Third Midterm

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Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales
2º Grado en Ingeniería Física
Escuela Politécnica Superior

Universidad Carlos III de Madrid
Reservados todos los derechos.

No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.
3rd Midterm
MSE (20/21) - Engineering Physics
November 29, 2021
Contents
1 Ceramics 3
1.1 Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Silicates (SiO2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Classification according to tetrahedral ordering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Polymers 5
2.1 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Size and shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Solid state polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.3.1 Crystallinity. Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3.2 Thermal transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4.1 Mechanical behaviour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.6 Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 Composites 7
3.1 Definition and classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Properties according to matrix type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Particle-reinforced composite materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3.1 Dispersion-strengthened composites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3.2 Large-particle composites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4 Fiber-reinforced composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4.1 Avoiding breakages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4.2 Glass Fibers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4.3 Carbon Fibers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4.4 Aramid fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4.5 Boron fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4.6 Ceramic fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.5 Structural composite materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.5.1 Laminar composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.5.2 Sandwich composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.6 Composite properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.6.1 Particle reinforced materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.6.2 Fiber reinforced composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.7 Processing composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.7.1 Open mold processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.7.2 Closed mold processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4 Electric and Magnetic properties 10

4.1 Band structure and electrical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 Metallic conductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3 Non-metallic conductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3.1 Graphene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3.2 Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4 Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4.1 Intrinsic semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4.2 Extrinsic semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.5 Insulating and dielectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.5.1 Ferroelectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.5.2 Piezoelectric materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.6 Magnetic Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.6.1 Types of magnetic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.6.2 Magnetic domains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.6.3 Factors affecting the hysteresis loops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1
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4.7 Superconductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.7.1 Types of superconductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
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1 Ceramics
Ceramics are inorganic materials composed of metals and non-metals bonded by ionic or covalent bonds. They can be
either crystalline or amorphous:
• Crystalline: Defined with a unit cell, with a set of atoms in a particular way that is repeated in the three diemnsions.
It has defined melting points and anisotropic properties.
• Amorphous: Solid that lacks long-range order. Isotropic properties.
1.1 Bonding
The percentage of ionic vs covalent character of the bonds determines the crystal structure and the properties of the
ceramic. It can be determined by the Pauling ionic character
( )
−(XA −XB )2
%IC = 100 1−e 4 (1)
The ionic ceramic structure is comprised of the packing of ions with cations in the interstices. The formation is
determined to reduced the energy of the structure, for it to be the most stable.
• Critical radius (rA /rB ). Used to determine the coordination index and thus the type of structure.
• Electroneutrality of the structure.
• The higher the coordination index the higher the stability.
1.2 Structures
Exercises.
1.3 Silicates (SiO2 )
They are formed based on the tetrahedron of O2 – and Si4 + in the centre. It has a 50/50 Pauling ionic/covalent character.
The packing factor increases as the number of tetrahedral silicates are joined in the corners with each other.
1.3.1 Classification according to tetrahedral ordering.

• Island−→ Isolated tetrahedral single structure.
• Ring or chain−→ 2 of the 4 O – atoms are joined with other tetrahedrons to form chains or rings of silicates.
• Sheet−→ 3 or the 4 O – atoms are joined with other tetrahedrons to form sheets of silicates with net negative charge.
They are stuck by joining with sheets of positive charge (Ex: Kaolite).
• 3D−→
– Silica −→ Full complete tetrahedron that presents allotropy that acts as main component in traditional ceramics
and glasses.
– Feldspar−→ Aluminosilicates in which silica is replaced by aluminium and the net negative charge is compensated
with cations in interstices. Also used in ceramics.
1.4 Properties
• Hardness: Covalent ceramics are harder that ionic ones.
• Elastic modulus: They have greater stiffness than metals with lower density, that’s why they are employed as fibers
in composites.
• Fracture resistance: They are characterized by a low resistance to plain strain toughness. Porosity due to bad
sinterization acts as a stress concentrator and decreases flexural strength.
– k-Weibull modulus: Maps the probability of failure of a component at varying stresses.This occurs because fracture
strength may vary on identical specimens undergoing same test conditions.
• Thermal properties:
– Thermal shock: Partial or total fracture due to changes in T caused by restrictions during expansion or fast
temperature change.
1.5 Glasses
Transparent materials with amorphous structure, mainly based on silica (SiO2 ) or silicate glasses, that harden and
become rigid with a decrease in temperature without crystallization.
Glass transition temperature: Temperature at which glass phase transforms from liquid/molten/rubber state
into rigid or glass state.
The three main constituents are:

a) Glass formers that are the fundamental unit of glass, like SiO2 or B2 O3 , the latter is usually added to the former to
create borosilicate glasses.
b) Glass modifiers that break the silicate lattice and decreases the viscosity, facilitating moulding and workability.
c) Intermediates that are incorporated in the silica lattice as well and improve special properties, for example, Al2 O3
increases strength at high temperatures.
3

1.6 Processing
Stages:
1. Fabrication of synthesis of ceramic powders (physical methods or chemical methods)
2. Shaping forming Main objective: produce a green piece.
• Starting from powders:
– Without heat:
∗ Uniaxial pressing
∗ Isostatic pressing
– With heat:
∗ Hot pressing
∗ Hot isostatic pressing
∗ Alternative methods
• Starting from pulps and suspensions:
– Slip casting
– Tape casting
– Extrusion
3. Thermal treatments
• Dying and removal of binders
• Sintering: Method to produce ceramics from powders at high T based on the diffusion of atoms. It is conducted
in molds below the melting point of the ceramic.

2 Polymers
2.1 Chemical structure
Polymers are macro-molecules made up by the repetitive bonding of small molecules called monomers by polymerization.
Degree of polymerization
Mpolymer
np = (2)
Mmonomer
According to the number of different monomers they can be either homopolymer (1) or copolymer (2).
According to the structure, polymers are:
• Linear −→ Repeated units are joined together end to end.
• Branched −→ Side-branch chains are connected to the main ones.
• Cross-linked −→ Adjacent linear chains are joined one to another at various positions by covalent bonds.
• Network −→ Multifunctional monomers that make 3D networks.
Properties of the polymer depend on the orientation of monomer’s pendant groups (isotactic crystallices, syndiotactic
and atactic does no crystallize)
2.2 Size and shape
Molecular weight depends of polymers (Mn ) depends on the number (Xn ) and the molecular weight (M0 ) of monomers.

Index of polydispersity:  ∑
n i Mi
Mn = ∑


Mw 
ni
I= , where ∑ 2 (3)
Mn n i Mi
 Mw = ∑


ni Mi
However, polymeric molecular chains are not straight. Bonds can bend in 3 dimensions, provoking entanglement
between chains. In turn, this induces great elasticity.
2.3 Solid state polymers
• Amorphous solids do not exhibit short range ordering, but form glasses below glass transition temperature.
• Semicrystalline polymers some of the segment of the polymer chains organize in crystal lattices. They have both
glass transition and melting temperature.
2.3.1 Crystallinity. Factors.
Explained through chain-fold model in which macromolecules fold into lamellas that are connected by polymer chains
from the amorphous region. The factors affecting crystallinity are:
• Structural Generally, the simpler the polymer the greater chance of crystallization.
– Chemical structure −→ Symmetric and simple monomer, greater chance.
– Molecular structure −→ Linear (most probable) > branched > cross-linked (never).
– Molecular weight −→ The lower the weight, the higher the chances of crystallization.
– Tacticity −→ Isotactic > syndiotactic > atactic.
• Kinetic factors: Cooling rate −→ the slower the cooling rate the better.
• Other factors like impurities or plasticizers.
2.3.2 Thermal transitions
Polymers behavious can be characterized accordingly as a function of temperature:
• T < Tg −→ Vitreous state. Movement of pendant groups only.
• Tg < T < Tm −→ Movement only of amorphous region.
• T > Tm −→ Rubbery state. Movement of all regions.
Factors affecting Tm :
• Chain stiffness −→ Double chain bonds and size of side groups reduce the flexibility and increase Tm .
• Polar groups −→ The more polar groups the greater the nž of intermolecular bonding forces and thus, Tm .
• Molecular weight −→ Both Tm and Tg increase as the molecular weight increases, however it becomes independent if
we increase too much.
• Degree of bonding −→ The more branching the less crystallinity, decreasing Tm .
Factors affecting Tg :
• Chain flexibility −→ The lower the chain flexibility (by means of bulky side groups, polar groups, etc) the higher Tg .
• Molecular weight −→ The higher M the higher Tg .
• Intermolecular interactions −→ The higher the nž of intermolecular interactions the higher Tg .
2.4 Properties
2.4.1 Mechanical behaviour.
Thermoplastics go under a brittle to ductile transformation after Tg Elastomers deform by non-linear reversible
deformation. Their low level of crosslinking allows them to revert back. Themosets are rigid and typically extend a few
inches before fracture. The mechanical properties depend of the degree of cross-linking. Overall the factors thata affect
mechanical behaviour are:
• Strain rate: the higher the s.r. the higher the brittleness and the difficulty of uncrossing. It will sustain less deformation
before fracture.
• Temperature: The higher T, the lower the young modulus and the lower the tensile strength. However, it will sustain
more deformation before fracture.
• Degree of crystallinity: Both young modulus and yield strength increases with the increase of crystallinity.
• Viscoelastic behaviour: At intermediate temperatures, the polymer may present as a rubbery solid and mix glass and
viscous liquid properties.
2.5 Classification
Thermoplastics Thermosets Elastomers

Heat Melts Does not melt. Decom- Does not melt
poses.
Solvents Soluble Insoluble Insoluble, expands.
Structure Linear Heavily crosslinked by Light crosslinked
curing
Crystallinity Both Amorphous Amorphous
Mechanical Stiff below Tg Most stiff and resistant Elastic, no permanent
behaviour def.
Processing Physical reactions. Chemical. Not Chemical
Degradable reusable.

Table 1: Characteristics of elastomers, thermosets and thermoplastics.
2.6 Processing
• Injection molding Granules or pellets are fed into a heated cylinder and they melt as they go through the screw.
The molten mix is fed into a die by the screw, that is retreated and the mix is removed from the die.
• Extrusion Pellets, powder or whatsoever is fed into a screw extruder that blends and melts the raw material, pushing
it towards the die. The pressure builds up and the molten mix is forced thorugh the die.
• Blow molding
• Casting
• Rotomolding
• Thermoforming Applied to thermosets by means of compression and transfer molding.
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3 Composites
3.1 Definition and classification.
A composite material is a combination of two or more constituents with an interface separating them, that differ in form
and chemical composition and are essentially insoluble in each other. Making the material properties superior than the
two components’ individual properties. The components are:
• Matrix: Major phase which surrounds the overall material (90% typically). According to the phase the classification
can be made as the following, although it only gains importance when talking about processing.
– Metal matrix composites.
– Ceramic matrix composites.
– Polymeric matrix composites.
• Filler: Minor or dispersed phase, also called reinforcement that makes up to 10%. According to the filler structure,
composites can be classified as:
– Particles −→ Dispersion strengthened, large particles or nanoparticles.
– Fibers −→ Continuous, discontinuous (alligned or randomly oriented) or woven fabric.
– Structural −→ Laminates and sandwich structure pannels.
3.2 Properties according to matrix type.
• Metal: Expensive. Electrical conductivity and thermal stability. (Reinforcement mat: metal fibers, ceramic, carbon,
glass)
• Ceramic: Brittle. Chemical and thermal resistance to high temperature. (Reinforcement mat: metallic & ceramic
particles)
• Glass: Brittle. Mechanical strength and chemical resistance at high T. (Reinforcement mat: metal & ceramic
particles)
• Polymer: Most common of all. High strength to weight ration, electrical insulation, flexibility and thermal stability.
(Reinforcement mat: Carbon, ceramic, metal...)
3.3 Particle-reinforced composite materials.
Particles with different morphology and properties act as fillers. Their properties depend on the morphology, concen-

tration of particles and their dispersion in the matrix.
• Polymeric matrices are reinforced to improve mechanical strength and abrasion resistance.
• Most used metallic matrices are Al, Mg and Ni.
3.3.1 Dispersion-strengthened composites.
The particles of small diameter (d = 10 − 250nm) block the dislocation movement causing hardening. In this type of
composites the matrix is bearing the load and the particles are helping that’s why the strength of these materials relies
on the precipitation strengthening mechanisms with nanoparticles as precipitates. The main problem in precipitation
which is overheating here does not occur due to the different morphology of the filler.
3.3.2 Large-particle composites.
Meso-micro scale particles are uniformly dispersed in a soft and ductile matrix. Here the particles bear or help to bear
the load, that is why the mechanical reinforcement depends on the cohesion of the matrix-particle interface. Their effects
on different matrices are:
• In metals and ceramics the particles are added to improve toughness and mechanical resistance.
• In plastics particles are added to improve their properties or to reduce cost.
Some examples are cermets, electrical contacts, abrasives and polymer matrix type.
3.4 Fiber-reinforced composites
These are the most typical.The arrangement may be continuous fibers (in which case they are alligned always) and
discontinuous (that can be alligned or scattered). Note that, for alligned fibers the load transfer fiber-matrix is more
efficient in the longitudinal direction, rather than the transversal direction. Their goal is high stiffness and strength
requiring good bonding between the fibers and the matrix. The roles or both of them are:
a) Of the fibers: Bear most of the load applied.
b) Of the matrix: Dissipate load among the fibers and protect them (prevent chemical and abrasive degradation, crack
propagation, etc). Usually epoxy and polyester.
3.4.1 Avoiding breakages
To avoid fiber pull-out and other issues it is important to improve the matrix-fiber conditions.
• Interface: Adhesive surfce between fiber and matrix.
• Interphase: Zone of matrix chemically and physically modified by the presence of the fiber and its surface coating.
To improve the adhesion of both parts: clean fibers, increase roughness treatment, surface activation of fibers and use
primers, that increase adhesion by acting as double agents.

3.4.2 Glass Fibers.
• They are made up to SiO2 and oxides, and they are non-combustible with good chemical, biological and thermal
resistance.
• Commonly used in polymeric matrices.
• Although glass fibers present lower tensile strength and elasticity modulus than carbon or aramid fibers, they are
more used due to their reduced price and versatility.
• From the types of glass fibers, the most used are:
– E −→ Cheapest and has the highest moisture resistance, good electrical properties and dimensional stability.
– S −→ Best tensile strength and thermal stability, reserved for military applications.
3.4.3 Carbon Fibers.
• Good thermal properties and high electrical and thermal conductivity.
• High strength and stiffness with low density of carbon fibers.
• Manufactured from organic precursors.
3.4.4 Aramid fibers
• Kevlar polyamide contains an aromatic ring that provides thermal stability. Rigid molecules are arranged in ordered
domains.
• Types: 49 and 29 (used in bulletproof jackets)
3.4.5 Boron fibers
• Manufactured through vapor deposition of boron over W.
• Good properties −→ Military applications
3.4.6 Ceramic fibers
• Can resist high temperatures, thus they make up good thermal insulators but are very expensive and lack structural
applications.
3.5 Structural composite materials

They are formed by composite and homogeneous materials. The properties depend ot the geometry of the structural
elements.
3.5.1 Laminar composites
• Prepared by piling layers of lamina of unidirectional composite materials.
• To obtain different properties, layers of materials with different properties are piled up in different orientations so
that mechanical properties can be improved as well.
• They are as well arranged so that strength is maximized and weight is minimized.
• They must be symmetrical with respect to their midplane to avoid distortions.
3.5.2 Sandwich composites
Two strong layers (face sheets) are attached to a less dense material called core. The face sheets will withstand most
of the plane loads and transversal bending stress while the core material will resist deformations in the perpendicular
plane, providing shear resistance along the perpendicular planes to the face sheets.
3.6 Composite properties
3.6.1 Particle reinforced materials
Rule of mixtures: The properties of the composite depend upon the relative quantities and properties of its constituents.
∑
PCM = fi ·pi (4)
They usually hold equiaxial and isotropic properties. In the case of the elastic modulus can be evaluated according
maximum or minimum relation such that each of them constitute an upper and lower bound in the range of Es possible.

 Maximum −→ Ec = Ep Vp +Em Vm
Ep Em (5)
 Minimum −→
Ep Vm +Em Vp

3.6.2 Fiber reinforced composites
The minimum length for the fibers to have a good load resistance is called the critical length.
σf d
lc = (6)
τc
• Tensile strength determination.
σc = σf Vf +σm Vm (7)
• Elastic modulus determination. Depends on the conditions:

– Isostrain conditions: The load is in the longitudinal direction and thus the load is beared by both, fibers and
matrix. The relation is maximum.
– Isostress conditions: Stress is done in the transversal direction and both fibers and matrix bear the load. However
deformation is done according to their individual strength. The relation is minimum.
3.7 Processing composites
Mainly, fiber-reinforced.

3.7.1 Open mold processes.
a) Manual forming methods. Either by hand or by spray, the resins and reinforcement are placed in proper order into a
mold. The latter cannot use continuous fibers.
b) Vacuum bag processing.
c) Filament winding. Reinforcement is impregnated by passing through a polymer bath to be wrapped around a form.
Resins and fibers are combined at the time of curing. The main advantage is to form hollow cylinders with various
cross-sections
3.7.2 Closed mold processes.

a) Sheet molding compound. Continuous fibers are chopped into short ones, that are deposited over the resin paste. The
second layer of resin is deposited on top and then this sheet is pressed between rollers.
b) Pultrusion. Continous fibers are impregnated in the matrix and a preformer die establishes the shape of cross section
as well as the ratio of components. The curing die is heated to accelerate the cure of the matrix (like thermosetting).
4 Electric and Magnetic properties
4.1 Band structure and electrical properties.
Metallic properties are based on the band theory. In this theory, orbitals are splitted and electrons are distributed along the
free spaces obtaining the highest stability configuration. The band arrangement for a given solid determines its properties.
• In conducting materials the conduction and the valence bands overlap.
• In semiconductors and insulators, there exists a gap between both bands. For electrons to overcome the gap, they
must be energized. The larger the gap between bands, the lower the electrical conductivity.
4.2 Metallic conductors.
{
′ Macroscopic form: I = VR
Ohm s Law (8)
Microscopic form: J = σ·E
where R is the material’s resistance. It depends on the material’s geometry and it’s resistivity R = ρl A . The re-
ciprocal of the resistivity ρ is the conductivity (σ) - the ease in which a material is capable of transmitting electric
current.
• Electron mobility (µ): Determined by the free electrons (those that participate in the conduction process and form
part of the e− cloud) subject to a electric field. The flow current is opposite to the field’s direction.
– Velocity involves a sawtooth shape. That is, electrons in an electric field are accelerating. Normally, it would be
expected to be infinite acceleration, however, due to collisions due to friction, impurities and etc, their velocity
decreases periodically.
– The half of the average time between collisions is the relaxation time.
Drift velocity:

⃗ where µ = τ ·|qe |
v⃗d = µ· E (9)
me
which, in addition with eq. 8:
σ = n·e·µ (10)
Conductivity is proportional to the number of free electrons and their mobility. That is, the higher the disorder in a
metal structure, the higher the number of collisions between non-bonded e− and metallic ions, decreasing their mobility
and, ultimately, the conductivity.
Note that there are two types of conduction mechanisms:
• Electronic: Based on the movement of electrons. Almost any factor contributes to decresing conductivity.
• Ionic: Based on ion movement. Specially cations since anions are bigger than neutral atoms, staying in site and
not moving. Thus the factors that increase the ionic conductivity are high vacant positions, number of cations in
insterstitial positions, increase of temperature, disorder of the net and the presence of doping substances. This is due
to the fact that all of these share in common they leave more space for cations to jump.
• Matthiesen Law: The total resistivity is the sum of both the residual resistivity and the thermal resistivity.
– Thermal resistivity: Due to the vibrations of the atoms and anions. In general, the higher the temperature, the
more energized the sample and the higher the atom vibrations. Thus, the more number or collisions, hindering
conductivity.
ρT = ρ0 (1+α·∆T ) (11)
– Residual resistivity: Independent of T. Can be divided into two factors:
ρr = ρi +ρd (12)
∗ Intrinsic component (ρi ) −→ the higher the number of impurities, the higher the electrical resistivity since
they hinder e− movement. Note that, when alloying an element, the bigger the size difference between
elements, the higher the distortion caused and the higher the resistivity gained.
∗ Plastic component (ρd ) −→ the higher the amount of plastic distortio, the higher the number of dislocations
and the higher the resistivity.
– If an element is annealed we assume that the effects of heat treatments are reversed and ρr = 0.
In summary, anything that causes dislocations in the network increases resistivity by hindering e− movement. In fact,
hardening processes tend to improve mechanical properties (e.g. strength) at the cost of lowering the conductivity.
Effects of this treatments depend greatly on the material and alloys used.
10

4.3 Non-metallic conductors.
Some thermosets which have been specifically manufactures are of great interest in this topic since their low density
would result in lowering the weight of copper based materials. Based on red-ox reactions between neighboring sites.
4.3.1 Graphene
2D honeycomb structure formed by hezagons with an atom in each vertex. Advantages include:
• High electric conductivity due to the electron cloud formed by 4th unbonded e− .
• High thermal conductivity.
• High mechanical properties due to covalent bonding.
4.3.2 Ceramics
Traditionally insulators, some of them are good ionic conductors. (Example: β−Al2 O3 liquid sodium batteries)
4.4 Semiconductors
According to the energgy band model, the gap in between valence and conducting band in semiconductors involves a
energy jump lower than Eg = 2 eV .
4.4.1 Intrinsic semiconductors
Electrical behaviour is based on the electronic structure inherent to the pure material. Formed by elements from group
IV of periodic table (Ex: Ge, Si).
• Conductivity is based on both electrons (qe = −e− ) and holes (qh = e− ) such that σ = ne ·|qe |·µe +nh ·|qh |·µh .
• Electrons are thermally activated to the conduction band thus, the higher the T, the conductivity.
4.4.2 Extrinsic semiconductors
Formed by the dilution of substitutional solid solution in which the solute impurity atoms have different valence charac-
teristics from the solvent lattices.
• n-type: There are more valence e− than the doped material. This is due to the fact that the impurities are donor
impurities. Thus, the charge carriers in the conduction band are negative.

σn = ne ·|qe |·µe (13)
• p-type: The impurities have lower valence, thus are acceptor impurities. There is an excess of holes making the
charge carriers the valance band positive.
σp = nh ·|qh |·µh (14)
In extrinsic semiconductors an increase of temperature increases conductivity. For moderate T, all impurities are ionized
and σ is constant with T. However, for high T, the extrinsic semiconductor acquires intrinsic properties since all e− go
to either of the bands and so the E necessary to cover the gap is higher.
4.5 Insulating and dielectric materials
Dielectric materials: Insulating materials that exhibits or can be made to exhibit a dipolar structure. Polarization
is the alignment of permanent or induces atomic or molecular dipole moments with an externally applied electric field.
The types of polarization are:
• Electronic −→ Induced dipoles due to the displacement of the electronic cloud relative to the nucleus.
• Ionic −→ Induced dipoles in ionic materials due to the elastic deformation of the bonds between the ions
• Orientation −→ Asymmetric molecules that present permanent electric dipolar momentum.
The dielectric parametres are:
• Constant: When applying a voltage V to a parallel plane capacitor, one plate will acquire a positive charge and the
other a negative charte. The charge proportionality with the voltage applied V is represented as the Capacitance.
{
q No Dielectric material: C = ε0 Ad , where ε0 is the free space permitivity.
q = CV ⇐⇒ C = (15)
V Dielectric material: C = κε0 d , κ = εε0
A
• Dielectric Strength: The breakout voltage is the maximum electric field that the dielectric can maintain without
electrical breakdown.
• Dielectric Loss Factor: Measure of the energy lost by a capacitor in an AC circuit.
• Relaxation frequency: In AC dipoles are continuously changing polarization, thus dipoles try to shift. However,
there is a minimum time for that change such that:
1
frelaxation = (16)
tmin
If the AC signal has a frequency smaller than the relaxation frequency then the dipoles will start to shift and will
undergo a loss in dipolarity in the following order: orientation → ionic → electronic.
11

4.5.1 Ferroelectrics
They are ceramic ionic crystalline materials that have non symmetric unit cells, and as a result, their unit cells contain
a small (permanent) electric dipole. Their behaviour can be controlled by means of the temperature: by increasing T,
the cell shifts and the permanent dipoles turns to non-permanent.
The polarization process goes by the name Hysteresis cycle:
1. In the absence of an electric field, the dipoles are compensated.
2. If the field increases, dipoles start to line up towards the field direction.
3. At one point all the dipoles are shifted.
4. If the field is disabled, the dielectric remains polarized in a state of Remnant Polarization.
The coercive field is the abbility of the ferroelectric material to withstand the external electric field without becoming
demagnetized and vice versa.
4.5.2 Piezoelectric materials
Property of dielectrics that determines if it can transform mechanical energy into electrical energy and vice versa. There
are two types:
• Direct piezoelectric effect: By means of an external stress, there is a crystalline structure deformation, thus a
dipole alteration, creating an electric field.
• Reverse piezoelectric effect: By means of an external electric field, the dipole is affected, creating a distortion in
the crystalline network. Hence, creating a mechanical alteration.
Some applications are speakers, microphones.
4.6 Magnetic Materials.
Magnetism: Phenomenon by which materials induce forces of attraction or repulsion over other materials. The origin
is on the movement of electrically charged particles. The origin of the macroscopic magnetic properties is a consequence
of the magnetic moments associated with e− .

• Orbital magnetic moment.
• Spin magnetic moment.
If the net magnetic dipole of an atom is not null the atom behaves like a magnetic dipole.
4.6.1 Types of magnetic materials
• Diamagnetic: Weak form of non-permanent magnetism that persists only in the presence of an external magnetic
field is being applied. The electrons are all paired and their spin is alligned in the anti-parallel direction of B. They
are weakly repelled to magnets.
• Paramagnetic: Weak form of magnetism in which there are unpaired electrons, that aire aligned parallel to the
magnetic field. These materials are attracted to magnets.
• Ferromagnetic: Metallic materials that possess a permanent magnetic moment (dipoles are oriented) in the absence
of an external field and exhibit large magnetization. (↑↑↑)
– Ferrimagnetic: The antiparallel alignment is the same as with anti-ferromagnetism, however, it does not occur
a net cancellation of moment and the permanent magnetization maintains. (↑↓↑↓↑)
– Anti-ferromagnetic: Occurs as a result of magnetic coupling of adjacent atoms or ions, aligning in a anti-parallel
manner. This gives rise to net magnetic moment cancelling.(↑↓↑↓)
4.6.2 Magnetic domains.
Tridimensional regions within a magnetic material with uniform magnetization in ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic ma-
terials. They are generated spontaneously to decrease the magnetostatic energy of the material.
• Bloch walls: Narrow transition between domains in which the magnetization progressively changes from its value
in one domain to that of the other one.
• When a ferro(i)magnetic materials is subject to an external magnetic field, a growth in the domains with the dipoles
aligned with the latter field occurs since the movement of Bloch walls requires less energy that reordering or shifting
the dipoles. It occurs in the following process (Hysteresis cycle):
1. The domains oriented with B start to grow while unfavoured domains start to shrink.
2. A single big domain starts to align with B.
3. Rotation of the whole domain with complete alignment with B.
• Demagnetization: Occurs when the B in the previous cycle alternates direction and decreases in magnitude, trig-
gering the opposite process.
Types of materials according to Bloch walls.
• Soft magnetic materials −→ Bloch walls are easy to move, they have high permeability. This means they are susceptible
under external electrical fields and their hysteresis curve is very narrow.
• Hard magnetic materials −→ Bloch walls are hard to move due to a high coercitive field and remnant polarization,
thus they are usually permanent magnets because of their high resistance to demagnetization.
12

4.6.3 Factors affecting the hysteresis loops.
• Material composition.
– Number and intensity of its dipoles.
– Type of magnetism of the material.
• Processing.
– Microstructural factors −→ Grain boundaries tend to be a obstacle for Bloch walls movement
∗ The bigger the grain size, the smaller the grain number, the greater the moment and the smaller the coercitive
field and remnanscence.
∗ The presence of dislocations and impurities reduce the movility of Bloch walls and increase both the coercitive
field and the remnant polarization.
– Presence of strains due to mechanical deformations.
• Working conditions.
– Working temperature −→ Thermal agitation tends to misalign dipoles.
∗ Curie T.: Temperature at which saturation (maximum) magnetization abruptly descend to 0. Ferro(i)magnetics
become paramagnetics.
∗ Neel T.: Temperature at which anti-ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic.
– Radiation
– Electrical currents
4.7 Superconductors.

Materials whose resistivity falls to 0 when below a certain temperature named critical temperature (TC ).
• At temperatures below TC , the superconducting state will stop upon a sufficiently large magnetic field Hc or current
density JC .
• Meissner effect: The Meissner effect is the expulsion of a magnetic field from the interior of a superconductor during
its transition to the superconducting state from normal when it is cooled below the critical temperature.
4.7.1 Types of superconductors.
• Soft Superconductors: There is a sharp transition to normal state that occurs at very low Hc .
• Hard Superconductors: There is a gradual transition to normal state with H. There is a high resistance against
the destruction of superconductivity by magnetic fields.
13

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Ciencia e Ingeniería de Materiales

2º Grado en Ingeniería Física

Escuela Politécnica Superior

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4 Electric and Magnetic properties 10

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The three main constituents are:

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Thermoplastics Thermosets Elastomers

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• Tensile strength determination.

• Elastic modulus determination. Depends on the conditions:

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3.7.2 Closed mold processes.

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– Residual resistivity: Independent of T. Can be divided into two factors:

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σp = nh ·|qh |·µh (14)

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