Pocket Guide Geology in The Field
Pocket Guide Geology in The Field
Pocket Guide Geology in The Field
Pocket Guide
Geology in the Field
Pocket Guide Geology in the Field
Tom McCann
Pocket Guide
Geology in the
Field
Tom McCann
Steinmann-Institut für Geologie
Universität Bonn
Bonn, Nordrhein-Westfalen
Germany
This book is a translation of the original German edition „Pocket Guide Geologie im
Gelände“ by McCann, Tom, published by Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE in 2019. The trans-
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Contents
1 Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Crystals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.1 Crystal Symmetry and Crystal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.2 Crystal Habit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Mineral Recognition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.1 Optical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.2 Physical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.3 Other Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Selected Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.1 Native Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.2 Sulfides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.3 Halides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.4 Oxides and Hydroxides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.5 Carbonates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.6 Sulfates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.7 Phosphates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.8 Silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3 Magmatic Rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1 Intrusive Magmatic Rocks—Types of Intrusive Bodies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.2 Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.3 Volcanic Eruption Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.4 Volcanic Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.4.1 Lavas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4.2 Pyroclastics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.5 Structures and Textures of Magmatic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.6 Classification of Magmatic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.7 Plutonic Rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.8 Volcanic/Subvolcanic Rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.9 Pyroclastic Rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.10 Ultramafic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4 Metamorphic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.1 Metamorphic Facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.2 Structures and Microstructures of Metamorphic Rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.3 Describing Metamorphic Rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.4 Recognition and Classification of Metamorphic Rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.5 Contact Metamorphic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.6 Regional Metamorphic Rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
VI Contents
Overview
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids with a defined chemical compo-
1 sition and a specific crystal structure. They are the basic components of the Earth
as well as other celestial bodies (e.g., the Moon, meteorites).
Rocks are natural and stable aggregates or combinations of one or more min-
erals that can be divided into three main groups—magmatic, sedimentary, and
metamorphic (. Fig. 1.1, . Table 1.1).
Magmatic rocks are formed by the cooling of molten or partially molten ma-
terial (magma) on or within the Earth’s crust. Extrusive magmatic rocks (e.g., ba-
salts) form when magma cools on, or close to the surface, while intrusive mag-
matic rocks (e.g., granites) form as a result of cooling within the Earth. Dur-
ing the cooling process, characteristic minerals, and mineral series, are formed
(. Fig. 1.2).
Sedimentary rocks are formed either by the consolidation and cementation of
loose sediments (e.g., sands) or organic matter (e.g., coal) that were deposited in
layers on the Earth’s surface, or as a result of chemical precipitation (e.g., car-
bonates, evaporites) (. Fig. 1.2).
Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rocks that are transformed as
a result of changing temperatures and pressures. These new conditions result in
mineralogical, chemical, and structural changes.
1 Overview
3
. Fig. 1.1 The rock cycle (W: weathering; E: erosion). (After McCann and Valdivia Manchego 2015)
1
4 Chapter 1 · Overview
Minerals
Contents
2.1 Crystals – 8
2.1.1 Crystal Symmetry and Crystal Systems – 9
2.1.2 Crystal Habit – 9
. Table 2.1 Frequency (by vol.) of minerals in the Earth’s crust (After Ronov and Yarosh-
ewsky 1969)
While there are c. 4600 recognized minerals, only around 40 of these, including
quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine, are common rock-form-
ing minerals. Other important minerals include calcite, dolomite, magnetite, py-
rite, chlorite, clay minerals, epidote, magnetite, and hematite (. Table 2.1). The
rock-forming minerals can be divided into 3 groups:
5 Primary/Key minerals (>10% by volume): quartz, feldspar, pyroxene, amphi-
bole, biotite—these are the main components of the rock
5 Accessory minerals (1–10% by volume): zircon, apatite, titanite, tourmaline
etc.—although present in small amounts they can provide valuable informa-
tion with regard to the genesis of the rock
2.1 Crystals
Every crystal has a defined structure (crystal lattice) resulting from the spatial ar-
rangement of atoms or ions within a mineral. The lattice structure, which deter-
mines the geometric form of a crystal, also ensures that their chemical and phys-
ical properties are relatively uniform (except in zoned minerals). Differences in
crystal structure and/or chemistry can greatly influence mineral properties (e.g.,
graphite vs diamond).
Mineral description and identification is based on a range of factors, includ-
ing their crystallographic, physical and chemical properties, as well as their field
occurrence.
2.1 · Crystals
9 2
2.1.1 Crystal Symmetry and Crystal Systems
On the basis of their symmetry, crystals can be grouped into seven different sys-
tems (. Fig. 2.1). Minerals within each crystal system show particular habits (i.e.,
general shape).
5 Cubic system—basic cube form, including e.g., octahedron, rhombic dodeca-
hedron (e.g., galena, pyrite)
5 Tetragonal system—similar to the cubic system but with a longer axis forming
e.g., prisms and pyramids (e.g., chalcopyrite, rutile, zircon)
5 Orthorhombic system—similar to the crystals of the tetragonal system, except
for the lack of a square cross section (e.g., olivine)
5 Hexagonal system—6-sided prisms with a hexagonal cross section (e.g., apa-
tite, beryl)
5 Trigonal system—crystals of this system have a threefold axis of rotation in-
stead of sixfold as in the hexagonal system. In addition, the cross section of
the prismatic basic form is triangular unlike the 6-sided cross section in the
hexagonal system (e.g., calcite, dolomite, hematite, corundum, quartz).
5 Monoclinic system—like an oblique tetragonal system; two axes are vertical,
the third is oblique (e.g., augite, epidote, gypsum, hornblende, orthoclase)
5 Triclinic system—usually not symmetrical from one surface to the other, be-
cause all three crystal axes have different lengths and none are at right angles
to the others (e.g., microcline, plagioclase)
2.1.2 Crystal Habit
The characteristic shape of a crystal (crystal habit) can be very useful for the
identification of minerals, for example, garnets are often granular, while micas are
platy/foliated and amphiboles can be needle-like. Sometimes two crystals of the
same mineral grow together to form twins (. Fig. 2.2).
When identifying minerals in hand specimen it is particularly important to
note the presence of crystal faces. These can be divided into three groups:
5 Euhedral/Idiomorphic—mineral grains with well-developed crystal faces
5 Subhedral/Hypidiomorphic—mineral grains are partially enclosed by crystal
faces
5 Anhedral/Xenomorphic—mineral grains without any visible crystal surfaces
Particular habits (crystal shapes) can be useful for the precise identification of
mineral grains (. Fig. 2.3):
5 Granular or spherical—individual crystals are roughly equidimensional or
spheroidal, e.g., garnet, fluorite.
5 Tabular, lamellar, platy, or foliated—flat and tablet- or plate-like crystals, e.g.,
orthoclase (tabular), mica (foliated) and chlorite.
5 Prismatic, columnar, bladed, acicular/needle-like, or fibrous—rod-shaped crys-
tals, including, tourmaline (acicular prisms), gypsum and calcite (columnar),
10 Chapter 2 · Minerals
a3
2 a2
a1
Cubic System
a 1= a 2= a 3 or a = b = c
α = β = γ = 90˚
a2
a1
Tetragonal System
a 1 = a 2 ≠ c or a = b ≠ c
α = β = γ = 90˚
b
a
Orthorhombic System
a≠b≠c
α = β = γ = 90˚
a
a
a
Hexagonal System
a1= a 2 = a3 ≠ c
Angle between a 1 and a 2 and a 3 (γ)= 120˚
Angle between a 1 , a 2 , a 3 and c = 120˚
. Fig. 2.1 Reference axes and crystallographic parameters of the seven crystal systems and some ex-
amples for each system. (After Hamilton et al. 1974; Markl 2004)
2.1 · Crystals
11 2
c
a a
a
Triagonal System
a 1= a 2 = a 3 ≠ c
Angle between a 1 and a 2 and a 3 (γ)= 120˚
Angle between a 1 , a 2 , a 3 und c = 120˚
a
b
Monoclinic System
a≠b≠c
α = γ = 90˚, β ≠ 90˚
b
a
Triclinic System
a≠b≠c
α≠β≠γ
α = Angle between b and c
β = Angle between a and c
γ = Angle between a and b
. Fig. 2.1 (continued)
topaz, rutile and amphibole (all prismatic), kyanite (bladed) and chrysotile (fi-
brous).
5 Dendritic—branched crystals, e.g., copper, manganese.
12 Chapter 2 · Minerals
. Fig. 2.2 Twin forms in minerals. a Swallowtail in gypsum. b Lamellar albite twinning in plagi-
oclase. c Twin interpenetration in fluorite with cubic morphology, d Twin interpenetration (iron cross)
in dodecahedral pyrite, e Cruciform twinning in staurolite. f Carlsbad twining in orthoclase. (After
Wenk and Bulakh 2004)
Some minerals also exist as crystal aggregates. While it may not be possible to
recognise individual crystals in these aggregates, the overall shape of the aggre-
gate may be diagnostic, for example, botryoidal or mamillary (e.g., hematite, mala-
chite), or radiating (e.g., millerite) (. Fig. 2.4).
2.2 Mineral Recognition
Rocks are mineral aggregates, with the individual minerals being in direct contact
with one another. In general, rocks—especially those formed by magmatic and
metamorphic processes—are more or less in chemical equilibrium at the time of
formation. Therefore, the minerals or groups of minerals present within the rock
are linked by their shared genesis, as well as by their chemical relationship with
one another. Thus, the identity of an unknown mineral can be partially deter-
mined by the presence of another mineral (. Table 2.2).
2.2 · Mineral Recognition
13 2
. Fig. 2.3 Crystal habits: a–c Equant: a Pyrite with dodecahedron and cube. b Sphalerite with dom-
inant tetrahedron. c Equiaxial hematite; d–g Prismatic/Elongate: d Barrel-shaped corundum. e Pris-
matic calcite. f Acicular hematite. g Acicular stibnite; h–j Flattened and tabular: h Tabular orthoclase.
i Platy muscovite. j Platy hematite. (After Wenk and Bulakh 2004)
2.2.1 Optical Properties
The optical properties of a mineral are dependent on the interaction of light with
the mineral.
14 Chapter 2 · Minerals
. Fig. 2.4 Examples of morphologies in mineral aggregates. a rounded with concentric layers (ag-
ate). b radial mineral aggregate (pyrite). c reniform, botryoidal (hematite). d parallel, fibrous (actino-
lite). e radial, acicular (aragonite). f. platy, scaly, foliated laminae (muscovite). (After Hamilton et al.
1974; Schumann 2007)
z Luster
The luster of a mineral is determined by the amount of light reflected from its
surface. The main classification, as mentioned above, is metallic (e.g., mercury,
copper, gold, pyrite), which have high reflectivity, submetallic (similar to metallic,
but duller and less reflective), or non-metallic. The luster of non-metallic minerals
is described below:
5 Adamantine luster—zircon, sphalerite, diamond
5 Waxy/greasy/resinous luster—apatite, nepheline, halite, plaster, talc
5 Vitreous luster—quartz, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, feldspar, baryte, anhy-
drite, dolomite, calcite, kyanite, epidote
5 Pearly luster—gypsum
5 Silky luster—asbestos
5 Earthy/dull luster—goethite, clay minerals, hematite, chlorite
z Transparency/Diaphaneity
Transparency is a measure of the amount of light absorbed by a mineral. Min-
erals can therefore be classified as transparent (e.g., calcite, chlorite, corundum),
translucent (e.g., mica) or opaque (e.g., pyrite).
2.2 · Mineral Recognition
15 2
. Table 2.2 Important igneous and metamorphic minerals. (After Blatt et al. 2006)
Silicon dioxide
Quartz Quartz
Alkali feldspars
Sanidine, orthoclase, microcline Sanidine, orthoclase
Plagioclase feldspars
Albite, anorthite, plagioclase Albite, anorthite, plagioclase
Orthosilicates
Olivine, garnet, titanite, epidote, zir- Olivine, garnet, staurolite, chloritoid, titanite, epidote,
con, topaz zircon, topaz, kyanite
Pyroxenes
Orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene Orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene
Amphiboles
Hornblende Hornblende
Sheet silicates
Muscovite, biotite Muscovite, biotite, chlorite, serpentine
Ring silicates
Tourmaline, cordierite Tourmaline, cordierite
Oxides
Spinel, magnetite, hematite, ilmenite Spinel, hematite, ilmenite
Sulfides
Pyrite, chalcopyrite Pyrite, chalcopyrite
Other non-silicate minerals
Apatite, calcite,
magnesite, dolo-
mite, diamond
z Color
Most minerals can have a range of different colors (. Table 2.3). For example,
garnet can be red, yellow, colorless, and even black. In general, color alone is not
characteristic enough to uniquely identify a mineral.
z Streak
Streak is the color of the fine powder produced when a mineral is rubbed across
an unglazed porcelain plate. The color may be characteristic (. Table 2.4). It is
particularly useful for opaque ore minerals (e.g., sulfides, oxides), especially those
with metallic or submetallic lusters.
16 Chapter 2 · Minerals
. Fig. 2.5 Classification of minerals with metallic and submetallic luster based on their hardness (in
brackets) and color, with examples. (After Wenk and Bulakh 2004)
2.2.2 Physical Properties
z Hardness
Mineral hardness is closely related to the chemical composition and the crystal-
line structure of the mineral—and, in particular, to the stability of the chemical
bonds between the individual atoms/ions.
2.2 · Mineral Recognition
17 2
. Fig. 2.6 Classification of minerals with metallic and submetallic lusters. (After Markl 2004)
In metals, the fracture may be hackly, while fibrous minerals may have a splintery
fracture (e.g., kyanite).
2.2.3 Other Properties
. Table 2.4 Characteristic streaks of common minerals. (After Wenk and Bulakh 2004)
Streak Mineral
2 Metallic streak
Gold-yellow Gold
Silver-white Silver
Copper red Copper
Non-metallic streak
Black Graphite, ilmenite, magnetite
Greenish-black Chalcopyrite, pyrite
Brownish-black Pyrite, marcasite
Gray-black Galena, marcasite, arsenopyrite (dark)
Gray Graphite, stibnite, molybdenite, (blue to green)
Brown Sphalerite (pale to colorless), rutile (pale)
Brownish-red Hematite, manganite
Brownish-yellow Goethite
Red Hematite (dark)
Green Malachite (pale)
Blue Azurite (pale), lazurite
. Fig. 2.8 Examples of cleavage in minerals. a Single cleavage causing mineral to break into flakes
(mica). b two dominant cleavages resulting in prismatic or fibrous fragments (amphibole). c Three
cleavages at 90° producing cubic fragments (halite) d octahedral cleavage (fluorite). e Symmetrical
trigonal cleavage (calcite). The angle between the cleavage faces can also be used to identify the miner-
als, e.g., f pyroxene, and g amphibole. (After Wenk and Bulakh 2004)
2.3 · Selected Minerals
21 2
2.3 Selected Minerals
2.3.1 Native Elements
z Gold, Au—Cubic
Gold (Nugget)
Habit – grains, irregular rounded masses (nuggets), dendritic forms; rarely crystals
Hardness – 2.5–3
Cleavage – none
Fracture – hackly
Color/Transparency – characteristic golden yellow; opaque
Streak – gold-yellow
Luster – metallic
Distinguishing features – color, low hardness, gold can be confused with pyrite or
chalcopyrite, but differs greatly in hardness, color, ductility and malleability
Occurrence – hydrothermal veins, often associated with quartz, also concentrated
in alluvial sediments (due to density)
22 Chapter 2 · Minerals
z Silver, Ag—Cubic
2.3.2 Sulfides
z Galena, PbS—Cubic
Galena
z Sphalerite, ZnS—Cubic
Sphalerite
Chalcopyrite
z Pyrite, Fe2S—Cubic
Pyrite
z Halite, NaCl—Cubic
Habit – mainly cubes, but also granular or sometimes fibrous aggregates. Occa-
sionally, cubic pseudomorphs of clay after halite are found
Hardness – 2.5
Cleavage – cubic, perfect
Fracture – conchoidal
Color/Transparency – colorless or white, sometimes yellow, gray, brown-black, red
and blue; transparent to translucent
Streak – white
Luster – vitreous
Distinguishing features – soluble in water, perfcct cubic cleavage, salty taste
Occurrence – a common evaporite mineral, often interbedded with sylvine, anhy-
drite or gypsum. Halite crusts are also found in deserts or along the margins of
salt lakes.
28 Chapter 2 · Minerals
z Fluorite, CaF2—Cubic
Fluorite
Spinel
z Magnetite, Fe3O4—Cubic
Magnetite
z Hematite, Fe2O3—Trigonal
Hematite
Ilmenite
z Goethite, FeO(OH)—Orthorhombic
Goethite
z Calcite, CaCO3—Trigonal
Calcite
z Dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2—Trigonal
Dolomite
Habit – rhombohedral crystals, often with curved saddle-like faces. Also massive,
granular aggregates
Hardness – 3.5–4
Cleavage – perfect
Fracture – conchoidal, brittle
Color/Transparency – often white, sometimes colorless, pink, yellowish to brown-
ish, sometimes pink; transparent to translucent
Streak – white
Luster – vitreous, pearly
Distinguishing features – similar to calcite, powdered dolomite has an effervescent
reaction with hydrochloric acid
Occurrence – often a diagenetic product (replacement of Ca by Mg), also as a
gangue mineral in hydrothermal veins
2.3 · Selected Minerals
37 2
z Malachite, Cu2CO3(OH)2—Monoclinic
Malachite
2.3.6 Sulfates
z Anhydrite, CaSO4—Orthorhombic
Anhydrite
Habit – rare tabular or prismatic crystals, often fibrous. Also massive or nodular
aggregates
Hardness – 3–3.5
Cleavage – perfect
Fracture – uneven
Color/transparency – colorless, white, blue, gray or red; transparent to translucent
Streak – white
2.3 · Selected Minerals
39 2
Luster – vitreous, pearly
Distinguishing features – cleavage (three cleavages at 90°), hardness, density
Occurrence – found in sediments (deposits directly from warm sea water), or
above salt domes. Also forms due to the dehydration of gypsum
z Gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O—Monoclinic
Gypsum
Habit – tabular crystals, sometimes curved, also fibrous, prismatic, bladed, mas-
sive, granular aggregates
Hardness – 2 (standard mineral on the Mohs hardness scale)
Cleavage – perfect
Fracture – uneven
Color/Transparency – colorless, white, yellow, gray, red, and brown; transparent to
translucent
Streak – white
Luster – vitreous, pearly, silky
Distinguishing features – hardness, cleavage, swallowtail/fishtail twins
Occurence – common in sedimentary rocks (e.g., limestones). Also associated with
salt deposits and less commonly in areas where sulfide oxidation has occurred.
Forms in sandy areas (e.g., desert rose) and due to the hydration of anhydrite
40 Chapter 2 · Minerals
2.3.7 Phosphates
Apatite
Habit – often columnar, tabular, hexagonal or flat crystals, also as granular, fi-
brous, or radiating aggregates
Hardness – 5 (standard mineral on the Mohs hardness scale)
Cleavage – indistinct
Fracture – conchoidal
Color/transparency – colorless, white, yellow, green to gray-green, brown, blue or
red; transparent to translucent
Streak – white
Luster – vitreous, waxy
Distinguishing features – habit, hardness
Occurrence – found in many magmatic rocks (e.g., granite pegmatite, nepheline
syenite), also in high-temperature hydrothermal veins and in regional or contact
metamorphic rocks (e.g., hornfels). Apatite is a main component in bones and
tooth enamel
2.3 · Selected Minerals
41 2
2.3.8 Silicates
Orthosilicates
Olivine
Garnet
Within (but not between) each group there is continuous atomic substitution.
Habit – often well-formed dodecahedral or trapezohedral crystals, also coarse or
granular aggregates
Hardness – 6.5–7.5
Cleavage – none
Fracture – conchoidal, uneven
Color/Transparency – varies with composition, dark red, brown to black (pyrope,
almandine and spessartine), green (uvarovite), brown, light green or white (gros-
sular), yellow, brown or black (andradite); transparent to opaque
Streak – white
Luster – vitreous, resinous, adamantine
Distinguishing features – hardness, habit
Occurrence – found in metamorphic (e.g., schist, gneiss) and some magmatic (e.g.,
peridotite, granite, pegmatite) rocks. Also common in alluvial sands (e.g., beach,
river)
2.3 · Selected Minerals
43 2
z Group Silicates
Kyanite (Disthene), Al2SiO5—Triclinic
Kyanite
z Topaz, Al2SiO4(OH,F)2—Orthorhombic
Topaz
Habit – prismatic crystals, often striated, also columnar, massive, radiating and
granular aggregates
Hardness – 8 (standard mineral on the Mohs hardness scale)
Cleavage – perfect (basal)
Fracture – subconchoidal, uneven
Color/Transparency – colorless, yellow, light blue, green and pink; transparent to
opaque
Streak – colorless
Luster – vitreous
Distinguishing features – habit, hardness, cleavage
Occurrence – found in acidic magmatic rocks (e.g., granite pegmatite, rhyolite), al-
luvial sediments and quartz veins
2.3 · Selected Minerals
45 2
z Staurolite, (Fe, Mg)2(Al,Fe)xSi4O20(O,OH)2—Monoclinic, Pseudo-Orthorhombic
Staurolite
z Group Silicates
Epidote Group
General formula is X2Y3Si3O12(OH), where X is often Ca and Y is normally Al
and Fe3+, partially replaced by Mg and Fe2+ in some forms.
z Zoisite, Ca2Al2Si2O12(OH)—Orthorhombic
Habit – prismatic crystals (often striated), also radial, fibrous or massive aggre-
gates
46 Chapter 2 · Minerals
Hardness – 6–6.5
Cleavage – perfect
Fracture – conchoidal to uneven
2 Color/Transparency – gray, yellow, pink, blue, light green or brown; transparent
(strongly pleochroic) to translucent
Streak – white
Luster – vitreous, pearly
Distinguishing features – color, cleavage
Occurrence – found in contact (e.g. gneiss, hornfels) and regional (e.g. schist) met-
amorphic rocks. Also in metasomatic rocks and rarely in granites.
Ring Silicates
z Tourmaline Group, (Ca, Na, K)(Li, Mg, Fe2+, Mn2+, Al, Cr3+, V3+, Fe3+, Ti4+)3(Mg, Al,
Fe3+, V3+, Cr3+)6((Oh)4|(BO3)3|(Si8O18))—Trigonal
Habit – elongate prismatic crystals, often striated, and often with a triangular
cross section; also columnar or radiating (rarely massive) aggregates
Hardness – 7–7.5
48 Chapter 2 · Minerals
Cleavage – indistinct
Fracture – conchoidal, uneven
Color/Transparency – highly variable (due to composition) but usually black/blue-
2 black, also colorless, blue, pink, purple or green; transparent to opaque
Streak – white
Luster – vitreous
Distinguishing features – habit, striation, color, cross section, hardness
Occurrence – found in acid magmatic (e.g., granite pegmatite, rhyolite) and meta-
morphic (e.g. schist, gneiss, marble) rocks
z Chain Silicates
Pyroxene Group
The general formula is X2Si2O6, where X is often Mg, Fe, Mn, Li, Ti, Al, Ca or
Na. The most common pyroxenes are Ca-, Mg-, or Fe-silicates, with two main
groups—the orthopyroxenes are orthorhombic and have little Ca, while the clino-
pyroxenes are monoclinic and contain either Ca or Na, Al, Fe3+, or Li.
z Orthopyroxene—Orthorhombic
Hypersthene
5 Enstatite, MgSiO3
5 Hypersthene, (Mg,Fe)SiO3
z Clinopyroxene—Monoclinic
5 Diopside-Hedenbergite Series, Ca(Mg,Fe)Si2O6
5 Augite, (Ca,Mg,Fe,Ti,Al)(Al,Si)2O6
Amphibole Group
Hornblende
50 Chapter 2 · Minerals
Habit – prismatic crystals (sometimes 6-sided cross section), also columnar, fi-
brous or radiating aggregates
Hardness – 5–6
2 Cleavage – perfect
Fracture – uneven, brittle
Color/Transparency – light to dark green, black, dark brown; translucent to al-
most opaque
Streak – colorless
Luster – vitreous, submetallic
Distinguishing features – color, habit, cleavage (2 faces at 120°)
Occurrence – found in many magmatic rocks (e.g., granodiorite, diorite, syenite,
gabbro, and the associated extrusive volcanics), but also in metamorphic rocks
(e.g., hornblende schist, amphibolite)
Sheet Silicates
z Talc, Mg3Si4O10(OH)2—Monoclinic
Talc
Habit – rare crystals, often granular, foliated, radiating or fibrous aggregates (of-
ten forms pseudomorphs of other minerals)
Hardness – 1 (standard mineral on the Mohs hardness scale)
Cleavage – perfect
Fracture – uneven
Color/Transparency – white, gray, light green, yellow or blue; translucent to
opaque
Streak – white to pale green
Luster – pearly, greasy, waxy
2.3 · Selected Minerals
51 2
Distinguishing features – hardness, greasy/soapy feel, color
Occurrence – often an alteration product of olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole.
Within faults in Mg-rich rocks. Also in metamorphic rocks (e.g. schist, altered do-
lomite)
z Mica Group
There are two main mica groups—one rich in Fe and Mg (biotite) and one rich in
Al (muscovite).
Muscovite
Habit – tabular, foliated crystals (sometimes with a hexagonal outline), also scaly,
or flaky aggregates
Hardness – 2–2.5
Cleavage – perfect (individual leaves are flexible and elastic)
Fracture – uneven
Color/Transparency – colorless, white, yellow, gray, green or brown; transparent to
translucent
Streak – colorless
Luster – vitreous, pearly
Distinguishing features – cleavage, color
Occurrence – commonly found in magmatic (e.g., granite, pegmatite) and meta-
morphic (e.g., schist, gneiss) rocks. Also as an alteration product (sericite)
52 Chapter 2 · Minerals
Biotite
Habit – tabular flakes (sometimes hexagonal outline), also foliated, or scaly aggre-
gates
Hardness – 2.5–3
Cleavage – perfect
Fracture – uneven
Color/Transparency – brown, reddish brown, yellow brown, yellow or green (phlo-
gopite), black, dark brown or dark green (biotite); transparent to translucent
Streak – colorless
Luster – vitreous, pearly, (submetallic on cleavage faces)
Distinguishing features – cleavage, habit
Occurrence – phlogopite is found in Mg-rich magmatic rocks and metamorphosed
limestones and dolomites. Biotite occurs in granites, syenites, diorites, and their
volcanic equivalents and in some metamorphic rocks (e.g., schist, gneiss)
2.3 · Selected Minerals
53 2
z Chlorite Group, (Mg,Fe,Al)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8—Monoclinic
A collective name for a group of minerals with similar compositions.
Chlorite
Framework Silicates
z Quartz, SiO2—Trigonal
2
Habit – crystals are mostly prismatic, varying in shape and size, the prisms are
mostly hexagonal (often with horizontal striations). Also drusy, granular, bladed,
globular and massive aggregates
Hardness – 7 (standard mineral on the Mohs hardness scale)
Cleavage – none
Fracture – conchoidal
Color/Transparency – pure quartz is colorless; the main colored varieties are listed
below; transparent to opaque
2.3 · Selected Minerals
55 2
Luster – vitreous
Varieties of quartz – there are many varieties, distinguished by color, transpar-
ency, and other characteristics: rock crystal (colorless, transparent), smoky quartz
(smoky brown, transparent to translucent), citrine (lemon yellow, transparent
to translucent), amethyst (violet to purple, translucent) and rose quartz (pink to
cloudy pink)
Distinguishing features – habit, fracture, luster, hardness
Occurrence – quartz is a common mineral in many magmatic and metamorphic
rocks, especially granite and gneiss, but also as detrital grains in clastic sediments.
Also a common gangue mineral
z Chalcedony, SiO2—Trigonal
Habit – microcrystalline variety of quartz, occurs as mammilary, stalactitic, mas-
sive, radial or bulbous aggregates
Hardness – 6.5–7
Cleavage – none
Fracture – conchoidal, brittle
Color/Transparency – white, blue, red, green, pink, brown, black, colorless and of-
ten banded; transparent to translucent
Luster – vitreous, waxy
Varieties of chalcedony – the varieties differ in color, transparency, and other char-
acteristics: carnelian (pink, red), agate (finely banded), moss agate (milky white
with dendritic growths of manganese oxide), onyx (black and white bands), jas-
per (opaque, intensely colored chalcedony, usually brown, red, yellow, or green),
flint and chert (grey to black, opaque)
Distinguishing features – habit, fracture, hardness
Occurrence – found as cavity linings, in geodes and veins in a variety of rocks. It
also forms pseudomorphs, for example, coral or wood (petrified wood)
z Feldspar Group
Feldspars are the most common minerals in the Earth’s crust (>60%), particu-
larly in metamorphic and magmatic rocks. Their composition is XAl(Si, Al)Si2O8,
2 where X = K, Na, Ca, Br, and Sr. As a result of these differences in composition,
the crystal forms and properties show a degree of variability.
Orthoclase
Sanidine
Plagioclase
Feldspathoid/Foid Group
Chemically related to feldspars, but with a lower SiO2 content.
Leucite
z Nepheline, NaAlSiO4—Hexagonal
Nepheline
Streak – white
Luster – greasy, vitreous
Distinguishing features – luster, greasy feel
2 Occurrence – found in SiO2-poor intrusive and extrusive magmatic rocks (e.g.,
nepheline syenite, phonolite)
61 3
Magmatic Rocks
Contents
3.2 Volcanoes – 66
Magmatic rocks are often exposed at the Earth’s surface, either because they
cooled at, or close to, the surface (e.g., volcanoes) or because they have been ex-
humed as a result of tectonics and erosion following solidification at depth (e.g.,
exhumation of large intrusive rock bodies). Understanding the formation and de-
velopment of a magmatic province, requires a variety of field and laboratory in-
vestigations, with more detailed characterization of a magmatic body requiring
3 chemical and isotopic analysis. Magmatic rocks can be divided into two groups:
intrusive rocks, which cool and solidify from a magma within the Earth and ex-
trusive rocks, which cool and solidify at the Earth’s surface. Hypabyssal (subvol-
canic) intrusions are emplaced at shallow depths (<2 km).
Intrusive magmatic rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of magma
deep within the Earth’s crust (. Fig. 3.1, . Table 3.1). Individual magmatic bod-
ies range in size from meters up to several kilometers in diameter.
. Fig. 3.1 Variety of intrusions showing their possible relationships with a sub-volcanic magma
chamber. (After Thorpe and Brown 1985)
3.1 · Intrusive Magmatic Rocks—Types of Intrusive Bodies
63 3
. Table 3.1 Intrusive bodies and their dimensions. (After McCann and Valdivia Manchego
2015)
Planar, discordant intrusive bodies that cut through bedding and foliation in the
surrounding host rock (. Fig. 3.1). Thicknesses range from <1 m to several hun-
dreds of meters. They can form groups (swarms) which can be parallel or radial
(e.g., on the flanks of a volcano). Small dikes (mm to cm scale, e.g., aplites) are
also called veins.
64 Chapter 3 · Magmatic Rocks
z Sills
Concordant, layered intrusive bodies that are oriented more or less parallel to the
stratification or foliation within the host rock (. Fig. 3.1). Their thickness can
range from meters to several hundred meters and they can extend over areas of
tens to hundreds of square meters. They are generally formed by low viscosity
magmas. Sills occur individually or in groups.
3.1 · Intrusive Magmatic Rocks—Types of Intrusive Bodies
65 3
z Laccoliths
Laccolith (dacite), Maiden Creek Sill, USA. (Sill about 3 m thick; Photo C. Breitkreuz)
z Lopoliths
Concordant, lenticular, saucer- or funnel-shaped intrusions with thicknesses
ranging from meters to kilometers and diameters that can reach several tens to
several hundreds of kilometers. They often form layered intrusions (i.e., bodies
with layers which differ in terms of composition or texture).
z Volcanic Plugs
The erosion of volcanic bodies (e.g., volcanic vents) can expose round to oval
structures in the outcrop (volcanic plugs/necks). These have a diameter of around
102–103 m and include lavas and pyroclastic material. Internally they often show
brecciation due to the passage of volcanic gases and hydrothermal solutions.
3.2 Volcanoes
Volcanic eruptions are among the most dramatic and visible magmatic processes
(. Fig. 3.2). Most volcanic activity (about 90%) takes place along tectonic plate
boundaries (e.g., Ring of Fire around the Pacific).
Volcanic cones (stratocones, although other cones also exist, e.g., cinder cones
etc.) typically have a central crater, which overlies the vent (although the forma-
tion of several secondary vents is possible), in which the lava moves from the un-
derground magma chamber (or possibly several magma chambers) toward the
Earth’s surface. However, eruptions along fissures (e.g., flood basalts) are of much
greater importance in the Earth’s history because of their high volume.
Volcanoes occur in a variety of forms. The particular shape is largely related
to the composition of the magma, which also determines the type of eruption.
For example, basic lavas (e.g., basalt) have a low viscosity and therefore flow eas-
ily, so that they form wide shield volcanoes. Magmas with a higher proportion of
SiO2 (acid lavas, e.g., rhyolite) are more viscous and explosive. They form layered
volcanoes, which are built up of lava and fragmented material. Magmas rich in
silica can be so viscous that the impinging magma can cause the volcano to bulge
and deform (e.g., Mount St Helens, USA).
3.3 · Volcanic Eruption Types
67 3
Central Zone
Proximal Zone
▼
▼ ▼
▼
Distal Zone
▼
▼ ▼
▼ ▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼
▼ ▼
▼
▼
▼ ▼
▼ ▼
▼
▼
▼ ▼
subvolcanic intrusion
. Fig. 3.2 Schematic profile showing the facies variations in a volcano. (After Thorpe and Brown
1985)
Magmatic eruptions can be divided into the following main types (. Fig. 3.3;
note that transitions between the various types occur):
5 Icelandic eruptions—least explosive; fault or fissure-related eruptions, mostly
produced by low-viscosity magmas.
5 Hawaiian eruptions—are closely related to Icelandic eruptions and are formed
by basic (basaltic) magmas. Eruptions are sporadic. Eruption phases of gas-
poor lavas alternate with short phases of gas-rich eruptions (e.g., fire foun-
tains or curtains of fire).
5 Strombolian eruptions—magmas have a higher viscosity than those of Hawai-
ian eruptions. Explosive eruptions are produced in an open vent due to the
bursting of large gas bubbles which form as a result of reduced pressures in
the upper part of the magma column.
5 Vulcanian eruptions—similar to Strombolian eruptions, but tend to be more
explosive. They are often associated with highly viscous magmas of andesitic
composition.
5 Peléan eruptions—are associated with avalanches of hot volcanic ash (pyro-
clastic flows). Lava domes also form, which may subsequently collapse.
5 Plinian (Vesuvian) eruptions—are the largest and most explosive eruptions
(mainly highly viscous acid to intermediate magmas). The eruptions are
marked by the production of high columns of gases and volcanic debris.
68 Chapter 3 · Magmatic Rocks
. Fig. 3.3 Schematic diagram showing the main eruption types. (After Orton 1996; McCann and
Valdivia Manchego 2014)
In addition to the various eruption types, there are also phreatomagmatic erup-
tions, where the erupting magmas come into contact with groundwater, seawater,
or ice (e.g., beneath a glacier). These are usually explosive and produce a lot of
water vapor and pyroclastic material.
3.4 Volcanic Deposits
There are two types of volcanic deposits: lavas and pyroclastics. Both usually
form during a volcanic eruption. Lavas are formed when magma emerges from
the volcano and solidifies on contact with the atmosphere or water. Four main
lava types are recognised, depending on their form and surface morphology.
3.4 · Volcanic Deposits
69 3
3.4.1 Lavas
z Aa lava
z Pahoehoe Lava
Lavas with smooth or rope-like crusts, which often have a basic composition.
They originate from hotter, less viscous lavas than the Aa type.
70 Chapter 3 · Magmatic Rocks
z Blocky Lava
Blocky lava and lava ball (Hawaii; picture width approx. 4 m)
z Pillow Lava
Basalt columns, Giants Causeway, Northern Ireland (column diameter approx. 30 cm; Photo B. Mur-
phy)
These structures occur in a variety of igneous rocks, and form as the rocks cool
and contract. In basaltic lavas, sills, and dikes, five- to seven-sided columnar
structures often occur. These columns form during cooling and are arranged per-
pendicular to the upper- and lower-cooling surfaces.
72 Chapter 3 · Magmatic Rocks
3.4.2 Pyroclastics
Pyroclastic materials (e.g., pumice, bombs) are produced from most volcano types
(with the exception of Hawaiian and Icelandic) and comprise a range of materi-
als formed due to differences in gas content and viscosity. These latter result in
variations in vesicularity (i.e., gas bubbles in the magma) and crystallinity. In sub-
3 aerial, submarine, or subglacial eruptions, pyroclastic material is initially ejected
vertically in the form of an eruption column (. Fig. 3.3). The pyroclastic mate-
rial (tephra) formed during volcanic eruptions contains three main types of frag-
ments (. Fig. 2.29):
5 Pyroclastic fragments: These are divided into fine ash (<0.063 mm), coarse ash
(0.063–2 mm), lapilli (2–64 mm), and blocks (>64 mm; solid ejecta) or bombs
(>64 mm; molten ejecta) according to their grain size. The lithified equivalents
are fine tuff, coarse tuff, lapillstone/volcanic conglomerate, pyroclastic breccia
and agglomerate, respectively;
5 Glass fragments;
5 Single crystals.
A variety of pyroclastic types have been recognised. Pyroclastic fall deposits (ash
deposits) are initially transported upwards as part of an eruption plume. The frag-
ments subsequently fall as a result of gravity and form a blanket-like deposit
around the collapsing eruption column.
Pyroclastic density flows (i.e., flows, surges) can be subdivided on the basis
of their density and turbulence. Pyroclastic flow deposits (ignimbrites) are grav-
itational flow deposits of volcanic fragments that spread around the volcano in
the form of hot, highly concentrated mixtures of gas and fragments (. Fig. 3.2).
Velocities close to the eruption column can be up to 1000 km/h. The pyroclastic
flows, in which temperatures can be up to 1000 °C, destroy all vegetation over a
radius of over 100 km. Pyroclastic surge deposits are also gravitational flows, but
with a lower concentration (density) of fragments than pyroclastic flow deposits.
They spread laterally as hot gas–solid mixtures and show a variety of sedimen-
tary structures that indicate the direction of flow (e.g., cross-bedding, planar lam-
ination).
A mixture of volcanic material ± sediment and water (ice, snow) can produce
debris flows (lahars). These are very dangerous and can flow over long distances
(>300 km).
z Crystal Size
Crystal size is mainly influenced by the cooling rate of the magma. Coarse
crystalline rocks are called phaneritic, while fine crystalline rocks are termed
aphanitic. The former are generally intrusive, while the latter are mostly extrusive
(. Table 3.2). A mixed form, in which larger crystals (phenocrysts) occur in a fin-
er-grained matrix (groundmass), is termed a porphyritic structure. A porphyry is a
rock that contains 50% of large, well-developed phenocrysts (often plagioclase or
alkali feldspar), which are distributed in a fine-grained matrix. A coarse-grained
igneous rock is termed a pegmatite (pegmatitic texture; usually—but not always—
granitic, often with crystals > c. 1.0 cm in diameter) with the fine-grained equiv-
alent being an aplite (aplitic texture; granitic composition with crystals <1 mm
in diameter). Even finer is the glassy volcanic rock obsidian (pitchstone), which is
formed by rapid cooling of a magma.
Magmatic rocks may also contain foreign inclusions consisting of rocks (xeno-
liths) or minerals (xenocrysts) that were derived from the surrounding rock during
the ascent of the magma.
z Crystal Shape
Mineral shapes within a magmatic rock can be described as follows (. Fig. 3.4):
5 Idiomorphic—crystals with a well developed crystal shape, with distinct crystal
faces and a characteristic geometry.
5 Hypidiomorphic—crystals that resemble their ideal form, but whose growth
was restricted by other minerals
5 Xenomorphic—crystals that are very irregular in shape and do not give any in-
dication of their ideal crystal form.
In the coarser magmatic rocks the majority of crystals are idiomorphic to hypid-
iomorphic in form. In volcanic rocks, phenocrysts and some accessory minerals
(e.g., zircon, apatite) can be idiomorphic because they crystallized early.
z Texture
Texture refers to the geometrical arrangement and distribution of mineral grains
within a rock and is strongly influenced by the order in which they crystallize.
A trachytic texture is a flow texture which describes the parallel/subparallel ar-
74 Chapter 3 · Magmatic Rocks
. Fig. 3.4 Crystal shapes in magmatic rocks. (After Jerram and Petford 2011)
. Table 3.3 Classification of magmatic rocks based on their SiO2 contents. (After Thorpe and
Brown 1985)
The color of the rock and the minerals present can be combined with the grain
size to provide a simple field classification for magmatic rocks (. Fig. 3.5).
The IUGS classification system is a more detailed scheme to classify magmatic
rocks. Classification is in two stages (. Figs. 3.6 and 3.7):
1. What is the grain size of the rock, that is, whether the rock is phaneritic (i.e.
coarse-grained—plutonic) or aphanitic (i.e. fine-grained—volcanic)?
2. Determine the proportions of the five most common minerals or mineral
groups in the rock. When looking at hand samples, these minerals are best
identified using the following properties (see also 7 Chap. 2 for more detailed
descriptions):
5 Quartz—translucent, vitreous luster, absence of obvious cleavage, conchoidal
fracture.
5 Plagioclase—cleavage, twinning on the cleavage faces.
5 Alkali feldspar—cleavage, Carlsbad twins are often visible in hand specimens,
often pink to brownish color.
5 Mafic minerals—black, brown, or green colors; 90° cleavage (pyroxenes), 120°
cleavage (amphiboles).
. Fig. 3.5 Simple field classification, based on color (light vs. dark minerals), important silicate min-
erals and grain size. (After Jerram and Petford 2011)
76 Chapter 3 · Magmatic Rocks
. Fig. 3.6 Simple field classification of plutonic rocks, based on the IUGS-classification scheme, ac-
cording to their mineralogical compositions: Q quartz; A alkali feldspar; P plagioclase; F feldspathoid
(foid). The rock must contain less than 90% mafic minerals. (After Blatt et al. 2006)
3.6 · Classification of Magmatic Rocks
77 3
. Fig. 3.7 Simple field classification of volcanic rocks, based on the IUGS-classification, of volcanic
rocks according to their mineralogical compositions: Q quartz; A alkali feldspar; P plagioclase; F feld-
spathoid (foid). The rock must contain less than 90% mafic minerals. (After Blatt et al. 2006)
78 Chapter 3 · Magmatic Rocks
. Table 3.4 Grain size based nomenclature of the most common volcanoclastic rocks. (After
McCann and Valdivia Manchego 2015)
A diagram, similar to that for plutonic rocks (. Fig. 3.6), is used for the classi-
fication of volcanic rocks (. Fig. 3.7). Due to their rapid cooling at the Earth’s
surface, lavas are often fine-grained (e.g., glassy, microcrystalline), which makes
them difficult to describe. Chemical analysis is often the most reliable method to
provide a correct classification. However, the presence of phenocrysts (usually
10–50%) in combination with color, field relationships and contexts, etc., can also
be used to describe a lava in detail.
Volcanic rocks can also be classified according to their grain size (. Table 3.4).
Compacted, sometimes welded, fine-grained volcanic rocks are called tuffs while
coarser rocks (2–64 mm) are called lapillistones/tuffs (or where the fragments are
angular, breccias). The largest (>64 mm) are termed agglomerates or volcanic brec-
cias.
3.7 · Plutonic Rocks
79 3
3.7 Plutonic Rocks
z Granite
Occurrence – found in large intrusions (e.g., batholiths, stocks), but also sills and
dikes. Volcanic counterpart is rhyolite
Varieties
5 Rapakivi granite—a porphyric hornblende granite with round to ovoid alkali
feldspar crystals (orthoclase; 2–3 cm diameter) surrounded by plagioclase
3 5 Alkali feldspar granite—light-colored granite comprising mainly alkali feld-
spar (<10% plagioclase). Accessory minerals include augite, hornblende, and
zircon
5 Augite-Hornblende granite—dark-colored granite due to presence of augite
and hornblende
5 Biotite granite—large amount of biotite (up to 20%); a two-mica granite would
contain a significant proportion of muscovite
5 Tourmaline granite—large amount of tourmaline
5 Aplite—very fine-grained granite (often occurs as dikes), rare mafic minerals
z Granodiorite
Color – predominantly gray (the higher the proportion of mafic components, the
darker the rock).
Grain size – as for granite
Texture – granular, similar to granite
Mineralogy – difficult to distinguish from granite, but usually looks darker. Miner-
alogy is similar to granite, although with different feldspar ratios (plagioclase 65–
100%, alkali feldspar 0–35%); it may be transitional with granite
Occurrence – the most abundant of the granitic rocks, often intrusive (e.g. batho-
liths), and found within granitic massifs. The volcanic equivalent is dacite
3.7 · Plutonic Rocks
81 3
Varieties
5 Trondhjemite—quartz-rich variety (>20%) with little or no alkali feldspar;
dark minerals (<15%) mostly biotite and hornblende.
5 Tonalite—feldspar mostly plagioclase and usually no alkali feldspar; quartz
about 20%; dark minerals (10–40%) mostly biotite and hornblende (both of-
ten porphyric).
z Syenite
Varieties
5 Alkali syenite—almost plagioclase-free; often found associated with alkali
granites
82 Chapter 3 · Magmatic Rocks
z Monzonite
z Diorite
Color – black and white speckled appearance, sometimes dark green or pink
Grain size – coarse, but very variable (sometimes pegmatitic), sometimes phe-
nocrysts (e.g., hornblende)
Texture – granular, often containing xenoliths, sometimes foliation
Mineralogy – mainly plagioclase and mafic minerals (e.g. amphibole, pyroxene).
Light-colored minerals 50–85%, of which 80–100% are feldspar (plagioclase—
mostly oligoclase, andesine 65–100%, alkali feldspar 0–35%), quartz 0–20%, or
feldspathoid 0–10%. Dark-colored minerals 15–50%, including biotite and/or py-
roxene. Accessory minerals include apatite, titanite (sphene), iron oxides, zirco-
nium, and garnet. With 5–20% quartz = quartz diorite, >20% quartz = tonalite.
Occurrence – small intrusive bodies, grading laterally to granites, or gabbros. Vol-
canic counterpart is andesite
3.7 · Plutonic Rocks
85 3
z Gabbro
Varieties
5 Norite—dark gray with hypersthene. Contains orthopyroxene or pigeonite in-
stead of augite
5 Troctolite—contains olivine instead of augite
5 Essexite—fine- to medium-grained, sometimes porphyritic. High proportion
of pyroxene (and, therefore, almost black)
z Anorthosite
Color – gray to white
Grain size – medium to coarse
Texture – granular, sometimes oriented crystals, sometimes layered
86 Chapter 3 · Magmatic Rocks
z Kimberlite
Color – bluish, greenish, or black
Grain size – amorphous or fine-grained, sometimes phenocrysts
Texture – often porphyritic, xenoliths are common
Mineralogy – ultramafic volcanic rock comprising mainly olivine (sometimes ser-
pentinized), mica (phlogopite) with garnet (pyrope) and orthopyroxene. Acces-
sory minerals include ilmenite, spinel, rutile, calcite, chromite, and diamond
Occurrence – found mainly in kimberlite pipes (hundreds of meters in diameter)
which are the main source of diamonds; less commonly as dikes
3.8 · Volcanic/Subvolcanic Rocks
87 3
3.8 Volcanic/Subvolcanic Rocks
z Rhyolite
Varieties
5 Quartz porphyry— quartz phenocrysts and occasionally biotite present
5 Granite porphyry—phenocrysts of alkali feldspar, quartz and sometimes bio-
tite and/or plagioclase present
z Microsyenite
Color – gray, reddish, brownish
Grain size – medium
Texture – granular, often with phenocrysts (mostly alkali feldspar)
Mineralogy – similar to syenite (alkali feldspar, with biotite, hornblende, pyroxene,
or quartz)
88 Chapter 3 · Magmatic Rocks
z Trachyte
z Microdiorite
Color – gray to dark gray, sometimes greenish or pink
Grain size – medium
Texture – usually porphyritic (phenocrysts of hornblende, biotite or augite)
Mineralogy – as for diorite
Occurrence – found in intrusive bodies (dikes, sills), often found in swarms around
diorite or granite intrusions
3.8 · Volcanic/Subvolcanic Rocks
89 3
z Andesite
Trachyandesite
z Basalt
Varieties
5 Diabase/Dolerite—coarse, often with phenocrysts of plagioclase
5 Tholeiitic basalt—calcic plagioclase, olivine is rare/absent
5 Alkali basalt/Alkali olivine basalt—with olivine, augite and nepheline
5 Olivine basalt—with olivine and pyroxene phenocrysts
3.8 · Volcanic/Subvolcanic Rocks
91 3
z Dacite
z Obsidian
z Pumice
z Phonolite
3.9 Pyroclastic Rocks
z Agglomerate
z Ignimbrite
Non-welded ignimbrite
z Dunite
z Peridotite
Metamorphic Rocks
Contents
Characteristic series of metamorphic rocks exist in areas that have undergone re-
gional metamorphism. They typically cover large areas (102–103 km2).
Local metamorphism:
5 Hydrothermal metamorphism—occurs in zones where hydrothermal and
other fluids circulate (metasomatism).
5 Impact metamorphism—occurs due to the impact of an extraterrestrial body
(shock metamorphism)
5 Contact metamorphism—occurs in the host/country rock surrounding mag-
matic intrusions (for granitic intrusions at temperatures of around 800–
850 °C, for gabbro or diorite intrusions the temperatures are 900–1100 °C).
Extensive contact aureoles (up to approx. 10 km) can form around large intru-
sions.
The most common form of local metamorphism occurs in contact zones of mag-
matic intrusions. Here thermal energy is transferred directly from the intrusive
rocks to the host rock. The presence of magmatic fluids can also result in exten-
sive metasomatism around granitic intrusions. In large aureoles, mineralization
zones with clear proximal (high-grade minerals) to distal (low-grade minerals) re-
lationships can form. Contact metamorphism may also be restricted to small ar-
eas (centimeters to meters), such as around sills or dikes.
4.1 Metamorphic Facies
The metamorphic facies scheme helps to describe and classify metamorphic rocks
on the basis of their mineralogy (. Fig. 4.1). In areas which have undergone
metamorphism, minerals will recrystallize to new minerals as a result of chang-
ing pressure and temperature conditions. Indeed, there is a direct relationship
4.2 · Structures and Microstructures of Metamorphic Rocks
101 4
. Fig. 4.1 Distribution of metamorphic facies as a function of pressure (depth) and temperature (af-
ter Blatt et al. 2006)
etween the minerals formed and the metamorphic conditions (e.g. temperature,
b
pressure, fluids). Thus, each metamorphic facies can be defined by a suite of char-
acteristic minerals.
Twelve facies are currently recognised ranging from the zeolite facies (low
pressure, low temperature) to the eclogite facies (high pressure). (. Fig. 4.1).
However, for field purposes it is easier to focus on recognising the key minerals
and establishing the main pressure/temperature conditions under which metamor-
phism took place (. Fig. 4.1, . Table 4.1).
. Table 4.1 Common metamorphic rock compositions and the key minerals present within
them. The minerals present correspond to particular metamorphic conditions (i.e. pressure/
temperature) (after Argles in Coe 2010)
and thus, metamorphic rocks can be broadly subdivided into foliated (e.g., schist,
gneiss) and non-foliated rocks (e.g., quartzite, marble).
z Lineation
Lineation forms in areas of ductile deformation, where minerals and mineral ag-
gregates (e.g., hornblende, tourmaline) within the rock become oriented in the
principal deformation direction.
4.2 · Structures and Microstructures of Metamorphic Rocks
103 4
Mineral lineation, Monte Rosa Nappe, Italian Alps (scale 2 cm; Photo N. Froitzheim)
z Foliation
Foliation is a general term referring to laminar/planar layering in metamorphic
rocks. These planar structures form as a result of deformation and result from
the parallel alignment of sheet silicate minerals (e.g., schist) and/or compositional
layering (e.g., gneiss) and may represent original features that have been over-
printed by deformation.
Cleavage is a parallel foliation (layering) typical of fine-grained or low-grade
metamorphic rocks where minerals show a preferred orientation (e.g., slatey
cleavage). Cleavage planes are generally not parallel to bedding, but formed as a
result of deformation.
Schistosity
Gneissic texture occurs when the foliation of a rock consists of millimeter to cen-
timeter thick bands in which the mineral ratios, colors, or textures vary. Gneiss is
characterized by its banding, a foliation that develops during dynamic metamor-
phism which results in the formation of dark- and light-colored mineral bands.
Where partial melting occurs, a migmatite (transitional between a metamorphic
and a magmatic rock) may form.
Kink bands form due to the deformation/folding of foliation planes. They
form in clay-rich shales as a result of lateral compression which leads to buckling.
The high temperatures and pressures that occur in rocks during metamorphosis
result in the formation of a number of characteristic features.
z Mineral Growth
One major effect of the elevated temperatures is the increase in grain size in most
rocks as a result of recrystallization.
z Growth of Porphyroblasts
Large, generally euhedral, crystals which develop as a result of metamorphism
are termed porphyroblasts. These are broadly the metamorphic equivalents of
phenocrysts in magmatic rocks.. The particular arrangement of the porphyro-
blasts in the rock forms a characteristic structure. The following terms are impor-
tant:
5 Porphyroblastic texture—a granular texture where the large crystals (porphy-
roblasts) are significantly larger than the fine-grained groundmass.
5 Granoblastic texture—a texture where the individual crystals are approxi-
mately equigranular and there are no porphyroblasts.
5 Augen—are eye-shaped porphyroblasts or porphyroclasts (fragments of the
original rock, prior to metamorphism) of minerals or mineral aggregates in
rocks which have undergone metamorphism and shearing. They are sur-
rounded by microshears and may rotate during deformation.
106 Chapter 4 · Metamorphic Rocks
z Boudinage
Sausage-shaped structures (boudins) formed in porphyroblasts/clasts due to
shearing and stretching.
z Protolith
There are three main groups of metamorphic rocks based on the parent rock;
ranging from clastic sedimentary rocks (e.g., sandstones), calcareous rocks (e.g.,
limestones), and mafic or intermediate volcanic or pyroclastic rocks (e.g., basalts,
andesites). Other metamorphic rocks, which do not belong to the these groups,
include granulite, serpentinite, skarn, and mylonite (. Table 4.2).
z Texture
The microstructure (including crystal/grain size) often provides an important in-
dication of the intensity (degree) and type of metamorphism (. Table 4.3). Very
fine-grained rocks are usually found in areas of low-grade metamorphism or in
regions associated with surficial contact metamorphism. Rocks which formed un-
der regional metamorphic conditions generally show an increase in grain size,
with the increase often reflecting the degree of metamorphism.
z Foliation
The type of schistosity also provides an indication of the degree of metamorpho-
sis (. Table 4.3):
5 Low-grade metamorphism—cleavage
5 Moderate metamorphism—schistosity
5 High-grade metamorphism—gneiss banding
108 Chapter 4 · Metamorphic Rocks
. Table 4.3 Grain size and schistosity of metamorphic rocks (after Fry 1984)
z Mineralogy
Mineralogy contains important information about the nature of the protolith
as well as the degree of metamorphism and the metamorphic facies, with spe-
cific minerals often related to particular P-T conditions. Examples include: glau-
cophane (HP or UHP rocks), diamond (UHP rocks) as well as particular so-
called index minerals (e.g. chlorite, biotite, hornblende, garnet, staurolite, silli-
manite, glaucophane) (. Table 4.1).
4.5 · Contact Metamorphic Rocks
109 4
4.5 Contact Metamorphic Rocks
z Hornfels
Color – speckled appearance, various colors including black, dark brown, gray,
and green
Texture – fine to medium grained (sometimes with porphyroblasts)
Structure – often massive, primary structures can sometimes be recognized
Mineralogy – fine-grained matrix with porphyroblasts (e.g., cordierite, andalusite,
pyroxene, biotite, garnet, sillimanite)
Occurrence – high-temperature rock, typical in areas of contact metamorphism
Varieties
5 Andalusite-cordierite hornfels—porphyroblasts of andalusite and/or cordierite
5 Pyroxene hornfels—porphyroblasts of pyroxene, andalusite and/or cordierite;
areas of high-temperature contact metamorphism
110 Chapter 4 · Metamorphic Rocks
z Marble
Marble
Color – white or grey, various other colours possible (including black, red, green—
often streaked or patchily distributed)
Texture – medium to coarse-grained, granular/sugary
Structure – sedimentary structures (e.g., bedding) may be preserved. Fossils may
also be present at low grades of metamorphism
Mineralogy – mainly calcite (up to 99%), also dolomite, sometimes olivine, amphi-
bole, chlorite, serpentine, tremolite, mica, epidote, graphite, plagioclase, pyrite, or
quartz
Occurrence – forms due to the metamorphism of limestone around magmatic in-
trusions. Marble may pass laterally into limestone. Associated with hornfels and
skarn
4.6 · Regional Metamorphic Rocks
111 4
z Skarn
z Slate
Color – various colors, including gray, black, blue, green, and brown
Texture – fine grained
Structure – foliated (slatey cleavage)
Mineralogy – clay minerals (chlorite, kaolinite, illite), quartz, mica (but due to
the grain size it is difficult to identify individual minerals);. Sometimes porphyro-
blasts of pyrite
Occurrence – low-grade metamorphic rock. Regional metamorphic alteration of
fine-grained clastic sediments (mudstone, siltstone) or fine-grained tuffs
112 Chapter 4 · Metamorphic Rocks
z Phyllite
z Mica Schist
Color – green or grayish (chlorite schist), gray (graphite schist) or white, (musco-
vite/sericite schist); brownish or black (biotite schist/muscovite schist). Some mi-
ca-rich schists can be shiny/reflective
Texture – fine to medium grained; biotite or muscovite schists can be coarser
grained
Structure – lamellar, planar, flakey (schistose)
Mineralogy – usually muscovite and quartz, other minerals (e.g., feldspar, chlorite,
muscovite/sericite, biotite, garnet, hornblende, kyanite, sillimanite etc.) may also
be present, as may porphyroblasts (e.g., albite in chlorite schist)
Occurrence – forms at higher temperatures than phyllite; fine-grained sediments
are the protolith for chlorite schists (low-grade); mica (sericite) schists result when
the same rocks undergo a higher grade of metamorphism. Both are often associ-
ated with phyllites. Where muddy sandstones are the protolith, quartz-muscovite
schists may form
Varieties
5 Biotite schist—often brown/black, reflective, biotite is an index mineral for re-
gional metamorphism
5 Garnet mica schist—with garnet porphyroblasts (up to cm size), typical for re-
gional metamorphism
5 Staurolite schist—high-grade metamorphic rock with staurolite porphyro-
blasts
114 Chapter 4 · Metamorphic Rocks
z Greenschist
Color – green
Texture – fine grained
Structure – schistose, lamellar
Mineralogy – chlorite, epidote, talc, amphibole (actinolite), glaucophane, lesser
amounts of quartz and muscovite
Occurrence – protoliths are mainly basalt, gabbro, and also fine-grained sediments
Varieties
5 Talc schist—soft green slate, very easy to split, feels greasy
5 Chlorite schist—often green, sometimes albite or chloritoid porphyroblasts
5 Glaucophane schist—dark colored due to high percentage of glaucophane. A
high-pressure metamorphic rock
z Granulite
Granulite
4.6 · Regional Metamorphic Rocks
115 4
Color – gray, black, brown, sometimes almost white
Texture – medium to coarse grained, granoblastic
Structure – massive, sometimes weakly banded
Mineralogy – mainly feldspar, sometimes quartz and other minerals (dependent
on the protolith, but typically pyroxene, sillimanite, kyanite, garnet, biotite, horn-
blende). If the source rock is a mudstone, the granulites contain feldspar, quartz,
pyroxene, spinel, cordierite, and rare garnets
Occurrence – high temperature/moderate-pressure rocks often formed during re-
gional metamorphism
z Eclogite
z Quartzite
z Gneiss
Varieties
5 Augen gneiss—with sheared feldspar porphyroblasts or feldspar/quartz aggre-
gates
z Amphibolite
Amphibolite
z Serpentinite
Sedimentary Rocks
Contents
Sedimentary rocks form at low temperatures and pressures at, or close to, the
Earth’s surface as a result of the accumulation of particles (clastic sediments) or
through the precipitation from solutions or the accumulation of organic material
(non-clastic sediments) (. Fig. 5.1). Four groups can be identified:
5 Terrigenous (clastic) sediments—comprising detrital components (e.g., miner-
als, lithic fragments, fossil fragments) derived from existing rocks.
5 Biogenic (bioclastic/organic) sediments—mainly comprising biogenic frag-
ments (e.g., shells) and material formed by organic processes (e.g., peat, coal).
5 Chemical (authigenic) sediments—formed as a result of direct precipitation of
crystalline material from supersaturated fluids (e.g., chert).
5 Volcanoclastic (volcanogenic/pyroclastic) sediments—comprising mainly detri-
5 tal materials produced in volcanic areas (e.g. tuff, see 7 Chap. 3).
Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments which have been initially subjected
to transport and deposition by water, wind, and ice as well as a result of direct
precipitation. The structures that form during deposition are indicative of the en-
ergy conditions within the depositing medium (i.e., usually water).
Bedding
Very thick bedding >100
Thick bedding 30–100
Medium bedding 10–30
Fine bedding 3–10
Very fine bedding 1–3
Lamination
Thick lamination 0.6–1
Medium lamination 0.3–0.6
Fine lamination 0.1–0.3
Very fine lamination <0.1
z Erosional Structures
Erosive currents can result in the formation of a variety of structures in previ-
ously deposited sediments (e.g., flute marks/casts or gutter casts).
124 Chapter 5 · Sedimentary Rocks
5.2 Post-Depositional Structures
Recently deposited sediments are often relatively soft due to the amount of water
trapped within the pore spaces (. Fig. 5.2). This softness/wetness, coupled some-
times with density differences, can result in the formation of a variety of struc-
tures:
5 Convolute bedding/lamination—deformation occurs due to shock, deposi-
tional loading or frictional drag due to the passage of a current.
5.2 · Post-Depositional Structures
125 5
5.3 Biogenic Structures
z Stromatolites
5.4 Mass Flows
Mass (or gravity/density) flows are mixtures of sediment and liquid that move
downslope under the influence of gravity and a variety of physical mechanisms.
Four main types can be identified.
z Debris Flows
Dense, viscous mixtures of sediment (mud to boulder + size) and water with a
higher proportion of sediment than water. The flows are laminar (fragments
move parallel to one another; no sediment mixing) and the resulting deposit (deb-
5 rite) is poorly sorted (e.g., matrix-supported conglomerate).
z Turbidity Flows
Turbulent mixtures of sediment and water (turbidite flows); mostly found in the
deep sea. Sediment sorting is very good and forms turbidites with characteristic
internal structures (i.e., Bouma sequence, with typically 5 subdivisions).
5.4 · Mass Flows
129 5
z Grain Flows
Occur as a result of grain-grain collisions in well-sorted sediments (e.g., aeolian
sands), where the sediment avalanches down a steep slope.
z Liquefied Flows
Occur when a water-logged sediment body is shocked (e.g., earthquake). This re-
sults in the upward movement of pore fluids, resulting in destabilization (liquefac-
tion) of the sediment body.
The grain size of a sediment depends very much on the energy of the transport-
ing medium, for example, coarse-grained conglomerates require a higher degree
of transport energy than fine-grained sands (. Fig. 5.4). Other features which are
. Fig. 5.4 Grain-size distribution and sediment-type classification according to DIN EN ISO 14688
and Udden-Wentworth. (After Stow 2006; Blatt et al. 2006)
used to describe the grains/clasts include, sphericity (the degree to which a particle
approximates a sphere), roundness (the degree of curvature of a particle) and sort-
ing (the distribution of grain size, e.g., poorly sorted = range of grain sizes).
Within a bed, grain-size distribution can occur due to increases/decreases in
current energy (. Fig. 5.5):
132 Chapter 5 · Sedimentary Rocks
5
. Fig. 5.5 Normal (a) and inverse/reverse (b) grading in individual deposits. (After Stow 2006; Nich-
ols 2009)
z Sandstones
Sands and sandstones are sediments where the individual grain sizes range from
0.063–2 mm. They can be subdivided according to their grain size into very fine,
fine, medium, coarse and very coarse (see . Fig. 5.4). The percentage of ma-
trix or feldspars present can also be used to classify sandstones (e.g., greywacke,
arkose).
Limestone and dolostone (dolomite) Carbonate rocks and sediments are predomi-
nantly of biogenic origin (e.g., shells and shell fragments, calcareous algae) form-
ing as a result of carbonate precipitation, coupled with biochemical processes
(. Table 5.2). By definition, a limestone is any sedimentary rock containing >50%
calcium carbonate, whereas dolostone (dolomite) is a carbonate rock with a high
magnesium content. Carbonate production is mainly (but not exclusively) lim-
ited to tropical and subtropical areas. Most limestones are formed in coastal ar-
eas and shallow-marine environments. In addition, carbonates also form in caves
(stalagmites/stalactites), springs (tufa), soil horizons (calcrete), lakes, and in
deep-marine environments.
134 Chapter 5 · Sedimentary Rocks
Calcium carbonate can occur either as calcite (stable form) or aragonite (un-
stable at Earth surface temperatures and pressures). Aragonite recrystallizes over
time to calcite. The calcium ion in CaCO3 is sometimes replaced by other miner-
als, e.g., Mg (dolomite), Sr (strontianite) and Fe (ankerite).
Texturally, carbonates are similar to clastic sediments (e.g., grain roundness,
grain sorting) or to chemical precipitates (crystal intergrowths), or they may be
a mixture of both. In addition, they also include a variety of organic structures
(e.g., stromatolites, reefs). Based on their grain size, carbonates can be divided
into three main types:
5 calcirudite (equivalent to conglomerate)—grains (clasts) >2 mm in diameter
5 calcarenite (equivalent to sandstone)—grains between 0.063–2 mm in diame-
ter
5 calcilutite (equivalent to mudstone)—grains <0.063 mm in diameter
z Dunham Classification
This classification scheme uses mainly textural criteria, although the nature of the
grains (e.g., ooid, peloid) can also be taken into account. It is mainly used to de-
scribe carbonates in outcrop/hand sample (. Fig. 5.7).
The main components are skeletal fragments (e.g., molluscs, brachiopods,
sponges, corals) and carbonate-forming algae (e.g., red and green algae) as well as
bioherms (e.g., corals, stromatolites). Non-biogenic components are also impor-
tant (. Fig. 5.8), including
5.5 · Describing Sedimentary Rocks
135 5
. Fig. 5.7 Classification of limestones based on depositional texture. (After Dunham 1962, with
modifications by Embry and Klovan 1971)
136 Chapter 5 · Sedimentary Rocks
Marine evaporites
Chlorides Halite NaCl
Sylvite/Sylvine KCl
Sulfates Anhydrite CaSO4
Gypsum CaSO4 2H2O
Carbonates Calcite CaCO3
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
Nonmarine evaporites
Carbonates Trona NaHCO3 Na2CO3 2H2O
Sulfates Gypsum CaSO4 2H2O
Anhydrite CaSO4
Chlorides Halite NaCl
Carbon-rich organic rocks are of great economic value. Two main forms oc-
cur—coal and oil shale.
138 Chapter 5 · Sedimentary Rocks
z Conglomerate
z Breccia
(scale 2.5 cm)
z Sandstone
z Arkose
z Greywacke
z Siltstone
z Mudstone
z Limestone
Color – pure limestone is often gray, white, or creamy, impure limestone can be
red, brown, or black
Texture – variable and dependent on fossil content and grain size. Range from
fine-grained (micrite/chalk) to crystalline (sugar-like appearance) to conglomer-
atic or brecciated limestones
Structure – structureless or graded/bedded (possibly with a range of internal
structures). Large structures (e.g., reef bodies) are sometimes well developed
Mineralogy – mainly calcite. Other minerals may be present (e.g., quartz—as
grains or in the form of chert)
Occurrence – biochemical rocks comprise the remains of organisms (shells, skele-
tons), carbonate clasts (intraclasts), or other fragments (ooids, peloids). Usually
shallow marine and above the carbonate compensation depth (c. 4200–5000 m).
Often in combination with other limestone types
Varieties
5 Shelly limestone—limestones with high proportions of shells/shell fragments
144 Chapter 5 · Sedimentary Rocks
5 z Dolostone (Dolomite)
z Peat
z Anthracite
Fossils and Paleoecology
Contents
Fossils are the preserved, fossilized remains or traces of animals, plants, and
other organisms. They are mainly found in sedimentary rocks, particularly in
limestones, mudstones, siltstones, and sandstones. Biostratigraphy is an impor-
tant tool for the correlation and relative dating of rock units or successions. Cer-
tain stratigraphic periods are typified by characteristic fossil groups (i.e., index
fossils).
The main controlling mechanisms for the distribution of recent (and fossil) or-
ganisms include:
5 Temperature (affects large-scale distribution, both numbers and diversity)
5 Light (the range of maximum biological productivity is in the upper 10–20 m
of the water column)
5 Oxygen levels
5 Substrate (e.g., mud, sand)
6 5 Salinity
5 Water turbulence
5 Nutrients
5 Climate (e.g., tropical, temperate)
Neritic organisms live in shallow coastal waters, while pelagic/oceanic faunas in-
habit the surface waters or mid-depths of the open oceans.
. Fig. 6.2 Distribution of living organisms according to water depth. (After Benton and Harper
2009)
150 Chapter 6 · Fossils and Paleoecology
6.1 Fossil Groups
z Sponges (Porifera)
Period – Cambrian—Recent
Milieu – subaquatic (marine—fresh water, polar—tropical, shallow marine—abys-
sal)
Period – Ordovician—Recent
Milieu – marine, shallow (benthic) to greater depths (e.g., rugose corals)
This group comprises a wide range of both solitary and colonial cnidarians,
including jellyfish, sea anemones, and corals. The most important cnidaria fossils
are corals because of their reef-building function, although soft tissue Cnidaria
(without skeletons) are known from the Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran fossils). In
general, coral diversity decreases with increasing water depth. Corals have mas-
sive, external, calcareous skeletons. Four main groups have been identified:
152 Chapter 6 · Fossils and Paleoecology
z Molluscs (Mollusca)
Period – Cambrian—Recent
Milieu – marine, freshwater and terrestrial
6
Nautilus (Recent)
z Brachiopods (Brachiopoda)
Period – Cambrian—Recent
Milieu – mainly shallow marine (some with high salt tolerance), some species are
found at depths of up to 6000 m
z Echinoderms (Echinodermata)
Period – ?Neoproterozoic—Recent
Milieu – marine (shallow—abyssal)
6.1 · Fossil Groups
159 6
A diverse group in which the individuals generally have a five-sided (pentara-
dial) symmetry. Various classes are identified, including:
5 Sea urchins (Class Echinoidea)—rounded-, pentagonal- or heart-shaped or-
ganisms comprise this subgroup, which is of great stratigraphic importance
(Lower Cambrian—Recent),
5 Sea lilies (Class Crinoidea)—Echinoderms with a conical, spherical, or gob-
let shaped central body, bearing five or more arms. The body may be attached
to a long, columnar stem, or the crinoids may be free swimming (middle Cam-
brian—Recent),
5 Blastoids (Subphylum Blastozoa, Class Blastoidea)—stemmed echinoids, of-
ten stalked and with a conical or spherical body (Silurian—Permian),
5 Cystoids (Subphylum Blastozoa, Class Eocrinoidea)—the oldest arm-bearing
echinoderms, similar in form to crinoids but the main body is more oval in
shape (Cambrian—Silurian),
z Graptolites (Hemichordata)
z Arthropoda
The arthropoda are a large and diverse group that includes insects, crabs,
shrimps, and ostracods.
Period – Cambrian—Permian
Milieu – shallow marine
Trilobites have a dorsal carapace and their bodies can be subdivided into three
parts: cephalon (head), thorax (trunk), and pygidium (tail). Trilobites are char-
acteristic of the Cambrian (maximum diversity is in the Upper Cambrian), with
their occurrence decreasing noticeably in the Ordovician. They had complex com-
pound eyes, but could also be blind. They are a morphologically diverse group,
reflecting the degree of adaptation to their environment (e.g. changes in salinity,
temperature, sediment type).
161
Supplementary
Information
References – 162
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