To study the resonance condition of a series

LCR circuit.

Manual as a Part of B. Tech Physics Laboratory

August 12, 2016

1
1 Objective:
To study the resonance condition of a series LCR circuit, and determine its quality
factor (Q), bandwidth (BW) for different values of the resistor.

2 Apparatus:
1. Coil 600 turns, 9mH, Maximum current = 2 Amps
2. Resistors 47 , 100  and 1000 ; each of 1 W.
3. Capacitor 4.7 F/160 V
4. Connecting cables, 4 mm plug, 32 A, red, 1 = 25 cm
5. Connecting cables, 4 mm plug, 32 A, blue, 1 = 25 cm
6. Connection box
7. Digital Multimeter
8. Digital function generator

3 Procedure and Observations:

i
C VC

V L- V C
E  L VL

R VR

Fig.1 The circuit diagram for the LCR setup along with the vector diagram for the AC voltages/currents
across different circuit elements. For detailed explanation on the vector diagram see section ‘Theory’.

1. Note: Please look at the section named ‘Precautions’ before starting the
experiment. Otherwise there is a possibility of damaging the
equipment/circuit elements.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.
3. Switch on the power supply.
4. For the digital function generator, select the following settings:

Function generator:

i. DC-offset:  0 Volts (to be measured via multimeter in DC-mode)

2
 ii. Amplitude: 3 to 4 VRMS (to be measured via multimeter in AC-mode).
Instead of above one can also try to keep peak-to-peak voltage for the
AC input fixed at 6 V within the function generator all throughout the
measurements which will ensure the voltages across the electrical circuit
elements to remain within ‘safety limits’.
iii. Frequency: 0-30 kHz
iv. Mode: sinusoidal
v. The display of the Digital function generator should be kept in
kHz/Frequency mode.

5. Multimeter is set to AC mode.

6. Set appropriate range of the voltage (in Volts) on multimeter dial.
7. Keep the inductor and capacitor at constant values. Choose a particular value
for the resistor. Measure the values of voltages VR across the resistor for
different values of the frequencies of the AC input. At the resonance condition
(i.e. at fres) there will be maximum voltage across resistor (see vector diagram
in Fig.1 as well as section named ‘Theory’). Tabulate (in Table 1) the
observations of frequencies and the corresponding voltages across resistor VR
(for given R).

Table 1: Observations (Freq. vs voltage)

Inductance = ….mH; Capacitance = ….F

Resistance () Frequency f (Hz) Voltage VR (V)

R=fixed value

8. Plot a graph of the voltage VR vs. frequency f. By locating the peak position of
the graph, the resonance frequency of series LCR circuit fres can be deduced.
Here fres is the frequency at the peak of the voltage curve (see section
‘Theory’; see also section ‘Precautions’).
9. At fres, measure VL, VC along with VR and tabulate the observations of the
voltages and fres as shown in Table 2.

3
 10. Repeat measurements (point 7, 8 and 9) for each values of the resistor (47 ,
100  and 1000 ). Compare the VR vs. frequency curves for different values
of the resistor.

Table 2: Observations

VR (V) VL (V) VC (V) fres (Hz)

4 Results:
1. The quality factor (Q) is given by:

XL 2 fresL
Q  …………………………………(1)
R R

2. Insert the value of L and fres into above Eq. (1) and deduce the quality factor of
the series resonant LCR circuit for different values of resistor.
3. The bandwidth can be calculated as BW = fres/Q
4. Make a comparison table for the estimated values of bandwidth and quality
factor for different resistors. Compare them and draw conclusions.

Table 3: Comparison table

Quality
Resistance () Bandwidth (BW)
factor (Q)

4
5 Precautions:
1. The connections should be tight.
2. Correctly set the digital function generator and multimeter.
3. Ensure the values of voltage and current are within the prescribed limits.
Ensure that the wattages of resistors are not exceeded. Similarly ensure that
the maximum permissible voltage rating for the capacitor is not exceeded.
4. Near fres take readings for smaller steps in frequency in order to find the exact
value of the maximum voltage VRmax and the frequency fres at which resonance
occurs.
5. Select appropriate values of inductor, resistor and capacitor for the
experiment.

6 Theory:

Definitions:

An LCR circuit is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and
a capacitor (C), connected in series or in parallel.

The circuit forms a harmonic oscillator for current, and resonates in a similar way as
an LC circuit. Introducing the resistor increases the decay of these oscillations, which
is also known as damping. The resistor also reduces the peak resonant frequency.
Some resistance is unavoidable in real circuits even if a resistor is not specifically
included as a component.

Resonance:

An important property of this circuit is its ability to resonate at a specific frequency,

the resonance frequency, fres (or res = 2 fres). Resonance occurs because energy is
stored in two different ways: in an electric field as the capacitor is charged and in a
magnetic field as current flows through the inductor. Energy can be transferred from
one to the other within the circuit and this can be oscillatory. A mechanical analogy is
a weight suspended on a spring which will oscillate up and down when released. A
weight on a spring is described by exactly the same second order differential equation
as an LCR circuit and for all the properties of the one system there will be found an
analogous property of the other. The mechanical property answering to the resistor in
the circuit is friction in the spring/weight system. Friction will slowly bring any
oscillation to a halt if there is no external force driving it. Likewise, the resistance in
an LCR circuit will "damp" the oscillation, diminishing it with time if there is no
driving AC power source in the circuit.

5
The resonance frequency is the frequency at which the impedance of the circuit is at a
minimum. Equivalently, it can be defined as the frequency at which the impedance is
purely resistive. This occurs because the impedances of the inductor (XL) and
capacitor (XC) (also called as the reactances of inductor and capacitor) at resonance
are equal but of opposite sign and cancel out. The formulae are X L = L and XC =
1/C. Since, in an AC circuit, the resistances/reactances carry a definite phase
relationships w.r.t. each other. They are conveniently represented by a vector notation
in an effective 2-D plane. The direction of the vector gives the phase of the
corresponding quantities. In this representation the vector for XL is at an angle +90
w.r.t. the vector for R whereas the vector for XC is at an angle -90 w.r.t. the same.
Thus the angular difference between the vectors for XL and XC is 180 which tend to
cancel them out. At resonance XL = XC, where complete cancellation between XL and
XC occurs. Hence resL= 1/resC giving rise to res = 1/(LC).

Damping:

Damping is caused by the resistance in the circuit. It determines whether or not the
circuit will resonate naturally (that is, without a driving source). Circuits which will
resonate in this way are described as underdamped and those that will not are
overdamped.

Bandwidth:

A key parameter concerning LCR circuit is bandwidth. The bandwidth is measured

between the frequencies at which the power passed through the circuit has fallen to
half the value passed at resonance. There are two of these half-power frequencies, one
above, and one below the resonance frequency. Then we have  = 2-1, where 
is the bandwidth, 1 is lower half power frequency and 2 is upper half power
frequency.

Q-factor:

The Q-factor is a widespread measure used to characterize resonators. It is defined as

the peak energy stored in the circuit divided by the average energy dissipated in it per
radian at resonance. Low Q circuits are therefore damped and lossy and high Q
circuits are underdamped. Q is related to bandwidth; low Q circuits are wide band and
high Q circuits are narrow band. Q = res/. For a LCR circuit it can be shown that
Q is given by Q = (1/R)*(L/C).

As an example for a case of the circuit parameters (for the LCR circuit of Fig. 1):

f = 10 Hz
E= 100 V RMS
L=2H
C = 0.0003 F
R = 10 Ω

6
The measured voltages are as follows:

VL = 171.66 V
VC = 72.6 V
VR = 13.68 V

The Vector representation of AC voltages/currents:

We must take into account the different phase angles between voltage and current for
each of the three components in the circuit. The vector diagram to the right illustrates
this concept (see Fig.1).

Since this is a series circuit, the same current passes through all the components and
therefore our reference is at a phase angle of 0°. This is shown in red in the diagram.
The voltage across the resistor, VR, is in phase with the current and is shown in green.
The blue vector shows VL at +90°, while the gold vector represents VC, at -90°. Since
they oppose each other diametrically, the total reactive voltage is V L - VC. It is this
difference vector that is combined with VR to find total voltage VT (shown in cyan in
the diagram).

We know that VT = 10 V RMS. Now we can see that VT is also the vector sum of (VL
- VC) and VR. In addition, because of the presence of R, the phase angle between V T
and "i" will be arctan((VL-VC)/VR), and can vary from -90° to +90°.

The Mathematics:

Voltage and current calculation for this circuit are based on Ohm's Law. Our basic
expressions are:

; ; ;

Since this is a series circuit, the value of "i" in each expression is the same. That is

and we can use i as our reference value for our calculations. We will also need to
know the value of ω (= 2πf) to determine XL and XC. For f = 10 Hz,

Now we can complete our calculations, starting with XL, XC, and Z:

7
Allowing for calculator round-off errors through all these calculations, the total
voltage V is exactly 100 volts, which is what we initially specified. Therefore our
calculations check out and our results are valid.

Resonance and the effect of R:

At very low frequencies, capacitor C will be an open circuit, and virtually no current
will flow through the circuit. At very high frequencies, inductor L will be an open
circuit, and again no current will flow. However, at intermediate frequencies, both XC
and XL will be moderate, and the difference between them will be small. At

8
resonance, that difference will be zero, and only R will limit the current flow in the
circuit.

The above graph shows normalized values of current through a series RLC circuit at
frequencies ranging from 0.01 times the resonant frequency, to 100 times that
frequency. Beyond that range, as you can see from the graph, no significant current
will flow at all. Within that range, current depends primarily on the value of R.

In a fully normalized circuit, R = 1Ω. This will permit a current of 1 A to flow at

resonance, as indicated by the green curve on the graph. Similarly, if we set R as 2Ω
the current will be 0.5 A at resonance. The blue curve shows this.

The remaining curves show what happens if we reduce R. The yellow curve shows
current when R = 0.5Ω, while the red curve is for R = 0.1Ω.

Note that for low values of R, the current at resonance peaks much higher, but falls
off very quickly as frequency changes. For higher values of R, the curve is much
broader, and maximum current remains much lower. This is the standard trade-off
between bandwidth and maximum current, and the value of R is critical for
controlling this factor.

Changing the Ratio of L/C:

When we change the ratio of L/C, we change the reactance of both components at any
given frequency without changing the resonant frequency. This is accomplished by
making sure that the product of L and C remains constant even when we change their
ratio. Thus, if L = 1H and C = 1F, LC = 1 and L/C = 1. However, if L = 2H and C =
0.5F, we still have LC = 1, but now L/C = 4. Or, if L = 0.5H and C = 2F, L/C = 0.25.

By changing L and C in this manner, we change the values of X L and XC at and near
the resonant frequency without changing the resonant frequency itself. This controls
the overall impedance of the circuit at frequencies near resonance and gives the
resistor, R, either more or less control over current at those frequencies. The result is a
change in the frequency range over which this circuit will conduct significant amounts
of current. The following three graphs illustrate this:

9
 L/C = 4 L/C =1 L/C = 0.25

When we plot the curves this way, it becomes clear that as we increase the L/C ratio,
we limit the circuit to passing current over an increasingly narrow band of
frequencies. However, as we reduce the L/C ratio, we widen the frequency band over
which this circuit will pass significant amounts of current. This becomes very
important when we deal with certain types of filters, and especially with tuned
circuits.

References:

1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RLC_circuit
2 http://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=75&sim=330&cnt=1

10