circuit for frequency division. The solid lines in the figure
show the sweep and synchronizing waveforms for division by a factor of 4. This case is one in which the
natural period TO is slightly smaller than 47". The sync signal changes the sweep period from T0 to Tf,

where 7^ = 47. An increase in amplitude of the sync signal can change the division (counting) ratio from
4 to 3 as shown by the dashed sweep and synchronizing waveforms. A general observation that can be
made with a sweep circuit as a counter is that if the sweep terminates on the descending portion of the Vp
curve and if as a consequence the period T0 is lengthened or shortened to Ts, where Ts = nT, then the
circuit will operate stably as an n:\ counter.
Figure 6.13 Frequency division using a sweep circuit. Illustrating the change in frequency division ratio with
synch signal amplitude.
Earlier it was conveniently assumed that the range of synchronization (or counting) extends from
the point where the sweep intersects the VP curve at a maximum to the point where the intersection is at a
minimum of the VP curve. This normally holds only for small values of sync voltage, but may not hold
when the sync amplitude is comparable to the sweep amplitude. In Figure 6.13, we can observe that the
sweep will never be able to terminate at a maximum of VP, because to do so, it is required that the sweep
must first cross the previous negative excursion of the Vp waveform.
Figure 6.14 illustrates a case (dashed sweep) where the sync amplitude, in principle, is just large enough
to cause 1:1 synchronization. The actual sweep waveform, however, as shown consists of alternate long
and short sweeps. So, when a sweep is used in connection with a scope, it is advisable always to use as
small a sync signal as possible.
Figure 6.14 Illustrating a possible result of excessive amplitude of the sync signal in a sweep.

Sine wave synchronization may be compared with pulse synchronization as follows:
1. Even though for small sync signals, synchronization holds over a small range in the
neighbourhood of integral relations between T and T0 for both pulses and sine waves, pulse
synchronization persists for variation of T0 / T in only one direction, whereas sine-wave
synchronization persists for variation of T0 / T in either direction.
2. In both cases, the range of synchronization increases with the increasing sync signal amplitude.
3. With pulses, for large sync signal amplitudes, synchronization holds for all values of T0/Tp > 1,
whereas with sine waves, however, there is no guarantee that synchronization in a useful fashion occurs
for all values of T0 / T > 1.

comparison of the important characteristics of various IC logic families.
(i) CMOS inverter

(ii) Tristate logic
(i) CMOS Inverter: It is complementary MOSFET obtained by using P-channel MOSPET and n-
channel MOSFET simultaneously. The P and N channel are connected in series, their drains are
connected together, output is taken from common drain point. Input is applied at common gate
terminal. CMOS is very fast and consumes less power.
Case 1. When input Vi = 0. The (Gate source) voltage of Q1 will be 0 volt, it will be off.
But Q2 will be ON; Hence output will be equal to +VDD or logic 1.
Case 2. When input Vi = 1, The (Gate source) voltage of Q2 will be 0 volt, it will be OFF,
But Q1 will be ON. Hence output will be connected to•
ground or logic 0.
In this way, CMOS function as an inverter.

(ii) Tri-state logic: When there are three states i.e. state 0, state 1 and high impendence i.e.
called Tri-state logic. High impedance is considered as state when no current pass through
circuit. Although in state 0 and state 1 circuit functions and current flows through it.
 Propagation delay is the average transition delay time for a pulse to propagate from
input to output of a switching circuit.
 Fan-in is the number of inputs to the gate which it can handle.

 Fan-out is the number of loads the output of a gate can drive without effecting its operation.
 Power dissipation is the supply voltage required by the gate to operate with 50% duty
cycle at a given frequency
 RTL, DTL, DTL are the logic families which are now obsolete.
 TTL is the most widely used logic family.
 TTL gates may be:
(a) Totem pole

(b) Open collector
(c) Tri-state .
 TTL is used in SSI and MSI Integrated circuits and is the fastest of all standard logic
families.
 Totem pole TTL has the advantage of high speed and low power dissipation but its
disadvantage is that it cannot be wired ANDed because of current spikes generation.
 Tri-state has three states : .
(a) High
(b) Low
(c) High Impedance
 ECL is the fastest of all logic families because its propagation delay is very small i.e. of
about 2 nsec.
 ECL can be wired ORed.
 MOS logic is the simplest to fabricate.
 MOS transistor can be connected as a resistor.
 MOSFET circuitry are normally constructed from NMOS devices because they are 3 times
faster than PMOS devices.
 CMOS uses both P-MOS and N-MOS.
 CMOS needs less power as compared to ECL as they need maximum power.

 Both NMOS and PMOS are more economical than CMOS because of their greater packing
densities.
 Speed of CMOS gates increases with increase in VDD.
 CMOS has large fan-out because of its low output resistance.
schematic of RTL NOR gate and explain its operation.
Ans. RTL was the first to introduced. RTL NOR gate is as shown in fig.
Working:
Case I: When A = B = 0.
Both T1 and T2 transistors are in cut off state because the voltage is insufficient to drive the
transistors i.e. VBE < 0.6 V: Thus, output Y will be high, approximately equal to supply voltage
Vcc. As no current flows through Rc and drop across Rc is also zero.
Thus, Y = 1, when A = B = 0.
Case II : When A = 0 and B = 1 or A = 1 and B = 0.

The transistor whose input is high goes into saturation where as other will goes to off cut state.
This positive input to transistor increases the voltage drop across the collector resistor and
decreasing the positive output voltage.
Thus, Y = 0,when A= 0 and B = 1 or A = 1 and B = 0.
Case III : When A = B = 1. Both the transistors T1 and T2 goes into saturation and output
voltage is equal to saturation voltage.
Thus, Y = 0,when A = B = 1
Truth Table
Which is the output of NOR gate.

DCTL NAND gate with the help of suitable circuit diagram.
Ans. DCTL NAND gate circuit diagram is as shown:
Working
Case I: When A = B = 0. Both transistors T1 and T2 goes to cut off state. As the voltage is not
sufficient to drive the transistor into saturation. Thus, the output voltage equal to Vcc.
When A = B = 0, output Y = 1
Case II: When A = 0 and B = 1 or A = 1 and, B = 0. The corresponding transistor goes to cut off
state and the output voltage equals to Vcc.
Thus, When A = 0 and B = 1 or A = 1 and B = 0, Output Y = 1.
Case III: When A = B = 1. Both transistors T1 and T2 goes into saturation state and output
voltage is insufficient to consider as ‘1’
Thus when A B = 1, output Y = 0.
Truth Table
Which is the output of NAND gate.
Compare standard TTL, Low power TTL and high speed TTL logic families.

characteristics and specification of CMOS.
1 Power supply (VDD) = 3 — 15 Volts
2. Power dissipation (Pd) = 10 nW
3. Propagation delay (td) = 25 ns
4. Noise margine (NM) = 45% of VDD
5, Fan out (FO) = >50
Two input ECL NOR gate?
The circuit diagram of two input ECL NOR gate is as shown:
Working
Case I : When A = B = 0, the reference voltage of T3 is more forward biased then T1 and T2.
Thus, T3 is ON and T1, T2 remains OFF. The value of R1 is such-that the output of NOR gate is
high .i.e. ‘1’.
Case II: When A = 1 or B = 1 or A = B = 1, the corresponding transistors are ON, as they are
more forward biased that T3 and thus T3 is OFF. Which makes the NOR output to be low i.e.
‘0’.
This shows that the circuit works as a NOR gate.
TTL inverter.

Tristate TTL inverter utilizer the high-speed operation of totem-pole arrangement while
permitting outputs to be wired ANDed (connected together). It is called tristate TTL because it
allows three possible output stages. HIGH, LOW and High-Impedance. We know that transistor
T3 is ON when output is HIGH and T4 is ON when output is LOW. In the high impedance state
both transistors, transistor T3 and T4 in the totem pole arrangement are med OFF. As a result the
output is open or floating, it is neither LOW nor HIGH.
The above fig. shows the simplified tristate inverter. It has two inputs A and E. A is the normal
logic input whereas E is an ENABLE input. When ENABLE input is HIGH, the circuit works as
a normal inverter. Because when E is HIGH, the state-of the transistor T1 (either ON or OFF)
depends on the logic input A and the additional component diode is open circuited as cathode is
at logic HIGH. When ENABLE input is LOW, regardless of the state of logic input the base-
emitter junction of T is forward biased and as a result it turns ON. This shunts the current
through R1 away from T2 making it OFF. As T2 is OFF, there is no sufficient drive for
T4 conduct and hence T4 turns OFF. The LOW at ENABLE input also forward biases diode D2,
which shunt the current away from the base of T3, making it OFF. In this way, when ENABLE
output is LOW, both transistors are OFF and output is at high impedance state.
ECL OR gate
ECL or gate : Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) is the fastest of all logic families and thus it is used
in applications where very high speed is essential. High speeds have become possible in ECL
because the transistors are used in difference amplifier configuration, in which they are never
driven into saturation and thereby the storage time is eliminated. Here, rather than switching the
transistors from ON to OFF and vice-versa, they are switched between cut-off and active regions.
Propagation delays of less than 1 ns per gate have become possible in ECL.
Basically, ECL is realized using difference amplifier in which the emitters of the two transistors
are connected and hence it referred to as emitter-coupled logic. A 3-input ECL gate is shown in
Fig. (A) which has three parts. The middle part is the difference amplifier which performs the
logic operation.

Emitter followers are used for d.c. level shifting of the outputs, so that V (0) and V (1) are same
for the inputs and the outputs. Note that two output Y1 and Y2 are available in this circuit which
are complementary. Y1. corresponds to OR logic and Y2 to NOR logic and hence it is named as
an OR/NOR gate.
Additional transistors are used in parallel to T1 to get the required fan-in. There is a fundamental
difference between all other logic families (including MOS logic) and ECL as far as the supply
voltage is concerned. In ECL, the positive end of the supply is connected to ground in contrast to
other logic families in which negative end of the supply is grounded. This is done to minimize
the effect of noise induced in the power supply and protection of the gate from an accidental
short circuit developing between the output of a gate and ground. The voltage corresponding to
V (0) and V (1) are both negative due to positive end of the supply being connected to ground.
The symbol of an ECL OR/NOR gate is shown in Fig. (B)
Open collector TTL NAND gate and explain its operation
The circuit diagram of 2-input NAND gate open-collector TTL gate is as shown:
Working:
Case.1 : When A = 0,B = 0
When both inputs A and B are low, both functions of Q1 are forward biased and Q2 remains off.
So no current flows through R4 and Q3 is also off and its collector voltage is equal to Vcc i.e. Y
=1
Case2 : When A = 0, B = 1 and
Case 3: When A = 1, B = 0
When one input is high and. other is low, then one junction is forward biased so Q2 is off and
Q3 is also off. So collector voltage is equal to Vcc i.e. Y = 1
Case 4: When A = 1, B = 1
When both inputs are high, Q1 is turned off and Q2 turned ‘ON’ Q3 goes into saturation and
hence Y = 0. The open-collector output has main advantage that wired ANDing is possible in it.
TTL NAND gate

Two input TTL NAND gate-is given in fig. (1). In this transistor T3 and T4 form a totem pole.
Such type of configuration is called-as totem-pole output or active pull up output.

So, when A = 0 and B = 1 or (+5V). T1 conducts and T2 switch off. Since T2 is like an open
switch, no current flows through it. But the current flows through the resistor R2 and into the
base of transistor T3 to turn it ON. T4 remains OFF because there is no path through which it can
receive base current. The output current flows through resistor R4 and diode D1. Thus, we get
high’ output.
When both inputs are high i.e. A = B = 1 or (+ 5V), T2 is ON and it drives T4 turning it ON. It is
noted that the voltage at the base of T3 equals the sum of the base to emitter drop of
T4 and of T2..
The diode D1 does not allow base-emitter junction of T3 to be forward-biased and hence,
T3 remains OFF when T4 is ON. Thus, we get low output.
It works as TTL NAND gate.
Totem pole NAND gate

In TTL Totem pole NAND gate, multiple emitter transistor as input is used. The no. of inputs
may be from 2 to 8 emitters. The circuit diagram is as shown
Case 1:

When A = 0, B = 0
Now D1 and D2 both conduct, hence D3 will be off and make Q2 off. So its collector voltage
rises and make Q3 ‘ON’ and Q4 off; Hence output at Y = 1 (High)
Case 2 and Case 3:
If A = 0, B = 1 and A = 1, B=0
In both cases, the diode corresponding to low input will conduct and hence diode P3 will be OFF
making Q2 OFF. In a similar way its collector voltage rises Q3 ‘ON’ and Q4 ‘OFF’. Hence
output voltage Y = 1 (High).
Case 4: A = 1, B = 1
Both diodes D1 and D2 will be off. D3 will be ‘ON’ and Q2 will ‘ON’ making Q4 also ‘ON’.
But Q3 will be ‘OFF’. So output voltage Y = 0.
All the four cases shows that circuit operates as a NAND gate.
Totem pole can’t be Wired ANDed due to current spike problem. The transistors used in circuits
may get damaged over a period of time though not immediately. Sometimes voltage level rises
high than the allowable.

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UNIT – I

THE LOW-PASS RC CIRCUIT

Pulse and Digital Circuits 1

Pulse and Digital Circuits 2

Pulse and Digital Circuits 3

Pulse and Digital Circuits 4

Relation between rise time and upper 3-dB frequency

Pulse and Digital Circuits 5

Pulse and Digital Circuits 6

Pulse and Digital Circuits 7

Pulse and Digital Circuits 10

Pulse and Digital Circuits 11

THE LOW-PASS RC CIRCUIT AS AN INTEGRATOR

Pulse and Digital Circuits 12

THE HIGH-PASS RC CIRCUIT

Pulse and Digital Circuits 13

Expression for the lower cut-off frequency

Pulse and Digital Circuits 14

Pulse and Digital Circuits 15

Pulse and Digital Circuits 16

Pulse and Digital Circuits 17

Pulse and Digital Circuits 18

Pulse and Digital Circuits 19

Pulse and Digital Circuits 20

Pulse and Digital Circuits 21

Pulse and Digital Circuits 22

Since τ = t/T, the time to rise to peak tp is given by

Pulse and Digital Circuits 23

Pulse and Digital Circuits 25

Pulse and Digital Circuits 26

Pulse and Digital Circuits 27

Pulse and Digital Circuits 28

Application of Attenuator as a CRO Probe

Pulse and Digital Circuits 29

Pulse and Digital Circuits 30

Pulse and Digital Circuits 31

Pulse and Digital Circuits 32

Pulse and Digital Circuits 33

Pulse and Digital Circuits 34

Pulse and Digital Circuits 35

Pulse and Digital Circuits 36

Pulse and Digital Circuits 37

The circuit works as follows:

Pulse and Digital Circuits 38

Pulse and Digital Circuits 39

are called the transfer characteristic equations.

Pulse and Digital Circuits 40

Pulse and Digital Circuits 44

Pulse and Digital Circuits 45

Pulse and Digital Circuits 46

Pulse and Digital Circuits 47

Shunt noise clipper

Pulse and Digital Circuits 48

The following are the techniques adopted for temperature compensation.

3. Another alternative temperature compensated clipping circuit is shown in Figure 2.18(b).

Pulse and Digital Circuits 49

Pulse and Digital Circuits 50

Pulse and Digital Circuits 51