Hot-Dip

Galvanizing
for
Corrosion
Protection
of Steel
Products

AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION

 Table of Contents
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Corrosion and Protection of Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Corrosion Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Galvanic Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion of Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How Zinc Protects Steel from Corrosion .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Barrier Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cathodic Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Hot-Dip Galvanizing Process . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Physical Properties of Galvanized Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Metallurgical Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impact and Abrasion Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corner and Edge Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Performance of Galvanized Coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Atmospheric Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Corrosion Performance in Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Corrosion Performance in Fresh Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Corrosion Performance in Sea Water and Salt Spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Corrosion Performance in Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Corrosion Performance in Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Galvanic Behavior of Zinc in Contact with Other Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Contact with Copper and Brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Contact with Aluminum and Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Contact with Weathering Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Corrosion Resistance of Fully Alloyed Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Performance at Elevated Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

©2000 American Galvanizers Association

6881 South Holly Circle, Suite 108
Englewood, CO 80112
800.468.7732
720.554.0900
Fax 720.554.0909
www.galvanizeit.org
e-mail: [email protected]

The material included in this publication has been developed to provide accurate, authoritative information regarding iron and steel products
hot-dip galvanized after fabrication and is based on recognized engineering principles and inspection practices. This material is for general
information only and is not intended as a substitute for competent professional examination and verification of accuracy, suitability and/or
applicability. The publication of the material contained herein is not intended as a representation or warranty on the part of the American
Galvanizers Association, Inc. Anyone making use of this information assumes all liability arising from such use.

Cover Photos: Port of Everett Public Access and Transient Moorage, Everett, Wash., a hot-dip galvanized wind turbine and the Black Sea Export
Terminal, Constanta, Romania.

AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION

 INTRODUCTION Figure 1: Bi-metallic couple
CONVENTIONAL
Corrosion and repair of corrosion damage are multi- CURRENT
billion dollar problems. Hot-dip galvanizing after fabri-
ELECTRONS EXTERNAL ELECTRONS
cation is a cost effective corrosion control process that CIRCUIT
solves many corrosion problems in most major industri-
al applications. Various industries including chemical,
transportation and public utilities have extensively used
hot-dip galvanized steel to combat corrosion.
The value of hot-dip galvanized steel stems from
the relative corrosion resistance of zinc, which under
most service conditions is considerably better than iron CATHODE ANODE

and steel. In addition to forming a physical barrier

against corrosion, zinc, applied as a hot-dip galvanized
coating, cathodically protects exposed steel. Further-
ELECTROLYTE
more, galvanizing for protection of iron and steel is
favored because of its low cost, the ease of application Cathode - This is the electrode that receives elec-
and the extended, maintenance-free service that it pro- trons. The cathode is protected from corrosion.
vides.
Electrolyte - This is the conductor through which

CORROSION
ion current is carried. Electrolytes include water solu-
AND tions of acids, bases and salts.

PROTECTION OF STEEL Return Current Path - This is the metallic path-

way connecting the anode to the cathode. It is often the
underlying metal.
THE CORROSION PROCESS
All four elements, anode, Figure 2: Galvanic Series
Metals rarely are found in their pure state. They cathode, electrolyte and return of Metals
almost always are found in chemical combination with current path, are necessary for Corroded End
one or more nonmetallic elements. Ore is generally an corrosion to occur. Removing Anodic or less noble
oxidized form of metal. any one of these elements will (ELECTRONEGATIVE)
stop the current flow and cor- Magnesium
Significant energy must be used to reduce the ore rosion will not occur. Zinc
to a pure metal. This energy can be applied via metal- Substituting a different metal Aluminum
lurgical or chemical means. Additional energy also may for the anode or cathode may Cadmium
be used in the form of cold working or casting to trans- cause the direction of the cur- Iron or Steel
Stainless Steels (active)
form the pure metal into a working shape. Corrosion rent to reverse, resulting in a Soft Solders
can be viewed as the tendency for a metal to revert to change as to which electrode Lead
its natural, lower energy state. From a thermodynamic experiences corrosion. Tin
perspective, the tendency to decrease in energy is the
It is possible to construct Nickel
main driving force behind metallic corrosion. Brass
a table of metals and alloys Bronzes
listed in decreasing order of
GALVANIC CORROSION electrical activity (see Figure
Copper
Nickel-Copper Alloys
There are two primary types of galvanic cells that 2). Metals nearer the top of the Stainless Steels (passive)
cause corrosion: the bi-metallic couple and the concen- table often are referred to as Silver Solder
tration cell. A bi-metallic couple (see Figure 1) is like a less noble metals and have a Silver
battery, consisting of two dissimilar metals immersed in greater tendency to lose elec- Gold
an electrolyte solution. An electric current (flow of elec- Platinum
trons than the more noble met-
trons) is generated when the two electrodes are connect- als found lower on the list. Protected End
ed by an external, continuous metallic path. A concen- Cathodic or most noble
(ELECTROPOSITIVE)
tration cell consists of an anode and cathode of the same
metal or alloy and a return current path. The electromo- Arrangement of Metals in Galvanic Series:
tive force is provided by a difference in concentration of Any one of these metals and alloys will theoretically
the solutions contacting the metal(s). In a galvanic cell, corrode while offering protection to any other which
there are four elements necessary for corrosion to occur: is lower in the series, so long as both are electrically
connected. In actual practice, however, zinc is by far
Anode - This is the electrode where the anode reac-
the most effective in this respect.
tion(s) generates electrons. Corrosion occurs at the anode.

AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION 1

CORROSION OF STEEL HOW ZINC PROTECTS STEEL FROM
The actual corrosion process that takes place on a CORROSION
piece of bare, mild steel is very complex due to factors The reason for the extensive use of hot-dip galva-
such as variations in the composition/structure of the nizing is the two-fold protective nature of the coating.
steel, presence of impurities due to the higher instance As a barrier coating, it provides a tough, metallurgically
of recycled steel, uneven internal stress, and/or exposure bonded zinc coating that completely covers the steel
to a non-uniform environment. surface and seals the steel from the corrosive action of
It is very easy for microscopic areas of the exposed the environment. Additionally, zinc’s sacrificial action
metal to become relatively anodic or cathodic. A large protects the steel even where damage or a minor discon-
number of such areas can develop in a small section of tinuity in the coating occurs.
the exposed metal. Further, it is highly possible that Barrier Protection
several different types of galvanic corrosion cells are Barrier protection is perhaps the oldest and most
present in the same small area of an actively corroding widely used method of corrosion protection. It acts by
piece of steel. isolating the metal from the electrolytes in the environ-
As the corrosion ment. Two important properties of barrier protection are
process progresses, the Figure 3: Changes in cathodic adhesion to the base metal and abrasion resistance.
and anodic areas Paint is one example of a barrier protection system.
electrolyte may change
due to materials dis- Cathodic Protection
solving in or precipi- Cathodic protection is an equally important method
tating from the solu- for preventing corrosion. Cathodic protection requires
tion. Additionally, changing an element of the corrosion circuit by intro-
corrosion products ducing a new corrosion element, thus ensuring that the
might tend to build up base metal becomes the cathodic element of the circuit.
on certain areas of the
metal. These corrosion There are two major variations of the cathodic
products do not occu- method of corrosion protection. The first is called “the
py the same position in impressed current method.” In this method, an external
the galvanic series as current source is used to impress a cathodic charge on
the metallic compo- all the iron or steel to be protected. While such systems
nent of their con- generally do not use a great deal of electricity, they
stituent element. As often are very expensive to install.
time goes by, there The other form of cathodic protection is called
may be a change in the “the sacrificial anode method.” In this method a metal
location of relatively or alloy that is anodic to the metal to be protected is
cathodic and anodic placed in the circuit and becomes the anode. The pro-
areas and previously tected metal becomes the cathode and does not corrode.
uncorroded areas of The anode corrodes, thereby providing the desired sacri-
the metal are attacked ficial protection. In nearly all electrolytes encountered
and corrode. As Figure in everyday use, zinc is anodic to iron and steel. Thus,
3 indicates, this even-
the galvanized coating provides cathodic corrosion pro-
tually will result in
tection as well as barrier protection.
uniform corrosion of
the area.
The rate at which metals corrode is controlled by
factors such as the electrical potential and resistance
between anodic and cathodic areas, pH of the elec-
trolyte, temperature, and humidity.

2 AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION

 THE HOT-DIP In the dry galvanizing process (see Figure 4), the
steel or iron is dipped or pre-fluxed in an aqueous solu-

GALVANIZING PROCESS tion of zinc ammonium chloride. The material is then

dried prior to immersion in molten zinc. In the wet gal-
vanizing process, a blanket of liquid zinc ammonium
The galvanizing process consists of three basic chloride is floated on top of the molten zinc. The iron or
steps: surface preparation, galvanizing and inspection. steel being galvanized passes through the flux on its
SURFACE PREPARATION way into the molten zinc.
Figure 4: Dry galvanizing process
Surface preparation is the most important step in the
application of any coating. In most instances incorrect Alkaline Clean Rinse Acid clean
(Pickle)
or inadequate surface preparation is generally the cause
of a coating failing before its expected service lifetime.
Rinse
The surface preparation step in the galvanizing
process has its own built-in means of quality control in
that zinc simply will not metallurgically react with a Flux
steel surface that is not perfectly clean. Any failures or
inadequacies in surface preparation will immediately be Water quench or Galvanize Dry
apparent when the steel is withdrawn from the molten chromate (optional)
zinc because the unclean areas will remain uncoated and
immediate corrective action must be taken. GALVANIZING
Once a job has been delivered and accepted at the In this step, the material is completely immersed in a
galvanizer’s plant, there is one point of responsibility bath consisting of a minimum of 98% pure molten zinc.
for ensuring that the material leaves the plant properly The bath chemistry is specified by the American Society
galvanized. That point of responsibility is the galvaniz- for Testing and Materials (ASTM) in Specification B 6.
er. On-site painting or other field-applied systems of The bath temperature is maintained at about 840 F (449 C).
corrosion protection may involve the use of different
Fabricated items are immersed in the bath until they
subcontractors and/or work groups to prepare the sur-
reach bath temperature. The zinc metal then reacts with
face and to apply the coating. Paint can only be applied
the iron on the steel surface to form a zinc/iron inter-
under certain weather conditions. This can result in
metallic alloy. The articles are withdrawn slowly from
problems in coordinating activities, that lead to costly
the galvanizing bath and the excess zinc is removed by
and time-consuming delays, errors, and disputes con-
draining, vibrating and/or centrifuging.
cerning responsibility and financial liability.
The metallurgical reactions that result in the forma-
Surface preparation for galvanizing typically consists
tion and structure of the zinc/iron alloy layers continue
of three steps: caustic cleaning, acid pickling and fluxing.
after the articles are withdrawn from the bath, as long as
Caustic Cleaning - A hot alkali solution often is these articles are near the bath temperature. The articles
used to remove organic contaminants such as dirt, paint are cooled in either water or ambient air immediately
markings, grease and oil from the metal surface. after withdrawal from the bath.
Epoxies, vinyls, asphalt or welding slag must be
Because the galvanizing process involves total mate-
removed before galvanizing by grit-blasting, sand-blast-
rial immersion, it is a complete process; all surfaces are
ing or other mechanical means.
coated. Galvanizing provides both outside and inside
Pickling - Scale and rust normally are removed from protection for hollow structures. Hollow structures that
the steel surface by pickling in a dilute solution of hot are painted have no interior corrosion protection.
sulfuric acid or ambient temperature hydrochloric acid.
Galvanizing is performed at the factory under any
Surface preparation also can be accomplished using weather or humidity conditions. Most brush- and spray-
abrasive cleaning as an alternative to or in conjunction applied coatings depend upon proper weather and
with chemical cleaning. Abrasive cleaning is a process humidity conditions for correct application. This depen-
whereby sand, metallic shot or grit is propelled against dence on atmospheric conditions often translates into
the steel material by air blasts or rapidly rotating wheels. costly construction delays.
Fluxing - Fluxing is the final surface preparation
The galvanizer’s ability to work in any type of
step in the galvanizing process. Fluxing removes oxides
weather allows a higher degree of assurance of on-time
and prevents further oxides from forming on the surface
of the metal prior to galvanizing. The method for apply- delivery. Working under these circumstances, galvaniz-
ing the flux depends upon whether the galvanizer uses ing can be completed quickly and with short lead times.
the wet or dry galvanizing process. Two- or three-day turnaround times for galvanizing are
common.

AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION 3

INSPECTION The galvanized coating is adherent to the underly-
ing steel on the order of several thousand pounds per
The two properties of the hot-dip galvanized coat- square inch (psi). Other coatings typically offer adhe-
ing that are closely scrutinized after galvanizing are sion rated at several hundred psi, at best.
coating thickness and coating appearance. A variety of
simple physical and laboratory tests may be performed IMPACT AND ABRASION RESISTANCE
to determine thickness, uniformity, adherence and
appearance. Below the name of each layer in Figure 5 appears
its respective hardness, expressed by a Diamond
Products are galvanized according to long-estab- Pyramid Number (DPN). The DPN is a progressive
lished, well-accepted, and approved standards of measure of hardness. The higher the number the greater
ASTM, the Canadian Standards Association (CSA), and the hardness. Typically, the Gamma, Delta, and Zeta
the American Association of State Highway and layers are harder than the underlying steel. The hardness
Transportation Officials (AASHTO). These standards of these inner layers provides exceptional protection
cover everything from minimum required coating thick- against coating damage through abrasion. The Eta layer
nesses for various categories of galvanized items to the
of the galvanized coating is quite ductile, providing the
composition of the zinc metal used in the process.
coating with some impact resistance.
The inspection process for galvanized items is sim-
ple and fast, and requires minimal labor. This is impor- Hardness, ductility and adherence combine to pro-
tant because the inspection process required to assure vide the galvanized coating with unmatched protection
the quality of many brush- and spray-applied coatings is against damage caused by rough handling during trans-
highly labor-intensive and uses expensive skilled labor. portation to and/or at the job site as well during its ser-
vice life. The toughness of the galvanized coating is

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
extremely important since barrier protection is depen-
dent upon coating integrity.

GALVANIZED COATINGS Other coatings damage easily during shipment or

through rough handling on the job site. Experts will
argue that all organic forms of barrier protection (such
THE METALLURGICAL BOND as paint) by their nature are permeable to some degree.
Galvanizing forms a metallurgical bond between the Correctly applied galvanized coatings are impermeable.
zinc and the underlying steel or iron, creating a barrier If the galvanized coating is physically damaged, it
that is part of the metal itself. During galvanizing, the will continue to provide cathodic protection to the
molten zinc reacts with the iron in the steel to form a exposed steel. If individual areas of underlying steel or
series of zinc/iron alloy layers. Figure 5 is a photomi- iron become exposed by up to 1/4"-diameter spot, the
crograph of a galvanized steel coating’s cross-section surrounding zinc will provide these areas with cathodic
and shows a typical coating microstructure consisting of protection for as long as the coating lasts.
three alloy layers and a layer of pure metallic zinc.

Figure 5: Photomicrograph of galvanized coating

Eta
(100% Zn)
70 DPN Hardness
Zeta
(94% Zn 6% Fe)
179 DPN Hardness
Delta
(90% Zn 10% Fe)
244 DPN Hardness
Gamma
(75% Zn 25% Fe)
250 DPN Hardness
Base Steel
159 DPN Hardness

4 AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION

 Figure 6 shows how corrosion will begin and
immediately progress at a scratch or gap in a paint coat- PERFORMANCE OF
ing. Figure 7 shows how corrosion will be prevented at
a scratch or gap in a zinc coating. GALVANIZED COATINGS
Figure 6: Rust undercuts scratched paint Galvanized coatings have a proven performance
under numerous environmental conditions. The corro-
sion resistance of zinc coatings is determined primarily
by the thickness of the coating but varies with the sever-
ity of environmental conditions.
The predictability of the lifetime of a coating is
important for planning and financing required mainte-
nance. Measurements of the actual rate of consumption of
the galvanized coating during the first few years of service
often provide good data for projecting remaining life until
first maintenance. Due to the build-up of zinc corrosion
Figure 7: Zinc protects base steel, even when scratched products, which in many environments are adherent and
fairly insoluble, the corrosion rate may slow as time pro-
gresses. Therefore, predictions of service life to first
maintenance that are based on initial corrosion rates of
zinc coatings are often conservative.
Environments in which galvanized steel and iron
are commonly used include indoor and outdoor atmos-
pheres, the storage of hundreds of different chemicals,
in fresh water, sea water, soils, and/or concrete. Because
of the many years galvanizing has been used for corro-
sion protection, a wealth of real-world, long-term expo-
sure data on zinc coating performance in a wide variety
of environments is available.
CORNER AND EDGE PROTECTION
The galvanizing process naturally produces coatings ATMOSPHERIC EXPOSURE
that are at least as thick at the corners and edges as the Zinc oxide is the initial corrosion product of zinc
coating on the rest of the article. As coating damage is in relatively dry air. This is formed by a reaction
most likely to occur at edges, this is where added pro-
between the zinc and atmospheric oxygen. In the pres-
tection is needed most. Brush- or spray-applied coatings
ence of moisture, this can be converted to zinc hydrox-
have a natural tendency to thin at corners and edges.
Figure 8 is a photomicrograph showing a cross-section ide. The zinc hydroxide and zinc oxide further react
of an edge of a piece of galvanized steel. with carbon dioxide in the air to form zinc carbonate.
The zinc carbonate film is tightly adherent and relative-
Figure 8: Full corner protection ly insoluble. It is primarily responsible for the excellent
and long-lasting corrosion protection provided by the
galvanized coating in most atmospheric environments.
Since 1926, ASTM Committees A05 (Metallic
Coated Iron and Steel Products), G01 (Corrosion of
Metals) and others have been collecting records of zinc
coating behavior under various categories of atmospher-
ic conditions. These atmospheric exposure tests are con-
ducted throughout North America to obtain corrosion
rate data for zinc exposed in various atmospheres
(Figure 9 - page 6). Precise comparison of the corrosion
behavior of the galvanized coating in various atmos-
pheric environments is influenced by many factors.
Such factors include prevailing wind direction, type and
density of corrosive fumes and pollutants, amount of
sea spray, number of wetting and drying cycles, and the
duration of exposure to moisture. Although there is a

AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION 5

Figure 9: Comparative rankings of 38 locations based on steel and zinc losses
Performance 2-Year Exposure
Ranking Grams Lost *
Steel:Zinc
Zinc Steel Location Zinc Steel Loss Ratio
1 1 Norman Wells, N.W.T., Canada 0.07 0.73 10.3
2 2 Phoenix, Ariz. 0.13 2.23 17.0
3 3 Saskatoon, Sask., Canada 0.13 2.77 21.0
4 4 Esquimalt, Vancouver Island, Canada 0.21 6.50 31.0
5 6 Fort Amidor Pier, Panama, C.Z. 0.28 7.10 25.2
6 8 Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 0.49 9.60 19.5
7 22 Miraflores, Panama, C.Z. 0.50 20.9 41.8
8 28 Cape Kennedy, 1/2 mile from Ocean 0.50 42.0 84.0
9 11 State College, Pa. 0.51 11.17 22.0
10 7 Morenci, Mich. 0.53 7.03 18.0
11 15 Middletown, Ohio 0.54 14.00 26.0
12 9 Potter County, Pa. 0.55 10.00 18.3
13 20 Bethlehem, Pa. 0.57 18.3 32.4
14 5 Detroit, Mich. 0.58 7.03 12.2
15 36 Point Reyes, Calif. 0.67 244.0 364.0
16 19 Trail, B.C. Canada 0.70 16.90 24.2
17 14 Durham, N.H. 0.70 13.30 19.0
18 13 Halifax (York Redoubt), N.S. 0.70 12.97 18.5
19 18 South Bend, Pa. 0.78 16.20 20.8
20 27 East Chicago, Ind. 0.79 41.1 52.1
21 29 Brazos River, Texas 0.81 45.4 56.0
22 23 Monroeville, Pa. 0.84 23.8 28.4
23 34 Daytona Beach, Fla. 0.88 144.0 164.0
24 32 Kure Beach, N.C. 800-toot Lot 0.89 71.0 80.0
25 17 Columbus, Ohio 0.95 16.00 16.8
26 12 Montreal, Quebec, Canada 1.05 11.44 10.9
27 16 Pittsburgh, Pa. 1.14 14.90 13.1
28 10 Waterbury, Conn. 1.12 11.00 9.8
29 25 Limon Bay, Panama, C.Z. 1.17 30.3 25.9
30 21 Cleveland, Ohio 1.21 19.0 15.7
31 24 Newark, N.J. 1.63 24.7 15.1
32 33 Cape Kennedy, 60 yds. from Ocean, 30-ft. Elev. 1.77 80.2 45.5
33 35 Cape Kennedy, 60 yds. from Ocean, Ground Level 1.83 215.0 117.0
34 31 Cape Kennedy, 60 yds. from Ocean, 60-ft. Elev. 1.94 64.0 33.0
35 26 Bayonne, N.J. 2.11 37.7 17.9
36 37 Kure Beach, N.C. 80-ft Lot 2.80 260.0 93.0
37 30 Halifax (Federal Building) N.S. 3.27 55.3 17.0
38 38 Galeta Point Beach, Panama, C.Z. 6.80 336.0 49.4

* Total weight loss for 4" x 6" (10cm x 15cm approx.) test specimens

Source: “Corrosiveness of Various Atmospheric Test Sites as Measured by Specimens of Steel and Zinc, Metal
Corrosion in the Atmosphere,” ASTM STP 435 (1968).

6 AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION

range in observed corrosion rates, actual observed rates Suburban - These atmospheres are generally less
rarely exceed 0.3 mils per year. It is also worthwhile to corrosive than moderately industrial areas. As the term
note that when exposed indoors, the life of the galva- suggests, they are found in the largely residential
nized coating will be at least two to three times that perimeter communities of urban or city areas.
expected with outdoor exposure in the same environ-
ment. Temperate Marine - The service life of galvanized
coatings in marine environments is influenced by prox-
Figure 10 is a plot of the thickness of the galva- imity to the coastline and prevailing wind direction and
nized coating against the expected service life of the intensity. In marine air, zinc corrosion follows a differ-
coating under outdoor exposure conditions. This data is ent mechanism, chlorides from sea spray can react with
a compilation of many life tests of zinc-coated steel the normally protective zinc corrosion products to form
since the 1920s. Today’s atmosphere has substantially soluble zinc chlorides. When these chlorides are washed
improved through anti-pollution campaigns, so the data away, fresh zinc is exposed to corrosion. The addition
curves represent a conservative portrayal of the life of of calcium or magnesium salts to the surface of the zinc
zinc coatings in the 21st century. The expected service can extend the service life of the coating.
life is defined as the life until 5% of the surface is
showing iron oxide (red rust). At this stage it is Tropical Marine - These environments are similar
unlikely that the underlying steel or iron has been weak- to temperate marine atmospheres except they are found
ened or that the integrity of the structures protected by in warmer climates. Possibly because many tropical
the galvanized coating have been compromised through areas are often relatively far removed from heavy indus-
corrosion. Enough of the galvanized coating remains to trial or even moderately industrial areas, tropical marine
provide a good substrate for implementation of an climates tend to be somewhat less corrosive than tem-
appropriately selected brush- or spray-applied corrosion perate marine climates.
protection system.
Rural - These are usually the least aggressive of the
Exposure atmospheres may be divided into five five atmospheric types. This is primarily due to the rela-
types. They are: tively low level of sulfur and other emissions found in
such environments.
Moderately Industrial - These environments gener-
ally are the most aggressive in terms of corrosion. Air CORROSION PERFORMANCE IN LIQUIDS
emissions may contain some sulfides and phosphates
that cause the most rapid zinc coating consumption. A primary factor governing galvanized coating
Automobile, truck and plant exhaust are examples of corrosion behavior in liquid chemical environments is
these emissions. Most city or urban area atmospheres the solution’s pH. Galvanizing performs well in solu-
are classified as moderately industrial. tions of pH above 4.0 and below 12.5 (see Figure 11).
This should not be considered a hard and fast rule
Figure 10: Life of protection vs. thickness of zinc and because factors such as agitation, aeration, temperature,
type of atmosphere polarization, and the presence of inhibitors also may
change the corrosion rate. Within the pH range of 4.0 to
12.5 a protective film forms on the zinc surface and the
galvanized coating protects the steel by slowing corro-
sion to a very low rate. The protective film’s exact
Figure 11: Effect of pH on corrosion of zinc

AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION 7

chemical composition is somewhat dependent upon the CORROSION PERFORMANCE IN FRESH
specific chemical environment.
WATER
Since many liquids fall within the pH range of 4.0 - Galvanizing is successfully used to protect steel
12.5, galvanized steel containers are widely used in in fresh water exposure. “Fresh water” refers to all
storing and transporting many chemical solutions. forms of water except sea water. Fresh water may be
Figure 12 shows an abbreviated list of some commonly classified according to its origin or application. Included
used chemicals that have been successfully stored in are hot and cold domestic, industrial, river, lake and
galvanized containers. canal waters. Corrosion of zinc in fresh water is a com-
plex process controlled largely by impurities in the
water. Even rain water contains oxygen, nitrogen, car-
bon dioxide and other dissolved gases, in addition to
dust and smoke particles.
Ground water carries microorganisms, eroded
soil, decaying vegetation, dissolved salts of calcium,
magnesium, iron, and manganese, and suspended col-
loidal matter. All of these substances and other factors
such as pH, temperature and motion affect the structure
and composition of the corrosion products formed on
the exposed zinc surface. Relatively small differences in
fresh water content or conditions can produce relatively
substantial changes in corrosion products and rate.
Thus, there is no simple rule governing the corrosion
rate of zinc in fresh water.

Figure 12: Chemicals successfully stored in galvanized containers (partial list)

Hydrocarbons Nitriles (cyanides) Butyl butyrate Amine and Amine Salts

Benzene (benzole) Diphenylacetonitrile sobutyrate Pyridine
Toluene (toluole) p-chlorobenzglycyanides caproate Pyrrolidine
Xylene (xylole) propionate Methylpiperazine
Esters
Cyclohexene succinate Dicarbethoxypiperazine
Allyl butyrate titanate*
Petroleum ethers 1-benzhydryl-4-methylpiperazine
caproate Propyl butyrate
Heavy naphtha 2-4-diamino-5-(4-chlorphenyl-6) ethyl-
formate isobutyrate
Solvent naphtha pyrimidine
propionate caproate
Alcohols Hydorxyethylmorpholine (hydrox-
Ethyl butyrate formate yethyldiethylenimideoxide)
Methyl parafynol sobutyrate propionate p-aminobenzenesulphonylguanidine
(methyl pentynol) caproate Iso- benzoate Butylamine oleate
Morpholinoisopropanol caprylate Butyl butyrate Piperazine hydrochloride monohydrate
Glycerol (glycerin) propionate caproate Carbethoxypiperazine hydrochloride
Halides succinate Iso- benzoate (dry)
Carbon tetrachloride Amyl butyrate Propyl caproate
sobutyrate Amides
Amyl bromide formate
caproate Formamide
Butyl bromide propionate
caprylate Dimethylformamide
Butyl chloride Cyclohexyl butyrate
Cyclohexyl bromide Methyl butyrate *and other unspecified titanates Miscellaneous
Ethyl bromide caproate Glucose (liquid)
Phenols
Propyl bromide propionate Benzilideneacetone
succinate Phenol
Propyl bromide p-chlorbenzophenone
Benzyl butyrate Cresols (mehtylphenols)
Propyl chloride Sodium azobenzensulphonate
sobutyrate Xylenols (dimethylphenols)
Trimethlyene bromide Melamine resin solutions
propionate Biphenol (dihydroxybiphenyl)
(1,3-dibromopropane) Crude cascara extract
succinate 2,4-dichlorophenol
Bromobenzene Creosote
Octyl butyrate p-chloro-o-cresol
Chlorobenzene Chloroflourocarbons
caproate Chloroxylenols
Aroclors & Pyroclors
chlorobiphenyls)

8 AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION

 Figure 13: Corrosion of zinc in different types of water

Attacking Passivating Corrosion Products Relative cor-

Water Type substances substances solubility adhesion rosion rate
Hard O2 + CO2 Ca+Mg Very low Very good Very low
Sea O2+CO2+Cl Mg+Ca Low Very good Moderate
Soft, with free
air supply O2+CO2 - High Good High
Soft or distilled, with
poor air supply O2 - Very high Very poor Very high

Note: The different compositions of the corrosion products have not been included
here since they are complex and dependent upon different compounds (i.e. salts) that
are present in all natural waters.

Hard water is much less corrosive than soft water. The National Bureau of Standards has conducted an
Under conditions of moderate or high water hardness, a extensive research program on the corrosion of metals in
natural scale of insoluble salts tends to form on the gal- soils. Some of its research on galvanized steel pipe dates
vanized surface. These combine with zinc to form a back to 1924. The results from the NBS study shown in
protective barrier of calcium carbonate and basic zinc Figure 14 are based on tests started in 1937 using 1 1/2"
carbonate. (38mm) steel pipe with a nominal 3 oz. per square foot
(5.3 mil) zinc coating. The table shows annual metal loss
CORROSION PERFORMANCE IN SEA in ounces per square foot in a number of soils tested. Data
WATER AND SALT SPRAY collected (but not displayed here) also show that the gal-
vanized coating will prevent pitting of steel in soil, just as
Galvanized coatings provide considerable protec- it does in atmospheric exposure. Even in instances where
tion to steel immersed in sea water and exposed to salt the zinc coating was completely consumed, the corrosion
spray. The factors that influence the corrosion of zinc in of the underlying steel was much less than that of bare
fresh water also apply to sea water. However, it is the dis- steel specimens exposed to identical conditions.
solved salts (primarily sulfides and chlorides) in sea
water that are the principal determinants of the corrosion Figure 14: Corrosion of galvanized steel pipe in contact
behavior of zinc immersed in sea water. Given the high with a variety of soils
level of chloride in sea water, a very high rate of zinc Nominal weight of coating - 3 oz/sq ft (915g/m2) of exposed area (a)
corrosion might be expected. However, the presence of
Soil Type Total Weight Loss (oz/ft) After Burial Period
magnesium and calcium ions in sea water has a strong 2.1 yrs 4.0 yrs 9.0 yrs 12.7 yrs
inhibiting effect on zinc corrosion in this type of environ- oz/ft2 oz/ft2 oz/ft2 oz/ft2
ment. Accelerated laboratory test results that sometimes Inorganic Oxidizing Acid Soils
use a simple sodium chloride (NaCl) solution to simulate Cecil clay loam 0.3 1.4 0.6 0.6
the effects of sea water exposure on galvanized steel Hagerstown loam 0.3 1.2 0.7 0.6
should be viewed skeptically. Real world results often Susquehanna clay 1.0 2.3 0.9 0.8
Inorganic Oxidizing Alkaline Soils
differ significantly from accelerated laboratory tests. (See
Chino silt loam 1.1 2.3 1.6 1.1
Figure 13 for comparison of zinc corrosion in different Mohave fine gravelly loam 1.6 3.3 1.1 1.1
types of water.) Inorganic Reducing Acid Soils
Sharkey clay 0.6 1.5 0.7 1.1
CORROSION PERFORMANCE IN SOILS Acadia clay 3.3 -- 4.8 --
Inorganic Reducing Alkaline Soils
More than 200 different types of soils have been Docas clay 3.2 1.6 1.6 1.6
identified and are categorized according to texture, color Merced silt loam 2.1 4.5 0.1 1.3
and natural drainage. Coarse and textured soils, such as Lake Charles clay 3.7 3.9 5.5 13.8
gravel and sand, permit free circulation of air, and the Organic Reducing Acid Soils
process of corrosion may closely resemble atmospheric Carlisle muck 1.2 3.4 3.0 3.4
Tidal marsh 1.2 2.1 2.0 4.8
corrosion. Clay and silt soils have a fine texture and hold
Muck 4.3 5.4 9.0 10.7
water, resulting in poor aeration and drainage. The corro- Rifle peat 4.3 7.2 19.6 19.5
sion process in such soils may resemble the corrosion Cinders
process in water. Cinders 6.7 5.4 5.6 11.9

(a) This is weight of coating on one side of the pipe. 1 oz sq ft (305 g/m ) is equiva-
2

lent to approximately 1.72 mil (43.7 um) thickness of coating.

AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION 9

CORROSION PERFORMANCE IN cracking, delamination and spalling cycle of concrete is
CONCRETE greatly reduced when using galvanized rebar.
Laboratory data support, and field test results confirm,
Concrete is an extremely complex material. The that reinforced concrete structures exposed to aggressive
use of various types of concrete in construction has environments have a substantially longer service life
made the chemical, physical and mechanical properties when galvanized rebar is used as opposed to bare steel
of concrete and their relationship to metals a topic of rebar.
ongoing studies. Steel wire or reinforcing bars (rebar)
often are embedded in concrete to provide added The bond strength between galvanized rebar and
strength. concrete is excellent. However, it often takes slightly
longer to develop than the bond between bare rebar and
Since rebar is not visible after it is embedded in concrete. According to laboratory and field tests, the
concrete, corrosion protection is very important to retain bond between galvanized rebar and concrete is in fact
structural integrity. Galvanized rebar has demonstrated stronger than the bond between bare rebar and concrete
corrosion protection for many years in corrosive atmos- or epoxy-coated rebar and concrete (see Figure 15).
pheres such as Bermuda. As the corrosion products of
zinc are much less voluminous than those of steel, the A comparison of the qualitative and quantitative
characteristics of galvanized reinforcing steel and
Figure 15: Bond strength to concrete
epoxy-coated rebar is shown in Figure 16.
black vs. galvanized reinforcing steel Information and additional studies about the uses
1000 and behavior of galvanized reinforcement in concrete
Study A Study B Study C can be found in:
Stress in pounds per square inch

800
• Galvanizing for Corrosion Protection: A Specifier’s
600 Guide to Reinforcing Steel

400
• Rebar: A Processing and Inspection Guide for
Quality Hot Dip Galvanized Reinforcing Steel
200
These publications are available from the AGA or
your local galvanizer.
0
1 3 12 1 3 12 1 3 12

Months of Curing
Source: University
of California Black Galvanized

Figure 16: Comparison of epoxy-coated and hot-dip galvanized reinforcing steel

Comment Hot-Dip Galvanized Epoxy Coated

1. Earliest use Early 1900’s 1977
2. Requires care in handling No Yes
3. Can be dragged on ground Yes No
4. MUST be touched up No Yes
5. Has barrier protection Yes Yes
6. Has cathodic protection Yes No
7. Bond strength to concrete Excellent Poor
8. UV Resistance Good Questionable
9. After fabrication application Simple Difficult
10. Widely used Yes Yes
11. Cost Comparable Comparable*
12. Lead time 1-3 days 3 weeks
13. Availability of coating for other
embedded items Readily available Scarce
* Epoxy prices vary widely throughout U.S. and Canada and wide variations should be
expected.

10 AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION

GALVANIC BEHAVIOR OF ZINC IN
CONTACT WITH OTHER METALS CORROSION RESISTANCE
Where zinc comes into contact with another OF FULLY ALLOYED
metal, the potential for corrosion through a bi-metallic
couple exists. The extent of the corrosion depends upon GALVANIZED COATINGS
the position of the other metal relative to zinc in the gal- The corrosion protection and service life of galva-
vanic series. nized coatings are not affected by differences in surface
The behavior of galvanized coatings in contact with appearances. While some steels may produce freshly
various metals is summarized in Figure 17 (page 12). galvanized coatings with matte gray or mottled appear-
The information given is provided as a guide to avoid ances, their corrosion protection is not impaired. Even
situations where corrosion may occur when galvanized when a reddish-brown discoloration prematurely devel-
surfaces are in contact with another metal. ops upon exposure of the coatings, it is an aesthetic
effect and should not be mistaken for corrosion of
Contact With Copper and Brass underlying steel.
If an installation requires contact between galva-
nized materials and copper or brass in a moist or humid Premature staining is a surface effect caused by cor-
rosion of iron contained in the zinc-iron alloy layers of
environment, rapid corrosion may occur. Even runoff
a galvanized coating. Such a condition is more likely to
water from copper or brass surfaces can contain enough
develop when reactive steels (such as those containing
dissolved copper to cause rapid corrosion. If the use of relatively high silicon) are galvanized. While steel
copper or brass in contact with galvanized items is chemistry may result in the zinc-iron alloy phase
unavoidable, precautions should be taken to prevent extending throughout the galvanized coating, corrosion
electrical contact between the two metals. Joint faces protection is not reduced. Long-term exposure testing
should be insulated with non-conducting gaskets; con- has shown that for equal coating thickness and identical
nections should be made with insulating, grommet-type exposure conditions, the corrosion protection provided
fasteners. The design should ensure that water is not by the coating on more reactive, silicon-containing
recirculated and that water flows from the galvanized steels is similar to that of less reactive steels.
surface towards the copper or brass surface and not the
reverse.
Contact With Aluminum and Stainless Steel
PERFORMANCE AT
Under atmospheric conditions of moderate to
mild humidity, contact between a galvanized surface
ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
and aluminum or stainless steel is unlikely to cause sub- Galvanized coatings perform well under continuous
stantial incremental corrosion. However, under very exposure to temperatures up to 392 F (200 C). Exposure
humid conditions, the galvanized surface may require to temperatures above this can cause the outer free zinc
electrical isolation through the use of paint or joining layer to peel from the underlying zinc-iron alloy layer.
compounds. However, the remaining zinc-iron alloy layer will pro-
vide good corrosion resistance and will continue to pro-
Contact With Weathering Steel tect the steel for a long time, depending upon its thick-
When galvanized bolts are used on weathering ness.
steel, the zinc will initially sacrifice itself until a protec-
tive layer of rust develops on the weathering steel. Once
this rust layer develops, it forms an insulating layer that
prevents further sacrificial action from the zinc. The
zinc coating has to be thick enough to last until the rust
layer forms, usually several years. Most hot-dip galva-
nized bolts have enough zinc coating to last until the
protective rust layer develops on the weathering steel,
with only a minimal loss in coating life.

AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION 11

Figure 17: Additional corrosion of zinc and galvanized steel resulting from contact with other metals

ENVIRONMENT
ATMOSPHERIC IMMERSED
METAL IN CONTACT RURAL INDUSTRIAL/ MARINE FRESH SEA
URBAN WATER WATER
Aluminum and aluminum alloys 0 0 to 1 0 to 1 1 1 to 2
Aluminum bronzes and silicon bronzes 0 to 1 1 1 to 2 1 to 2 2 to 3
Brasses including high tensile (HT) brass 0 to 1 1 0 to 2 1 to 2 2 to 3
(manganese bronze)
Cadmium 0 0 0 0 0
Cast irons 0 to 1 1 1 to 2 1 to 2 2 to 3
Cast iron (austenitic) 0 to 1 1 1 to 2 1 to 2 1 to 3
Chromium 0 to 1 1 to 2 1 to 2 1 to 2 2 to 3
Copper 0 to 1 1 to 2 1 to 2 1 to 2 2 to 3
Cupro-nickels 0 to 1 0 to 1 1 to 2 1 to 2 2 to 3
Gold (0 to 1) (1 to 2) (1 to 2) (1 to 2) (2 to 3)
Gunmetals, phosphor bronzes and tin bronzes 0 to 1 1 1 to 2 1 to 2 2 to 3
Lead 0 0 to 1 0 to 1 0 to 2 (0 to 2)
Magnesium and magnesium alloys 0 0 0 0 0
Nickel 0 to 1 1 1 to 2 1 to 2 2 to 3
Nickel copper alloys 0 to 1 1 1 to 2 1 to 2 2 to 3
Nickel-chromium-iron alloys (0 to 1) (1) (1 to 2) (1 to 2) (1 to 3)
Nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys (0 to 1) (1) (1 to 2) (1 to 2) (1 to 3)
Nickel silvers 0 to 1 1 1 to 2 1 to 2 1 to 3
Platinum (0 to 1) (1 to 2) (1 to 2) (1 to 2) (2 to 3)
Rhodium (0 to 1) (1 to 2) (1 to 2) (1 to 2) (2 to 3)
Silver (0 to 1) (1 to 2) (1 to 2) (1 to 2) (2 to 3)
Solders hard 0 to 1 1 1 to 2 1 to 2 2 to 3
Solders soft 0 0 0 0 0
Stainless steel (austenitic and other grades
containing approximately 18% chromium) 0 to 1 0 to 1 0 to 1 0 to 2 1 to 2
Stainless steel (martensitic grades
containing approximately 13% chromium) 0 to 1 0 to 1 0 to 1 0 to 2 1 to 2
Steels (carbon and low alloy) 0 to 1 1 1 to 2 1 to 2 1 to 2
Tin 0 0 to 1 1 1 1 to 2
Titanium and titanium alloys (0 to 1) (1) (1 to 2) (0 to 2) (1 to 3)

Key 0 Zinc and galvanized steel will suffer either no additional corrosion, or at the most only very slight additional
corrosion, usually tolerable in service.
1 Zinc and galvanized steel will suffer slight or moderate additional corrosion which may be tolerable in some cir-
cumstances.
2 Zinc and galvanized steel may suffer fairly severe additional corrosion and protective measures usually will be
necessary.
3 Zinc and galvanized steel may suffer severe additional corrosion. Contact should be avoided.
General notes: Ratings in brackets are based on very limited evidence and are less certain than other values shown. The
table is in terms of additional corrosion and the symbol 0 should not be taken to imply that the metals in contact need no
protection under all conditions of exposure.
Source: British Standards institution pp. 6484:1979 Table 23

12 AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION

 PERTINENT SPECIFICATIONS
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS
A 123/A 123M-2000 Standard Specification for Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel
Products
A 143-74 Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against Embrittlement of Hot-Dip Galvanized
Structural Steel Products and Procedure for Detecting Embrittlement
A 153/A 153M-98 Standard Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware
A 384-76 Standard Practice for Safeguarding Against Warpage and Distortion During Hot-Dip
Galvanizing of Steel Assemblies
A 385-98 Standard Practice for Providing High Quality Zinc Coatings (Hot-Dip)
A 767/A 767M-97 Standard Specification for Zinc Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement
A 780-93A Specification for Repair of Damaged and Uncoated Areas of Hot-Dip Galvanized
Coatings
B 6-98 Standard Specification for Zinc
D 6386-99 Standard Practice for Preparation of Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coated Iron and
Steel Product and Hardware Surfaces for Painting
E 376-89 Standard Practice for Measuring Coating Thickness by Magnetic Field or Eddy-
Current (Electromagnetic) Test Methods
CANADIAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION
G 164-M 92 Hot Dip Galvanizing of Irregularly Shaped Articles

AMERICAN GALVANIZERS ASSOCIATION

American Galvanizers Association
6881 South Holly Circle, Suite 108
Englewood, CO 80112
800.468.7732
720.554.0900
Fax 720.554.0909
www.galvanizeit.org
e-mail: [email protected]