Paut NDT International

TIME OF FLIGHT DIFFRACTION
Address : 61 Bukit Batok Crescent, #07-05 Heng Loong Building, Singapore 658078
TABLEOFCONTENTS
PARTICULAR PAGE
1. ULTRASONICNONDESTRUCTIVETESTING 1
1.1 PulseEchoDetectionOfFlaws 1
1.2 FlawSizingWithThePulseEchoTechnique 2
1.3 ComparisionOfFlawSizingAccuracyForDifferentTechniques 3
1.4 TheTimeOfFlightDiffractionTechnique 5
1.5 HistoryOfTofdDevelopment 6
1.6 TofdAdvantagesAndLimitations 7
2. THEPRINCIPLESOFTOFD
2.1 Diffraction 12
2.2 Waves 13
2.3 ConventionalUseofDiffraction 14
2.4 Signals 15
2.5 BasicsofTOFDinspection 15
2.6 AScanwithnoDefectPresent 16
2.7 AScanwithDefectPresent 16
2.8 LateralWave 17
2.9 BackWallSignal 17
2.10 DefectSignals 18
2.11 ShearorModeConvertedShearSignals 18
2.12 BasicPrinciplesoftheTOFDTechnique(TOFD:TypicalSetup) 19
2.13 AScanSignals 19
2.14 SomeTypicalDefects 20
2.15 DataVisualization 21
2.16 WhatdoTOFDscansreallylooklike? 22
2.17 Signals 22
2.18 ChoosinganAngle 23
2.19 Depthcalculation 24
2.20 SignalTime 24
2.21 WhatisProbeCentreSeparation(PCS)? 25
2.22 HowisPCSdetermined? 25
2.23 HowisPCSDetermined?:GeneralApplications 26
2.24 CalculationofPCS 26
2.25 FocusAtAPointOfInterest 27
2.26 TypesofTOFDScan 27
2.27 TransverseScan 28
2.28 ParallelScan 28
3. EquipmentusedinTOFD 29
3.1 DigitalControl 30
3.2 PulsersandReceivers 30
3.3 Pulsers 30
3.4 ToneBurst 32
3.5 SquareWavePulsers 32
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
3.6 Receivers 34
3.7 Gates 36
3.8 DataAcquisitionandAutomatedSystems 37
3.9 InstrumentOutputs 38
3.10 MemoryandDigitisationAspects 40
3.11 DataProcessing 44
3.12 ScanningEquipment 47
3.13 LimitationsofMechanisedScanning 47
3.14 ScanningSpeed 48
3.15 Encoders 50

4. EQUIPMENTREQUIREMENTS 55
4.1 Ultrasonicequipmentanddisplay 55
4.2 Ultrasonicprobes 56
4.3 Scanningmechanisms 56
4.4 Equipmentsetupprocedures 57
4.5 Probechoiceandprobeseparation 57
4.6 Timewindowsetting 58
4.7 Sensitivitysetting 59
4.8 Scanresolutionsetting 59
4.9 Settingofscanningspeed 59
4.10 Checkingsystemperformance 59
4.11 SystemVerificationReferenceblocks 60

5. TOFDDepth,RingTimeIssuesandErrors 69
5.1 DepthandRingtimeCalculations 69
5.2 FlawPositionErrors 74
5.3 TimingError 74
5.4 AcousticVelocityError 74
5.5 PCSError 75
5.6 LateralPositionError 76
5.7 FrequencyContentEffects 79

6. ANALYSISSOFTWAREFEATURES&TOFDOFCOMPLEXGEOMETRY 81
6.1 Linearisation 81
6.2 Lateral/BackwallStraightenandRemoval 81
6.3 ParabolicCursor 82
6.4 SyntheticApertureFocusingTechniqueSAFT 83
6.5 SplitSpectrumProcessing 86
6.6 LocusPlots 87
6.7 CurvedSurfacesandComplexGeometry 87
6.8 ComplexGeometry 88

7. INTERPRETATIONANDEVALUATION 91
7.1 DevelopmentofTOFDcodesandstandards 91
7.2 ASMEAdaptationstoTOFD 91
7.3 Indicationsfromsurfacebreakingdiscontinuities 91
7.4 Indicationsfromembeddeddiscontinuities 92
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
7.5 BASICSOFDIMENSIONING 92
7.6 Heightmeasurement 92
7.7 Method1 93
7.8 Method2 93
7.9 Method3 94
7.10 Examples 94
7.11 Lengthmeasurement 95
7.12 Scanningsurfacediscontinuity 95
7.13 Oppositesurfacediscontinuity 96
7.14 Throughwalldiscontinuity 96
7.15 Embeddedpointlikeindication 97
7.16 FlawTip 97
7.17 FlawPositionErrors 98
7.18 Evaluation 98
7.19 SingleFlawImages 98
7.20 MultipleFlawImages 107
7.21 TypicalProblemsWithTOFD 108

OmniScanOrientation 117
Calibrations 139

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1. ULTRASONIC NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
If an electric potential is applied to a piezoelectric type material it oscillates and if it is

of the right thickness will produce waves of ultrasound of frequencies most useful for
inspecting metal components. This material is the basis of ultrasonic probes which
produce longitudinal waves, generally called compression waves. If the longitudinal
waves enter metal at an angle then they refract in the metal and produce both
longitudinal and shear waves, the angles of the two types of waves depending on the
velocity of shear and longitudinal waves in the metal and the velocity of the
longitudinal waves in the probe shoe material. Shear waves are transmitted by a
periodic shear force and can only exist in materials like metals which possess shear
elasticity. Liquids cannot sustain a shear force. For normal ultrasonic inspection of
metals ultrasonic frequencies of between 2 and 5 MHz are used. The corresponding
wavelength of the waves are found from the formula,
Velocity = wavelength X Frequency
Velocity is usually defined in units of m/s and typical values in steel are 5950m/s for
longitudinal waves and 3230m/s for shear waves. Since the probe frequency is in
units of MHz (and we shall see that time is defined in microseconds in TOFD) it is
more convenient to define the velocity units as mm/s. In these units the wavelength
in the above equation is given in mm. Thus for the above frequencies the wavelength
of longitudinal waves is in the range 1 to 3mm and for shear waves from 0.6 to
1.6mm. For reflectors of size less than half a wavelength interference can take place
in the reflected waves and hence the minimum size of cracks that can reliably be
detected is equivalent to one half of wavelength. To detect small cracks in thin higher
frequencies are used but in thick material the increasing attenuation with increase in
frequency generally prevents the use of much higher frequencies.
For conventional Pulse-echo ultrasonic inspections angled shear waves are very
important since at a given frequency they have a wavelength half that of longitudinal
waves, allowing for the resolution of smaller defects. Also, as will be seen in a later
chapter, for a given size of crystal diameter and frequency shear waves produce a
smaller beam spread and a consequently higher beam intensity and accurate sizing
ability than longitudinal waves.
1.1 PULSE-ECHO DETECTION OF FLAWS
An Ultrasonic inspection of a sample is carried out by scanning the metal with a

beam of ultrasound. Any reflectors in the metal are only detected if the sound is
reflected back from the discontinuity and returns to the crystal element of the probe,
where it vibrates the crystal and is converted into electrical signals. In order to reflect
the waves back the beam must ideally be at right angles to the reflector surface. This
is so called Specular reflection. If the surface is tilted with respect to the direction of
the beam of ultrasound then the reflected waves may miss the probe crystal
altogether and the discontinuity will remain undetected. The proportion of the sound
beam getting back to the crystal falls off rapidly with increasing angles of tilt and
skew from this ideal position. A tilt of only 5 degrees can cause the amplitude to fall
by a factor of about 2 (6dB) and 10 degrees or more may result in loss of detection.
Rev 0 Nov 2011 Page 1 of 147

Thus for normal pulse-echo inspections with angled shear waves it is
important to scan the metal with a range of probe angles chosen to give the best
chance of detecting the expected orientations of the cracks of main interest. In
general a practical compromise has to be made. Vertical cracks are difficult to detect
because of the difficulty of getting an ultrasonic beam at right angles to the crack
surface and pair of probes may be needed to detect the cracks (tandem technique).
The decision to report the presence of a reflector in pulse echo inspections is

based initially on the amplitude of the signal compared to some threshold level. This
is a relatively simple concept which works well practically. The threshold level is
usually determined from the amplitude of the signal reflected back from a standard
reflector in a calibration block. However, since the roughness of the reflector surface,
as well as its orientation, directly effect the amplitude of the returned signal an
awareness of the likely probability of detection is very important. Ultrasonic
inspection is not perfect and the skill and experience of the operator is very
important, hence the need for training.
1.2 FLAW SIZING WITH THE PULSE-ECHO TECHNIQUE
The method of flaw sizing used in the pulse-echo technique depends on the size of
the flaw with respect to the beam spread of the probe (see figure below)
Figure 1.1 Flaw Size in relation to beam spread
The basic assumption in determining the size of flaws that are smaller than the beam
spread is that the amplitude of the reflected signal will be proportional to the area of
the flaw in the beam of ultrasound. In this situation the estimate of size is based on
the relative size of the amplitude with respect to that obtained from a standard
reflector at a similar range. Standard reflectors are provided in various calibration
blocks and consist of flat bottomed holes (FBH), side drilled holes (SDH) and
notches. Thus the accuracy very much depends on the degree of roughness of the
flaw surface and its exact orientation with respect to the ultrasonic beam.
For flaw sizes larger than the beam spread increasing the size of the flaw will have
no effect on the amplitude of the signal since the area outside the beam will not
contribute to the reflected signal. The flaw size has to be obtained therefore by
scanning the probe over the flaw and noting the position where a certain change in
amplitude takes place. This is illustrated in the figure below for an angled shear wave
probe sizing a lack of fusion flaw.

Figure 1.2 Determination of Flaw Size by 6dB Drop Sizing
When the probe is moved towards the weld the flaw starts to appear in the ultrasonic
beam and the amplitude of the flaw signal rises. Once the flaw area fills the beam
the amplitude stays constant until the beam starts to pass the other end of the flaw,
when the amplitude starts to fall. It is assumed for this explanation that a distance
amplitude correction has been applied so that there is no variation of amplitude with
range. The maximum amplitude trace across the flaw is called an echodynamic trace
and is shown in the bottom half of the figure.
At the level where the signal amplitude is half that of the maximum signal it is
assumed that only half the flaw area is in the beam of ultrasound that that the centre
of the probe is opposite the edge of the flaw. Thus if the positions of the probe are
noted where the amplitude has dropped by 6dB the size of the flaw can be measured
and hence the term 6 dB drop sizing. If the distance between the probe positions is x
mm then the width w of the flaw is given by w=x cos where is the angle of the
beam centre with respect to the normal to the surface of the metal on which the
probe sits. The through wall height of the flaw (the critical measurement) h is then
h= x cos sin
To determine the length of the flaw along the weld the probe must be positioned so
as to obtain the maximum amplitude signal and them moved parallel to the weld to
determine the 6dB drop positions. The length is the distance between the positions.

Again the main problem with the 6dB drop technique is the variation in amplitude due
to the possible roughness of scattering surface and the fact that the flaw surface is
unlikely to be normal to the ultrasonic beam.
Some typical smallest sizes of flaws which can be detected and typical sizing errors
are listed below from document IIS/IIW-580-86 from commission V of the
International Institute of Welding for pulse-echo ultrasonics.
Table 1.1
Defect positions Through-thickness Length

Smallest Accuracy, Smallest length, Accuracy,
Size, mm + or - mm mm + or - mm
Near surface, 3 3 4 5
0-5 mm depth
Mid-wall, mm
5-25 3 3 4 4
25-75 3 3 7 7
75-125 5 5 10 10
Back surface wall
thickness, mm
10-25 4 4 4 4
25-75 4 4 7 7
75-125 5 5 10 10
1.3 COMPARISION OF FLAW SIZING ACCURACY FOR DIFFERENT

TECHNIQUES
Other techniques are available for sizing flaws. For surface opening flaws, if access
is available to the surface the alternating current potential drop (ACPD) is an
accurate technique. The technique essentially measures the drop in voltage between
two surface contacts when placed on either side of the flaw, the additional voltage
drop being due to current having to flow around the flaw surface. Specialized eddy
current techniques (ACFM) can also measure the size of near surface flaws. One of
the most accurate and useful techniques for measuring flaw height is the TOFD
technique. The importance of the TOFD technique is seen from the comparison of
the accuracy of different crack sizing techniques summarised below.
Table 1.2
Manual pulse-echo 4 mm
ACPD (surface opening only) 1 mm
TOFD 1 mm
TOFD when monitoring growth 0.3 mm

1.4 THE TIME OF FLIGHT DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE
1.4.1. BACKGROUND TO THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TOFD TECHNIQUE
The most serious type of defects in welds and metal components are planar cracks
since they are the most likely to grow and cause failure of the component and hence
the importance of ultrasonic inspection since ultrasonics is the most suitable
technique for determining the position and sizing such defects. The importance of
developing more accurate sizing techniques than afforded by conventional pulse-
echo inspections became apparent in the 1960s, especially in the nuclear and
chemical plant industries. When defects where found in these plants repair of the
damaged components was often very difficult or impossible, one of the problems
being the difficulty of carrying out the necessary heat treatment after welding. In the
nuclear industry there was also the problem of access and often high radiation
levels. To shut down and replace such plant is the very expensive exercise.
Thus the science of fracture mechanics developed to enable the growth rate of
defects to be predicted and to calculated the critical size of defect below which it was
possible to carry on safely running the plant. Often, because of the difficulties in
determining all the properties necessary for the calculations (example. Fracture
toughness) very conservative estimates have to be made and the consequent life
time predictions for the safe operations of the plant became very short.
If it could be proved by successive Ultrasonic examinations of the defects that they

are not growing or they are growing at a much slower rate than predicted then this
would be very important to the plant operator. If the defects are stable and below the
critical size then the plant can stay in operation. If they are growing at a slower rate
then the lifetime of the plant can be extended. Also if the growth rate can be
accurately measured than suitable plans can be drawn for the programmed repair or
replacement of the plant, again saving the plant operator a lot of expense.
Unexpected shutdowns with the consequent loss of output and the need for
unplanned repairs are the plant operators nightmare. Te need inorder to measure
the growth rate of cracks, is accurate through wall sizing. The in adequacy of
conventional pulse-echo techniques is illustrated in the figure below. The two plots
show the predicted life time curve for a particular defect and it is predicted to reach
the critical size after about 1.5 years. In the top illustration is shown the results of
pulse-echo measurements of the crack height at the yearly plant shutdowns.
Because of the large error on the measurements indicated by the error bar the
measurements cannot influence the conservative predicted life time. The bottom plot
illustrates the results of measurements with TOFD. Since the errors are now much
smaller it is apparent that the actual growth is less than the predicted growth and the
actual plant lifetime can be extended.
The ability to size flaws more accurately should also help to limit the number of falls
calls. If the requirement is that a very high probability of detection is required for
flaws above a certain size then the threshold for pulse-echo detection has to be set
considerably lower than this size because of the large error with the pulse-echo

technique. This means that a considerable number of flaws, which are actually below
this size are reported as being above this size because they appear with the pulse-
echo technique to be larger. Thus while a very high probability of detection may be
obtained for flaws above the size of interest there will be a large falls call rate. This is
made worse by the fact that the distribution curve of flaw size against number of
flaws usually rises towards the smaller sizes.
Thus in principle the detection threshold for the more accurate TOFD technique can
be set much closer to the size of interest and thus greatly reduce the falls call rate.
1.5 History of TOFD Development

Critical
predicted size
lifetime
height of growth
crack curve
Pulse-echo
measurements
time, years
Critical
size
predicted lifetime growth curve
height of
crack
TOFD
measurements
time, years
Figure 1.3 Illustration of Importance of accurate sizing measurements
In the last section the importance of accurate sizing of cracks was described.
Especially in the nuclear industry. For this reason the national NDT Centre, Harweel
(Then part of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority UKAEA) asked Dr.
Maurice Silk to try and develop an ultrasonic sizing technique more accurate than
the conventional pulse-echo method. In the early 1970s Dr.Silk developed the
technique known as Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD)
The most important differences from conventional pulse-echo are
a) Its more accurate sizing accuracy (typically 1mm and in a monitoring
situation 0.3mm) and the almost independence of angle of the flaw for detection.
The sizing is based on the transit time of the diffracted signal and doesnt depend on
the amplitude.
b) It will be seen that with TOFD a simple amplitude threshold cannot be applied
for rejection or reporting flaws since the amplitude of the diffraction signals doesnt
depend on the size of flaw and all the data must be analysed before any flaws can
be rejected. Hence the TOFD technique training and experience are essential.

For a number of years TOFD remained largely a laboratory tool but the realisation of
its importance and the proposed public enquiry for a PWR Reactor in UK lead to a
number of major trials in the early 1980s to evaluate the best possible UT Technique
for the reactor pressure vessel and other major components. The trials were known
as Defect detection Trials (DDT). The trials were very important in view of
international PISC exercise in the late 1970s, which was aimed at establishing the
capability of the ASME code Ultrasonic procedures and which obtained poor results
for the reliability and accuracy of conventional Pulse-echo inspections. Many other
trials and validations have been carried out comparing different techniques and in all
these tests TOFD has always proved to be virtually the most reliable and accurate
technique.
1.6 TOFD Advantages and Limitations
If one was to listen to some of the proponents of TOFD it would seem that TOFD is
the panacea of inspection problems. This is clearly untrue. It has its advantages and
limitations, like any NDT method. Depending on the application, TOFD may stand as
a useful option on its own. In other situations it is best used with support from other
NDT methods or as a support option to other NDT methods.
A brief list of TOFD pros and cons should help the practitioner to decide how and
when to best use this NDT tool.
Advantages:
Repeatability
TOFD (especially when used with a positioning encoded

provides measurements in real units (e.g. millimeters) that are
much more useful to engineers than dBs or equivalent scales of
response. A scan made of a weld with a TOFD setup by one
operator will be essentially identical to TOFD scan made by
another operator (assuming both use similar probes and
settings). This makes TOFD ideal for flaw monitoring,.
Accuracy
Generally levels of accuracy attainable by TOFD are

within 0.5mm in terms of (critical) through wall extent
and 0.5 to 1.0mm in terms of length. Position along the
weld and with respect to the weld centreline can usually
be established to within 0.5mm and angular dispositions
can be resolved to within a few degrees when appropriate
scan procedures are used. This accuracy and reliability
makes TOFD a suitable NDT tool for fracture mechanics
assessment (otherwise destructive methods and physical
measurement would be required).

Data Storage
TOFD systems now provide digital storage of all relevant
parameters. They can be retrieved and redisplayed at
any time. Position information can ensure that flaw
locations can be reliably identified and results from
periodic inspections compared for changes. Digital data
storage allows elaborate analysis techniques including
noise-suppression, pattern recognition processes, signal
subtraction and extraction and a variety of other digital
signal processes (DSP).
Detection Speed
When a TOFD scan can be made using a single non-

parallel scan, results are fast (almost immediate) and
limited by only the scanning speed. The great debate
about reliability being compromised by speed is not of the
same magnitude concern for TOFD. The many round-
robins have shown that it is fast AND efficient, having
some of the highest probability of detection of any of the
NDT methods.
Commercial considerations make speed an important

factor. The advantage that TOFD can provide both
detection and sizing from the same data without
recalibration and rescanning has a significant bearing on
time and on cost.
Volume Coverage
Most NDT methods have volume coverage and resolution

linked to speed. However, TOFD provides volumetric
coverage by linearly scanning wide beam transducers at
relatively high speed and processing all positional and
inspection data in nearly real time. So unlike radiography
where thicker sections would require longer exposure on
slower film (to maintain the same resolution), it is possible
to inspect thicker sections without a reduction in speed or
resolution when scanning with TOFD.
The full volume of weld material and HAZs at speeds

which cannot even be considered by conventional
ultrasonic methods are made easily and quickly with
TOFD. Scan rates of 100-150mm/sec are common even
using manual probe movement and even higher rates of
coverage can be achieved when automated scanning is
used. It should be remembered that these rates relate to

the length of weld volumetrically inspected in a single
pass of the transducers and not just the scanning speed
of the probes.
Sensitivity
This item may be an advantage or disadvantage. It

depends on your point of view. TOFD is generally
configured to see everything. When the test specimen is
relatively clean or the material highly refined there is no
issue with the sensitivity. However, where the test
materials contains many major anomalies to be reported
or in coarse material where the grain boundaries are on
the order of size of the flaws, TOFD sensitivity can be
construed as a hindrance and, in certain circumstances,
can make interpretation and sentencing a time
consuming ordeal. When the data storage advantage is
considered in light of sensitivity it might be noted that one
of the features of digital processing is the ability to
increase gain via software. That means that small (un-
saturating) signals can be increased after data collection.
Easy discrimination of defects and geometry
A common problem experienced in manual ultrasonic

testing of welds is the issue of operator skills in
differentiating between flaw signals and signals
originating from surface geometries. When TOFD is
carried out on a butt weld with the root and cap re-
enforcement left on the TOFD data display provide un-
ambiguous indications easily discriminated from the re-
enforcement metal.
Flaw orientation
Because of the omni-directional aspect of diffracted

signals TOFD is sensitive to virtually all types of defects
regardless of orientation. This is also partly attributable to
the very wide angular coverage of the divergent beam
used. Providing the flaw falls within the effective beam
envelope, the low amplitude signals diffracted from its
edges will be captured and displayed in correct relative
position.
Coupling Status
TOFD data can be collected by manual or mechanised

methods of probe motion. Any manual ultrasonic operator
doing pulse-echo testing monitors the A-scan and can
recognise when the coupling is not as effective by a loss

of the grass level. However, in the case of TOFD
scanning the operator does not monitor the A-scan and
when scans are lengthy or when mechanised, the
operator has no sense of the coupling condition by simply
looking at the probes moving on the surface. By
observing the data collected for the lateral wave
amplitude and the associated grain-noise the TOFD
display is an effective indicator of how well the probes
were coupled. Maintaining coupling is made somewhat
more difficult than standard manual scanning because
both the transmitter and receiver must be well-coupled to
the test surface.
Reduced Operator Reliance
Since TOFD data can be collected and stored to a

computer file for later analysis it is possible to reduce the
reliance of the test on the probe operator. Many
applications can now be configured by a senior operator
and then the data acquisition assigned to a field team.
This might consist of a person that operates the computer
data acquisition unit and another that pushes the probe
along the weld. Sufficient experience and competence is
required by this team to ensure that the data collected is
good. Then final assessment and sentencing can be
carried out at a later time by the senior operator.
Limitations:
Weak Signals
Typically the diffracted signals associated with

TOFD are 20-30dB lower than those associated
with specular reflections using pulse-echo
techniques. This tends to put a strain on the
ultrasonic receiver units and most are operates
near their maximum amplification capabilities.
Electrical noise is a common problem with many
TOFD systems and attempts to reduce this noise
generally involve the use of pre-amplifiers near the
probe or remote pulser/pre-amp combinations.
Dead Zones
The most widely accepted limitation to TOFD is

the loss of information due to ring time. This is
especially noticeable at the entry surface but a
similar zone occurs on the far side (back-wall).
Brown points out that TOFD does suffer from a

near surface effect caused by its inherent lateral
wave but his is not a serious problem unless very
near surface sizing is called for. He further points
out that very few near surface (included) defects
can be considered integrity critical and it is
debatable whether the near field characteristics of
single compression probes and the inherent dead
zones effects of twin probes could provide better
resolution using conventional reflectivity methods.
Radiography may (or may not) have some
improved near-surface sensitivity but provides no
worthwhile through wall positional information.
If such defects are of genuine concern then a

combination of TOFD and remote field eddy
current or ultrasonic head wave testing should be
performed.

2. PRINCIPLES OF TOFD
Figure 2.1
2.1 Diffraction
Modification or deflection of sound beam
Sound striking defect causes oscillation
Ends of defect become point sources
Not related to orientation of defect
Weaker signal than reflected needs higher gain
Sharp defects provide best emitters
Tips signals are located accurately
Time of flight of tip signals used to size

Figure 2.2
2.2 Waves
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.4
2.3 Conventional Use of Diffraction

Tip diffraction method (satellite-pulse observation technique)
Figure 2.5

2.4 Signals
Signals Received
Lateral wave
Subsurface
Back-wall echo
Mode converted (shear wave) echo
Define top and bottom of part
Note phase change
2.5 Basics of TOFD inspection
Figure 2.6

2.6 A-Scan with no Defect Present
Figure 2.7
2.7 A-Scan with Defect Present
Figure 2.8

2.8 Lateral Wave
2.9 Back Wall Signal

2.10 Defect Signals
2.11 Shear or Mode Converted Shear Signals

Basic Principles of the TOFD Technique
2.12 TOFD: Typical Setup
Figure 2.9
2.13 A-Scan Signals
Figure 2.10
2.14 Some Typical Defects
2.14.01 Upper surface breaking crack
Figure 2.11
2.14.02 Back Wall Surface Breaking Crack
Figure 2.12
2.14.03 Horizontal Planar Defect (Lack of Inter-Run Fusion, Laminations)
Figure 2.13
2.15 Data Visualization
Figure 2.14

2.16 What do TOFD scans really look like?
TOFD images show the lateral wave and backwall, plus SW signals after and reflections from
all defects
2.17 Signals
Figure 2.15
Figure 2.16

Lateral wave is
clearly seen in a
good TOFD scan.
Typically used for
calibration.
On clean material,
defects show up
well.
Backwall is always
strong. Watch for
perturbations.
Figure 2.17
2.18 Choosing an Angle

Optimum Upper tip q 64
Optimum Lower tip q 68
Angle selected is a compromise for depth
May require selecting several zones for best

results
From Charlesworth & Temple
Figure 2.18

2.19 Depth calculation
t = 2(s2+d2)/C+2to

d = [(c/2)2(t-2t0)2 - S2]
Figure 2.19
2.20 Signal Time
tl = 2s/c + 2t0
tb = 2(s2+D2)/C+2to

C = 2(s2 + D2) - 2s
(tb - tl)

2to = tb - 2 (s2 + D2) C

2.21 What is Probe Centre Separation (PCS)?
PCS is the distance between probe index points when aligned in Jig.
Figure 2.20
2.22 How is PCS determined?
The following factors are considered
- Focussing point
- Coverage of the volume of the test part

2.23 How is PCS Determined?: General Applications
Probe separation adjusted to focus centre of beams at 2/3 thickness
Figure 2.21
2.24 Calculation of PCS
PCS (2S) = 4/3 x t x tan = 1.33 x t x tan
t= thickness of the part
=Angle of the probe

2.25 Focus At A Point Of Interest
For focusing at a predetermined depth

(D= Depth of Interest) then PCS = 2D tan
Figure 2.22
2.26 Types of TOFD Scan
Figure 2.23
2.27 Transverse Scan
Figure 2.24
2.28 Parallel Scan
Figure 2.25
3. EQUIPMENT USED IN TOFD
An ultrasonic system for TOFD must be capable of providing a means of

transmitting, receiving, storing, displaying and analysing ultrasonic signals. As well, it
must provide a fixed spacing between the transmitting and receiving probes.
Although not essential, it is generally considered preferable to ensure that probe
motion is encoded and the position of the probe-pair maintained within prescribed
tolerances with respect position such as the weld centerline.
Basic components of TOFD configuration are shown in the schematic diagram

shown in Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-1 Basic TOFD Equipment
Probes are indicated in Figure 3-1 as being held in place with fixture. Noted on the
probe holder (but not drawn) is the encoder used for accurate positioning of the
probes. The pulser uses a co-axial cable directly to the transmitter probe and
another co-axial cable connects the receiver probe to the receiver amplifier and the
amplified signals are then digested. The encoder (when used) requires a voltage
source and pulses generated in the encoder are transferred and counted through the
position control mechanism. These features (pulser parameters, receiver parameters
and encoded position) are collected in a computer and the data when assembled in
a sensible way can be stored and displayed on the monitor.

3.1 Digital Control
Basic portable flaw detector instruments have traditionally been described by

illustrations of simple block diagrams of analogue controlled instruments with
analogue cathode ray tubes (CRTs) for presentation of time vs.amplitude (A-scans).
Nowadays most electrical functions on the ultrasonic instruments are controlled by
solid state integrated circuits. By means of Boolean logic, these allow control of
system inputs and signal outputs. These are quantified in packets and this process
is the foundation for digital electronics. Incorporating digital control of analogue
functions is now common on many NDT instruments. Digital control allow ease of
operation and even remote operation via computer lines. Some aspects of UT are
not practical or possible to make digital; input power supply and the transmitted and
received ultrasound are always analogue. However, many input controls and some
outputs are feasible as digital signals.
Digital controlled ultrasonic instruments have many advantages of the older

analogue units;
accuracy of time-base (timer or clock based instead of deflector plates)

repeatability (exact settings can be recalled)
storage of settings to memory (all parameters stored)
speed of setup (simply recall stored parameters)
signal processing
display options, e.g. projection scans (tomographic presentation of data)
Parametric control of the components described in Figure 3-1 provides users with
the ability to optimise the performance of the TOFD inspection.
3.2 Pulsers and Receivers
Whether or not the parameters of the pulse to the transducer are digitally controlled
or not the pulse itself is an analogue signal. Similarly, the ultrasonic vibration that a
transducer senses from a reflection generates a voltage across the transducer that is
also an analogue response.
As a minimum, ultrasonic instruments have a single pulser and receiver. Quality of

the pulser and the receiver has a great effect on the information obtainable in
ultrasonic testing. The following will consider some of the options and their features.
3.3 Pulsers
Essentially all that is required to vibrate a piezoelectric transducers an alternating

voltage. However, characteristics of the pulse voltage will dictate how the element
vibrates. This is analogous to pushing a person on a swing. If pushes are applied at
the natural frequency of the loaded swing, large amplitudes can be achieved. If not,
a rough, low-amplitude ride results. In ultrasonic testing, maximum amplitude

displacement is not always desirable. When precise timing is needed (as would be
for thickness tests on this wall material and most TOFD applications) short duration
pulses are better. Even a ringy probe can be made to dampen its vibration with the
correct pulse characteristics.
Three pulse shapes are commonly used in ultrasonic flaw detection units; spiked
bipolar tone burst and square wave. These are illustrated in Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2 Pulse Types
Spike Pulsers.
Figure 3-3 shows the components in a spike pulser.
Figure 3-3 The Spike Pulser

when the capacitor discharges, the rapidly applied voltage across the transducer
causes it to vibrate. The purpose of the damping resistor (inductor) is used to
increase the rate of voltage decay. This is the damping available to the operator and
is used to control the ring-down time.
3.4 Tone Burst
Tone burst pulsers allow minimum energy output from transducers by adjusting the
frequency of the voltage applied. This can be done in several ways. A chopped
voltage from a waveform generator allows selection of pulses of different shapes,
frequencies and durations, as in Figure 3-4
Figure 3-4 Tune Burst Pulser Waveforms
Tone burst signals usually consist of several cycles. These are preferred for velocity
determination using interferometry. As well, since very high frequencies can be derived
using tone burst pulsing it is used in acoustic. Microscopy where frequencies in the
gigaHertz range are used.
3.5 Square Wave Pulsers.
Square wave pulsers have become the preferred laboratory style of pulsers. Similar
to the spike pulser, the square wave pulser charges a capacitor which discharges
across the transducer. By holding the switch closed in the circuit for a controlled
amount of time, then rapidly restoring the pulse voltage to zero cause two
displacements of the transducer. The displacements at the transducer are opposite
in phase so by timing the recovery voltage a constructive interference can be

effected between the original backward moving wave reflected off the probe backing
and the second impulse from the pulser.
Adjustment of pulse voltage and pulse width is possible with square wave pulsers
making them a versatile tool to optimise transducer performance. By choosing the
best pulse width to obtain constructive interference, less voltage need be applied to
the probe thereby reducing noise level. By pulsing at a frequency higher than that for
maximum output, bandwidth can be increased and lower frequency components
reduced. Pulsing a transducer at a frequency lower than that for maximum amplitude
increases mechanical damping and provides a sharper cleaner signal with little ring-
on. These features of the square wave pulse are illustrated in Figure 3-5.
Figure 3-5 Pulse Width and How it Affects Transducer Excitation
In Figure 3-5 the square wave pulse shape is shown on the left. In the first case the
pulse is set to a fairly short duration, 12.375 nanoseconds (ns) and the applied
voltage is -498 volts. To the right of the received pulse shape is the signal of a co-
polymer transducer, nominally 30 MHz, using a glass target. Signal amplitude is
relatively low implying that the transducer output is not maximized. However, an
advantage to this signal is that none of the low frequency components of the
transducer are excited and the bandwidth is high.

In the second case in Figure 3-5, the pulse width has been adjusted to provide a
maximum output from the transducer . at 25.15 ns. Voltage applied is -547 volts, up
slightly from the first cast (in the first case voltage was the maximum possible for the
pulse width applied). Lower frequency components may be added to this signal
compared to the first case, but the bandwidth is reduced by the greater output near
the resonant frequency.
In the third case the pulse has been increased to 51 ns and the voltage is essentially
the same as applied in the second case. Transducer output is reduced and the ring-
on in virtually eliminated. It is therefore possible to increase the damping of the
transducers.s vibration by decreasing the pulse length beyond the resonant
frequency.
Significant output increase can be achieved using a bi-polar square wave pulser.
This provides a voltage that is first negative going (or positive going) and held to a
maximum for a time equivalent to half the natural period of the piezo-element and
then reversing the voltage and allowing it to swing back through zero volts to the
same voltage maximum but the opposite sign and then brining the voltage back to
zero after holding to the maximum for another half-cycle time. This would be
comparable a single in the bi-directional square wave pulser in Figure 3-4.
3.6 Receivers
According to Krautkramer (Ultrasonic Testing of Materials text), pulsers apply

voltages of 100 to 1000 volts to the probe. However, received signals are three to
four orders of magnitude smaller (a few milli-volts to a few volts 0.001-1V). The
causes a couple of problems. One is the shock of the pulse voltage that is
transferred to receiver in pulse-echo mode of operation. The other problem is the
need to amplify the relatively small signal from flaws without amplifying noise. The
latter is further complicated because the frequency of the received signal may not be
the same as the transmitted pulse envelope (accounting for even smaller signals
from the transducer).
When switched from pulse-echo to transmit-receive, there is no longer a physical

electric connection between the two components. Figure 3-6 illustrates this
switching.

Figure 3-6 P-E versus TR connections
Pulse-Echo connections Transmit-Receive connections
To obtain a signal capable of being displayed and subsequently processed the

received signal caused by the small transducer vibrations must be amplified. The
amplification process is quite involved and also includes filtering and sometimes
attenuation.
First stage is the circuit protection that protects the preamplifier from the pulser
voltage when in pulse-echo mode. The preamplifier can use transistor type amplifiers
that provide about 20 to 40 dB of gain, frequency response of the preamplifier is
usually broadband and some high pass filtering may be incorporated to improve
signal-to-noise ratio by eliminating some radial mode components of the probe and
line interference. Preamplifier bandwidths are usually flat from about 1 MHz to
15MHz, and this is not operator adjustable.
Following the preamplifier, the signal is passed through a broadband attenuator. This
protects subsequent circuitry from saturation and it provides a means of calibrated
adjustment of signal height. Attenuation is usually equipped with coarse (20dB) and
fine (1dB) switching. Some portable instruments have been made that use very large
preamplifiers. As a result, even with maximum attenuation, signals from normal
beam inspections of plate could not be reduced to below full screen height.
Attenuated signals are passed on to RF amplifiers, which can be linear or

logarithmic. Linear amplifiers are those most commonly found on UT instruments.
When using a linear amplifier for the receiver, amplitude of a signal is proportional to
receiver voltage. However, receiver gain control is in dB increments, therefore signal

amplification by 6dB gain doubles the signal height. This limits the range of useful
amplification to about 34 dB (34 dB raises a 2% FSH signal to 100%). When a
logarithmic amplifier is used, the scale is dB linear so each increase of 1dB gain is
1% of the screen height. Expressed another way, the dynamic range of this
logarithmic amplifier is 6.3 times greater than the linear. Some logarithmic amplifiers
can exceed 100 dB dynamic range (i.e. 1 dB gain results in something less than 1%
FSH).
Frequency filtering can be applied to RF amplified signals. Normally bandpass filters

are used to eliminate noise from higher and lower frequency sources. These are
selectable by the operator and are labeled to correspond to the centre frequency of
the filer. Normally the bandpass filer is set to correspond to the nominal frequency of
the probe. Wideband filters are also available. Amplitude of signal compared to the
best bandpass filter does not significantly change when wideband is selected but the
signal will often be noisier. See Figure 3-7.
Figure 3-7 Receiver Filters
3.7 Gates
Essential to computer imaging of ultrasonic data is the ability to extract information

from regions of time that can be selected to monitor for signals in that time. The
region being monitored is said to be gated. Time along the gated region or
amplitude within the gate when a signal occurs or both time and amplitude can be
gated. Alarm or recording thresholds can be set for signals occurring in the gate.
Gates are as essential component in automating inspection systems. Gate positions
are usually facilitated by auxiliary controls. Gate positions on the screen are noted by
extra trace or markers on the A-scan display. Gate controls include start and end

adjustments, threshold setting (amplitude at which a signal must reach before
alarmed or collected) and positive or negative setting. If positive gating is used, a
signal must exceed a set minimum threshold. If negative gating is used a signal in
the gate must fall below the threshold before alarming. Typical of positive gating is
signal amplitude monitoring for flaw detections. Typical of negative gating is a
coupling monitor using a through transmission signal that alarms a gate of the
coupling reduced and reduces the signal below a given threshold. Figure 3-8 shows
a digital A-scan display with 3 gates available. Data collection options for gated
regions may include time, amplitude and waveform. When time or amplitude is
selected a threshold is set by positioning the vertical level (amplitude) of the gate.
When Waveform information is selected there is no amplitude threshold and the
entire waveform over a specified time interval is collected. It is in fact waveform data
that is collected in TOFD.
Figure 3-8 Gating Display
3.8 Data Acquisition and Automated Systems
Collecting information about an object or condition is generally considered data

acquisition. This usually involves collecting information about one parameter with
respect to another, e.g. monitoring temperature against time. Data acquisition can be
done simply by an operator recording readings manually. In the temperature
example the operator would watch a thermometer (analogue, or digital) and record
the values of both temperature and time at various time intervals. (Records of a
single parameter would have little meaning unless they can be related to something
else).

Scientific and engineering applications today require very large numbers of readings
to be taken and these with exacting precision. Several hundreds or thousands of
readings over several hours are easily accomplished using computers. When
computers are incorporated into a data acquisition process the process becomes
automated. Computers can then be used for not only collecting the readings, but
also sorting it and subsequently analysing it.
In TOFD data acquisition consists of collecting A-scans. The other parameter

collected is position or a pseudo-position by collecting A-scans at a fixed clock rate
(i.e. A-scans versus time). Positional aspects of data acquisition are addressed late.
Of significant importance to the TOFD operator is the output seen on the display.
This is made from the underling A-scans collected and in fact must also include
some means of displaying the A-scan making up the B-scans seen in TOFD.
3.9 Instrument Outputs
Electrical data can be considered a signal or waveform. This is usually a voltage

varying with time. Signals can be either analogue or digital. Analogue signals are
continuous and can change an arbitrary amount in an arbitrarily small time interval.
Computers use digital signals. These are discrete values in specified constant time
intervals. If the digital signal amplitude intervals are small and the time intervals are
also small the resultant digital waveform can closely approximate the analogue
waveform. The difference in signal quality between analogue and digital is
demonstrated in Figure 3-9.
Figure 3-9 Analogue to Digital Shaping

Figure 3-9 show the steps in converting the continuous analogue signal to a digital
signal by a computer.
Frame A shows the raw input as a continuously varying amplitude. Frame B shows
how the conversion must assign an off-set that will ensure the maximum negative
displacement is above the lowest values. The vertical division of the signals shows
from minimum to maximum there are 16 levels. In digital systems vertical divisions
are multiples of 2 with 256 divisions being common. Sampling along the horizontal
axis is time-based and a single sample is taken at each time interval. This value is
the peak or average and the closest whole value that the interval corresponds to in
the given time interval is the value assigned to that point. Frame C shows the
converted digital representation of the analogue signal. The amplitude axis is left for
reference and the amplitude of each sample is indicated at the bottom of each bar.
The number of bits that each bar indicates is easily converted to binary code and
read by the computer, e.g. the bar indicating 3 vertical bits would be read as 0011, 4
bits is 0100,7 bits is 0111.
The process of changing an analogue signal to the computer friendly digital signal is
called digitisation. The electronic device that accomplishes this is called an
analogue-to-digital converter (ADC.) and the associated electronics to accomplish
this conversion is usually incorporated on a printed circuit board inserted as a card
in the computer so the hardware is often called an A to D card. The digital signal that
results from this conversion is composed of digital values of a known range termed
the scale factor and these values are separated by a fixed time interval termed the
sampling interval.
The reverse process is also used, i.e. converting digital signals to analogue signals.
The device that accomplishes this is called a digital-to analogue converter (DAC).
Most people are aware of the reverse process in entertainment devices whereby
music information on a CD or DVD diskette is played back on a set of speakers (the
sound wave output. of the speaker is always analogue)
Computers used in data acquisition come in a variety of sizes, formats and price
ranges. At one time three groupings applied; microcomputers, minicomputers and
mainframes. These were roughly based on size of memory. Today, the differences
are not so clearly defined. Except of situations where the amount of data to be
collected is large and must be processed quickly in addition to performing many
other functions (multitasking), most inspection systems can be automated with some
form of a personal computer.
Integral to any automated data acquisition system is the data acquisition software.
Data acquisition software is used to collect data, analyse the data and display the
results. Without the ability to analyse and display the results of data collection the
millions of bits of data that can be collected would be unintelligible to the average
operator. Processed data can be output to monitors or printers in the form of tables,
graphs or even be made to duplicate stripchart or oscilloscope (A-scan)
presentations.

Several varieties of specialised software exist in NDT inspection systems. These are
often used in conjunction with specialised instruments. The data acquisition software
collects all aspects of the signals and records all instrument parameters. Some
software also addresses motion control and positional information.
3.10 Memory and Digitisation Aspects
In the description of analogue to digital conversion it was noted that typically an 8 bit
ADC is used thereby providing 28 or 256 levels of vertical (resolution). The sampling
rate of the ADC will dictate the time interval along the A-scan that is captured and
digitized. Flash A to D converter boarder are also available in a variety of speeds
typically 20 to 100 MHz but slower and faster varieties are also available. If a 100
MHz ADC is used, sampling occurs every 0.01s. In pulse-echo this provides a
resolution in steel of 0.016mm (shear) and 0.3mm (long). The temporal resolution
also dictates the quality of signal reproduced from the analogue. Figure 3-10 shows
an analogue signal from a 10MHz probe. Digitising at 100MHz allows reasonable
reproduction but at 20MHz the original analogue trace is just barely recognizable
(the dashed line of the analogue trace is supplied as reference, only the dots would
appear on the scope).
Figure 3-10 Digitising Effects on Oscilloscope Waveform

Quality
A minimum sampling rate of four times the nominal frequency of the probe used is
recommended. This will ensure the digitised amplitude will be within 3 dB of the
analogue value. Five times the nominal probe frequency is preferred for TOFD and if
the digitised sample is to be within less than 1 dB of the analogue signal amplitude.
E.g. for a 10MHz probe, an ADC rate of at least 50MHz is recommended for
amplitude critical work. As well, it will be seen by the operators that the quality of the

recorded signal at a higher ADC rate is much closer to the original (analogue) and
makes for improved signal characterisation.
Whereas temporal or distance resolution is solely a function of ADC rate, amplitude

resolution is a function of both ADC rate and number of levels of sampling e.g.
number of bits. For UT data acquisition systems 8 bit sampling is presently the most
common and 10bit, 12 bit and even higher bit rates are available.
An important aspect of digitised amplitude is the effect on dynamic range. As noted,

the most common Bit rate has been 8 been digitisation. Accuracy of amplitude
assessment is based on the number of divisions of sampling in the vertical direction.
The term bit rate is derived from binary treatment of data whereby there are a
defined number of Bits to a Byte. The groupings of bits into bytes may apply to
8,10,12 etc. in computer technology. Here a bit is one of two options, i.e. the values
0 or 1. When the binary value (or 2) is raised to the power of eight (8) it is
considered 8-Bit. If it was raised to the power of 10 it would be 10-Bit.
Computer-based ultrasonic systems have been increasing the Bit-rates used and the
higher-end units are sometimes using 12-bit digitisation. The product of the bit-rate is
the number of samples that the vertical (amplitude) range can be divided into E.g.
8 bit = 28 = 256 i.e. 256 intervals of vertical sampling (Pipe WIZARD)
10 bit = 210 = 1024 intervals of vertical sampling (Omniscan)
12 bit = 212 = 4096 intervals of vertical sampling (Tomo3)
This can be illustrated graphically. Figure 3-11 shows an RF waveform and a

rectified waveform presented on a graph with a colour code for amplitude on either
side.
Figure 3-11 8-Bit Digitising Effects on Dynamic Range

Signal amplitudes are usually stated in dB and the concept of dB is simply a ratio
from dB = 20 log10 h1/h2 where h1 and h2 are the relative amplitudes of two signals.
For a rectified signal in an 8Bit ADC unit the voltage bias places the zero point at the
bottom and shifts all points positive so dynamic range is 1/256 or 20 long 10 (1/256)
= -48dB
The smallest % interval on the screen is (1/256) x 100 = 0.39%
For the RF signal the same 8 Bit ADC has no bias and signals are positive and
negative. The dynamic range is determined from the zero point to the maximum
displacement (128). 1/128 or 20 long 10 (1/128) = 42dB.
NOTE: half the amplitude is -6dB so reducing the number of points by a factor of 2
reduces the dB dynamic range by 6 (i.e. 48-6=42) and the smallest vertical screen
interval is 0.8%.
When we use higher Bit-rates there is an interesting bi-product!
Large amplitude signals that are 100% or greater can, of course, not be assigned a
real value. they are simply considered saturating. This applies to analogue to digital
displays. When amplitude is an important factor and its absolute value is required
this means that a re-scan is required to assess the actual amplitude with respect to
the reference level. In a 8-Bit digitised rectified signal once the signal has reached
the 256 level it is saturated. A signal greater than 256 levels may be 101% or it may
be >500% with respect to the full scale display.
With a 10-bit digitisation rate we would then have the vertical range of any signal
divided into 1024 equals intervals. This would allow us to collect signals at a lower
receiver gain and electronically add gain after the data had been collected. With
1024 amplitude levels we have four times the resolution of the 8-Bit systems. That
means we could calibrate at a reference level of 20% (instead of the typical 80% on
an 8-Bit system) and collect all the A-scans at lower amplitude. Signals on our new
10-Bit display reaching 25% screen height would have been 100% on the 8-Bit
display. The likelihood of troublesome saturating signals using the 10-Bit digitization
would therefore be greatly reduced. Using the same assessment of dynamic range
as for the 8-bit system, the 10-bit system is seen to have a dynamic range of 60dB
for rectified signals.
Either the display or a numeric gated output can be used to indicate the greater
amplitudes. Figure 3-12 illustrates where the gates are used to measure the
amplitude and even thought the display no longer shows an increase in signal level,
the operator can read the measure amplitude as a digital numeric output. In the
example, the digitisation is a 9-bit and the gate output of amplitude shows that the
signal on the extreme left is indicated as having a 200% amplitude and occurs at
26.55mm. The next signal has a separate gate (green) and the signal also saturates
the display but not the gate level. That signal is indicated as having amplitude of
176% and occurring at 39.03mm.

Figure 3-12 9-Bit Digitising Gate Display to Increase Dynamic
Range
Figure 3-13 illustrates soft gain added to the display. The original scan is on the left
and a soft gain of 2dB is added to the view on the right.
Figure 3-13 Soft Gain increasing amplitude
Digitising an A-scan is the first step in constructing a B-scan. But each sample must
be saved to computer memory, therefore larger scan lengths and larger time of the
gated period, require more money than small scans and shorter gated times.
For the simple B-scan in Figure 3-13 used a 5 MHz TOFD beam probe on a 50mm
thick plate the gated time interval to include the mode converted signals was 10s.
To maintain good quality A-scans we use the minimum ADC rate of 5 times the
nominal probe frequency or 25MHz. The scan length was 275mm and a sample (full
A-scan waveform) was taken every 1mm.
At 25 MHz ADC 25 samples are made each s, so for the gated time of 10s, 250
amplitude samples will be recorded for each A-scan. At each point 8 bits of

amplitude information are collected (8 bits 1 byte). Our B-scan is collected along
the 275mm weld length so the data generated would be :
250 x 1 x 1 x 275 = 68750 bytes (68.6 kB)
the first parameter is 250 points per A-scan.

the second is 1 byte per sample point on each A-scan
the third is the number of A-scans per mm (1)
275 is the length of the scan in mm
Simply increasing the ADC rate to 100MHz to improve image quality increases the
file size by a factor of four.
In a multi-channel system where several B-scan (or D-scans) of TOFD scan are
collected the file size of even a simple linear scan parallel to the weld axis (with no
rastering) could quickly result in file sizes of several tens of MegaBytes (MB).
3.11 Data Processing
One of the added features of data acquisition systems is the ability to perform
subsequent processing of the stored signals. Since the advent of digital storage,
several techniques have been derived to enhance the information collected. This
process is generally termed digital signal processing (DSP).
Effectiveness of DSP relies on the quality of the captured signal. Quality determining
factors include;
1. how well transducer and data acquisition system are matched
2. sampling period
3. signal quantisation leval
4. calibration
5. material attenuation
Any unwanted disturbance in the useful frequency band that is introduced to the
signal is considered noise. Noise may have several sources; the transducer itself,
instrumentation, spurious waves from scatter, geometry and mode conversions, as
well as surrounding electrical noise.
Defects may originate in areas where geometric configurations form stress raisers or
entrapments for chemicals that can lead to corrosion, cracking or both. The defect
occurring in this area may be corrupted or completely masked by the surrounding
conditions. Conversely, geometrics may be misinterpreted as defects. B-scans, C-
scans or other imaging displays allow defect detection by illustrating the big picture,
where subtle trends are noticeable that might not be evident in the static A-scan
display.
In spite of the improved notice-ability afforded by imaging, spurious signals from

noise sources may still mask defects. Various techniques have been developed to
enhance pertinent information to suppress the masking effects of noise. Digital signal

processing can be generally grouped into two categories; one dimensional and two
dimensional. One dimensional processing is applied to the captured waveform and
may be either filtering, or spectrum analysis. Two dimensional processing is
concerned with enhancing spatial structures of the image.
One dimensional DSP has been briefly touched on briefly. Use of fast Fourier
transforms in signal processing or simple averaging for increased signal to noise
ratio may be used. When noise is known to originate at a higher or lower frequency
that the pertinent UT signal, a bandpass filtering process can be applied. This
selectively removes spurious components from the A-scan.
Figure 3-14 Filtering by DSP
A somewhat simpler form of processing is signal averaging. Signal averaging allows

a flaw signal to be drawn out of the background noise by the principle that a flaw
signal is coherent but noise is not. A coherent repetitive signal added to itself n
times will increase by a factor of n whereas noise added to itself n times will
increase by the square root of n. After n iterations the signal to noise ratio of the
averaged waveform is improved by n.

Two dimensional DSP techniques are used to enhance spatial information. As such,
two dimensional DSP is applied to B-scan and C-scan images. It may be noted that
B-scans and C-scans contain no more information than the A-scans used to
generate them. However, they provide spatial relationships not possible to determine
from isolated A-scans.
Of the processing methods used with B-scans, synthetic aperture focusing technique
(SAFT) is the best known. Transit-time for the ultrasonic beam to travel to and from a
point is hyperbolic function of the probe position and target depth. When the
equation of this hyperbola is known, A-scan signals can be shifted in time and added
together. When a defect is present constructive interference of the waveforms form a
large signal. When no defect is present the interference is destructive and the signal
is small. This SAFT processing may be performed in either two dimensions or three
dimensions; however, three dimensional SAFT processing requires considerable
processing time.
An example of the improved signal-to-noise ratio and lateral resolution of SAFT

processing are shown in Figure 3-15. In Figure 3-15 three 1mm notches were
scanned. The image on the left is the raw data as it would appear in a B-scan and
the image on the right is the result of SAFT corrections to improve lateral resolution

A variation of SAFT is the so-called ALOK (German Amplitude and Laufzent Orts
Korwen). The expected travel time hyperbolic curves are used to improve signal-to-
noise ratio of defects however, no synthetic focusing occurs.
3.12 Scanning Equipment
Scanning apparatus is required for positional information. Knowing a reflector exists

in a test piece is of little use unless its position can be determined. Position will be
crucial in ascertaining if the reflector is a flaw or geometry; if the reflector is
determined to be a flaw and it occurs in a weld, position will assist in evaluation and
characterisation. Although simple ruler measurements from surface references are
often used for manual scanning, indexing devices are usually used in mechanised
scanning.
When parts are moved past a probe the relative position is rarely recorded precisely.
Tube inspection stations are often equipped with strip-chart recorders. Feed-speed
and position of the indication on the chart can be used to locate the indication. In
pipe mills audio alarms and paint sprayer markers alert the operator to when and
where an echo breaks threshold. The spray maker is located down stream of the
probes and its operation is delayed.
from the time of the alarm based on the travel speed of the pipe past the probes.
When probe movement is made over a fixed object, several options exist for
mechanisation. In order to fix some sort of reference position, a probe holder and
associated framework is required. Position may be provided by some form of encode
and the probe moved by hand. Alternatively, movement may be facilitated by motors
on the framework and again, encoders may provide positional information.
3.13 Limitations of Mechanised Scanning

Not all aspects of inspection need be mechanised. There will always be cases where
manual techniques are more cost effective although given unlimited funding all
manual scanning could be mechanised to some degree.
But it should be noted that mechanical limitations might apply to mechanised

systems. The most common of the limitations would be scanning speed. Even when
a computer and ultrasonic systems can produce and collect the data at high rate of
travel speed there may be mechanical impediments to moving the probe(s) at the
maximum speed that can be computer collected. On long scan gantries the gantry
support may set up vibrations and shake the probe so that coupling path or coupling
quality is reduced. Or the scanner may simply shake some components loose. The
risk of damage by something as simple as a small speck of weld spatter may be
greater at higher scan speeds than at lower speeds. An example of technology
advances may be seen in the pipeline girth weld inspections. Older systems in the
1980s were based on the pulser PRF and were hard pressed to scan a weld at more
than 40mm/2. Today, the phased array systems can scan a 12 zone weld and collect

full waveform scans for TOFD., and 8 full waveform B-scans at more than double the
speed of the older systems (now about 80-100mm/s.) This is all the more impressive
when the file size is considered. File sizes of the older systems were on the order of
100kB and provided only amplitude and time information, any projection scans (B-
scans) were only images so were given the term mappings as they did not
preserve the waveform and no TOFD was being provided. The modern system
typically collects over 1,000 times more data (10-15MB) at twice the speed.
3.14 Scanning Speed

ADC rates have already been discussed and, if large gated times are required for B-
scans the ability of the computer CPU to process the information may present a
speed limitation. If the computer has not had enough time between samples blank
lines on the B-scan result indicating missed data points.
However, computer CPU is not the only limiting factor. Even if computers are not
used for data acquisition, another limiting factor is the pulse repetition frequency.
Response times of the recording devices such as strip-chart recorders may requires
several pulse signals to ensure the true maximum amplitude is indicated. Therefore
a probe must be in the vicinity of a reflector or diffractor for a time sufficient for the
recording equipment to respond. This will be, in part, determined by the size of the
beam and by the size of the calibration or minimum target dimension. Static
calibration may indicate a gain setting to achieve the required signal amplitude but
when a dynamic run is made over the calibration at too high a speed, the amplitude
recorded will be something less than that for the static calibration. Empirically
established scanning speeds may be found or specification or code can stipulate
maximum speeds based on probe or beam size and PRF.
An example of specification dictated speed states. scanning velocity Vc shall be

determined by
Where Wc is the narrowest -6dB width at the appropriate operating distance of the
transducer determined by design requirements and PRF is the effective pulse
repetition frequency for each transducer. This example requires 3 firings within the
6dB beam width.
In a system where many probes are sequenced via a multiplexer the PRF is divided
amongst the total number of probes. Although many units have PRFs of 2kHz, when
10 probes are used in the system, the effective PRF at each probes is only 200 Hz.
Improved technology makes PRF considerations irrelevant. With the digital control of
data acquisition systems the entire process from firing the element (s) to collecting,
displaying and saving the received signals is all computer controlled. There is still a
master clock and the computer sequences all activities off this clock.
In an encoded system the scanner is advanced by the motor (controlled via a motor
control unit and a communication link via the motor control card on the controlling

computer). The motion causes the encoder to turn and the pulses generated indicate
a specified number of pulses per unit distance. As the encoder indicates the start of
the 1mm acquisition interval, all functions in the sequence commence;
1. the computer is instructed to record the encoded positions (calibrated in

millimetres, or perhaps inches, as referenced from a specified origin)
2. the computer is instructed load the display on the monitor.
3. next fire the transmitters in the correct order and delay.
4. arrange the receivers to receive the pulse from the transmitted signals
5. apply the correct receiver, gains to the applicable channels
6. collect the analogue waveform in the gated time intervals.
7. digitise the amplitude information from the gate.,
8. store the digitise waveform to memory.
9. repeat the above steps for all channels (when multiple TOFD is applicable)
10. print one line of displayed data to the monitor
11. wait for the next 1mm increment pulse from the encoder and begin again
Many more small checks and functions are carried out but the overall effect this
tries to convey is that my functions are occurring based on the initiating pulse
from the encoder. Some systems have scan speeds around 100mm/sec. This
means that the sequence of events that are required to carry out all the steps in a
single millimetre are repeated 100 times each second. There is still a limit to what
a computer can do in a short period of time and if the scanning speed is too fast
to complete all the functions required in that 1mm interval then ALL or SOME of
the information for that step is lost. In pulse-echo methods using a colour palette
this is seen as a black line on some displays or white lines on others. On the
TOFD B-scan the same effect (missing data) is seen as a zero amplitude signal
on the display. However, since this display is a grayscale the zero value is a
medium grey colour as shown in Figure 3-16.

The equation does not apply for encoder triggered data
acquisition systems. Instead, the fact that each firing of the pulser is dictated by
the encoded distance-interval means that the operator needs to determine the
dimension of the 6dB beam width (WC) and ensure that the encoded sample
interval is less than 1/3 that distance to conform to the intend to the specification
requirement.
3.15 Encoders
A rotary optical encoder is a sensor that uses light to sense the speed, angle and
direction of a rotary shaft. A linear encoder reads a linear strip instead of a disk to
provide the same information for linear motion. Optical encoders use light instead of
contacts to detect position, so they are inherently free from contact wear and the
digital outputs are bounceless (no contact bounce). Accuracy of an optical encoder
is as good as the code wheel. The code wheel patterns are created using precision
digital plotters and cut using either a punching system or a laser, each guided by
closed loop precision vision system.
The light source used for encoders is usually a point source LED, rather than a
conventional LED or filament. Most optical encoders are transmissive type, meaning
that the light is collimated light into parallel light rays and passes through the disk (or
strip) pattern. The image of the pattern is detected using a phased array monolithic
sensor and converted to TTL (transistor to transistor logic) digital. quadrature
outputs. Reflective type encoders bounce collimated light off a patterned reflective
code wheel. Fitting all of the electronics of a reflective encoder onto one side of the
code wheel makes it a more compact design that transmissive types.
Figure 3-17 illustrates the components in an encoder using photodiodes to produce a

quadrature encoder output which enables this encoder to display both distance and
direction. In this case direction is determined via phase difference between pulses.
Most incremental encoders have a second set of pulses that is offset (out of phase)
from the first set of pulses, and a single pulse that indicates each time the encoder
wheel has made one complete revolution. If the A pulse occurs before the B pulse,

the shaft is turning clockwise, and if the B pulse occurs before the A pulse, the shaft
is turning counterclockwise. The C pulse occurs once per revolution. Figure 3-18
illustrates the pulse pattern of a quadrature encoder that provides the direction
information (with channel C being the reference pulse).
Figure 3-18 Optical Encoder Quadrature Pulse Patterns
Automated scanning systems incorporating optical encoders require calibration. This

involves moving the scanner over a specific distance and counting the number of
pulses. Then a calibration factor is used (number of pulses per millimetre). Because
the contact point of these encoders on the test surface can eventually result in wear,
there is a requirement for periodic verification of the number of pulses in a single
rotation of the wheel.
Other positional indicating devices include potentiometers and resolvers.
Asynchronous versus synchronous Systems
Most ultrasonic technicians having used a traditional mono-element probe in pulse-

echo mode, are familiar with the concept of prf (pulse repetition frequency). This is
the rate that the ultrasonic instrument pulses the probe. In a multi-channel system
where several probes may be used PRF controlled systems require high clock
speeds to ensure that all the channels are fired in the allowed sample interval. When
the encoder position pulses are interlaced with the ultrasonic pulses in such a
system the ultrasonic PRF and Position pulses are said to be asynchronous. This is
illustrated in the upper portion of Figure 3-19.

Figure 3-19 Asynchronous synchronous Systems
When using an ultrasonic system for the TOFD ultrasonic pulses it is preferable that
the system be synchronous. This is perhaps even more desirable when the system
is multi-channel. Then the encoder-pulse triggering the events must fire, acquire and
process all the channels prior to the next encoder pulse.
Data acquisition by the asynchronous systems often uses computer algorithms to

select the maximum, minimum or average values of the gated information received
by the ultrasonic instrument between encoder pulses. That value is then transferred
to the computer for data display (and to memory). Synchronous systems have only a
single firing (unless averaging is used) for each channel so the single gated value
(per channel or focal law) is transferred to memory for display.
A rule of thumb is often used in ultrasonic data acquisition systems. This requires
that at least three firings of the ultrasonic pulse for each channel is had over a
distance equal to the 6dB dimension of the beam. In fact, some Codes or Standards
actually state this is in equation format:
Wc*prf
V=
3
This was addressed when considering scanning speeds. As noted there, the
equivalent is maintained for synchronous systems by having three samples within
the 6dB beam width. Therefore for synchronous or fire on position systems, 1
sample every 1mm will achieve this if the beam width is 3mm or greater. This is
suitable for pulse-echo techniques; however, for TOFD the beam is very wide and it
may seem adequate to pulse less often (e.g. once every 2 or 3mm). But this tends to
pixelate the B-scan image (i.e.make it appear blocky due to the large jumps between
samples) and subtle trends that may help characterise indications may be lost if the
sample interval along the encoded axis is greater than 1mm.
TOFD equipment may be limited to the barest of essentials.

1 Probe pair
Probe holder (to maintain probe spacing
Pulser-receiver (basic)
Data acquisition system (computer with data display)
Figure 3-20 illustrates the basics using a laptop computer as the acquisition /control
computer, a single T/R pulser-receiver and a probe pair and basic holder to keep the
distance between them constant.
Figure 3-20 TOFD Basic Equipment
More extensive systems would include :

1 or more Probe pairs
Probe holder (to maintain probe spacing)
Pulser-receiver(s)
Pre-amp system
Data acquisition system (computer with data display)
Encoder(s)
Irrigation system for couplant
DSP data analysis software
These features are illustrated in Figure 3-21.

Figure 3-21 Enhancements to the TOFD Basic Equipment

4 EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS
4.1 Ultrasonic equipment and display
As specified in EN583-6, Ultrasonic equipment used for the TOFD technique shall, as a
minimum, comply with the requirements of EN 12668-1, EN 12668-2 and EN 12668-3. In
addition, the following requirements shall apply:
the receiver bandwidth shall, as a minimum, range between 0,5 and 2 times the nominal
probe frequency at 26 dB, unless specific materials and product classes require a larger
bandwidth. Appropriate band filters can be used;
the transmitting pulse can either be unipolar or bipolar. The rise time shall not exceed 0,25
times the period corresponding to the nominal probe frequency;
the unrectified signals shall be digitized with a sampling rate of at least four times the
nominal probe frequency;
for general applications combinations of ultrasonic equipment and scanning mechanisms

shall be capable of acquiring and digitizing signals with a rate of at least one
A-scan per 1 mm scan length. Data acquisition and scanning mechanism movement shall
be synchronized for this purpose;
to select an appropriate portion of the time base within which A-scans are digitized, a
window with programmable position and length shall be present. Window start shall be
programmable between 0 and 200 ms from the transmitting pulse, window length shall be
programmable between 5 and 100 ms. In this way, the appropriate signals (lateral or
creeping wave, backwall signal, one or more mode converted signals) can be selected to
be digitized and displayed;
digitized A-scans should be displayed in amplitude related grey or single-colour levels,

plotted adjacently to form a B-scan. for typical B-scans of non-parallel and parallel scans
respectively. The number of grey or single-colour scales should at least be 64;
for archiving purposes, the equipment shall be capable of storing all A-scans or B-scans
(as appropriate) on a magnetic or optical storage medium such as hard disk, floppy disk,
tape or optical disk. For reporting purposes, it shall be capable of making hard copies of A-
scans or B-scans (as appropriate);
the equipment should be capable of performing signal averaging.
In order to achieve the relatively high gain settings required for typical TOFD-signals, a pre-
amplifier may be used, which should have a flat response over the frequency range of interest.

This pre-amplifier shall be positioned as close as possible to the receiving probe. Additional
requirements regarding features for basic and advanced analysis of discontinuities
4.2 Ultrasonic probes
Ultrasonic probes used for the TOFD technique shall comply with at least the following
requirements:
number of probes: 2 (transmitter and receiver);
type: any suitable probe (see 4.5);
wave mode: usually compression wave; the use of shear wave probes is more complex but
may be agreed upon in special cases;
both probes shall have the same centre frequency within a tolerance of 20 %; frequency:
for details on probe frequency selection, see 4.5;
the pulse length of both the lateral wave and the backwall echo shall not exceed two
cycles, measured at 10 % of the peak amplitude;
pulse repetition rate shall be set such that no interference occurs between acoustical
signals caused by successive transmission pulses.
4.3 Scanning mechanisms
Scanning mechanisms shall be used to maintain a constant distance and alignment between
the index points of the two probes.
An additional function of scanner mechanisms is to provide the ultrasonic equipment with

probe position information, in order to enable the generation of position-related B-scans.
Information on probe position can be provided by means of e.g. incremental magnetic or
optical encoders, or potentiometers.
Scanning mechanisms in TOFD can either be motor or manually driven. They shall be guided
by means of a suitable guiding mechanism (steel band, belt, automatic track following
systems, guiding wheels etc.).
Guiding accuracy with respect to the centre of a reference line (e.g. the centre line of a weld)
should be kept within a tolerance of 10 % of the probe index point separation.

4.4 Equipment set-up procedures
4.4.1 General
Probe selection and probe configuration are important equipment set-up parameters. They
largely determine the overall accuracy, the signal-to-noise ratio and the coverage of the region
of interest of the TOFD technique.
The set-up procedure described in this subclause intends to ensure:
sufficient system gain and signal-to-noise ratio to detect the diffracted signals of interest;
acceptable resolution and adequate coverage of the region of interest;
efficient use of the dynamic range of the system.
4.5 Probe choice and probe separation
4.5.1 Probe selection
In this clause typical probe arrangements are given for TOFD in order to achieve good
detection capabilities on both thin and thick specimens. Note that these arrangements are not
mandatory and that the exact requirements to achieve a specification should be checked.
For steel thicknesses up to 70 mm a single pair of probes can be used. The recommended
probe selection parameters to achieve sufficient resolution and adequate coverage are shown
in Table 4.1 for three different ranges of wall thicknesses.
Table 4.1 - Recommended probe selection

parameters for steel thicknesses up to 70 mm
Wall Centre Crystal Nominal

Thickness frequency probe angle
mm Mhz mm
<10 10 - 15 2-6 50 - 70
10 to < 30 5 - 10 2-6 50 - 60
30 to < 70 2-5 6 - 12 45 - 60
For thicknesses greater than 70 mm the wall thickness shall be divided into more than one
inspection zone, each zone covering a different depth region. Table 4.2 shows the
recommended centre frequencies, crystal sizes and nominal probe angles to achieve sufficient

resolution and adequate coverage for thick materials from 70 mm up to 300 mm. These zones
can be inspected simultaneously or separately.
Table 4.2 - Recommended probe selection

parameters for steel thicknesses
from 70 mm up to 300 mm
Depth region Centre Crystal Nominal

frequency probe angle
mm Mhz mm
0 to < 30 5 - 10 2-6 50 - 70
30 to < 100 2-5 6 - 12 45 - 60
100 to < 300 1-3 10 - 25 45 - 60
4.5.2 Probe separation
The maximum diffraction efficiency occurs when the included angle is about 1208. The probes
should be arranged such that the (imagined) beam centre lines intersect at about this angle in
the depth region where discontinuities are anticipated/sought.
Deviations of more than 2358 or +458 from this value may cause the diffracted echoes to be
weak and should not be used unless detection capabilities can be demonstrated.
4.6 Time window setting
Ideally, the time window recorded, should start at least 1 ms prior to the time of arrival of the
lateral wave, and should at least extend up to the first backwall echo. Because mode
converted echoes can be of use in identifying defects, it is recommended that the time window
recorded also includes the time of arrival of the first mode-converted backwall echo signal.
As a minimum requirement the time window recorded shall at least cover the depth region of
interest, as shown e.g. in Tables 1 and 2. Where a smaller time window is appropriate (e.g. to
improve sizing precision), it will be necessary to demonstrate that imperfection detection
capabilities are not impaired, for instance by using representative flaws or diffracting artificial
defects in a reference block as described in 4.11.

4.7 Sensitivity setting
The probe separation and the time window shall be set to those values that will be used in the
subsequent inspection.
The aim is to make sure that the signals from discontinuities are within the range of the
digitizer and that the limiting noise is acoustic rather than electronic.
The equipment settings (electronic noise suppression and system gain) are to be adjusted
such that the electronic noise prior to the arrival of the lateral wave indication is at least 6 dB
lower in amplitude than within the region of the timebase after the arrival of the lateral wave.
The latter should be set to approximately 5 % of the amplitude scale.
The sensitivity setting can now be checked making use of representative flaws or diffracting
artificial defects in a reference block as described in 4.11. The results can be used to justify
reducing the gain setting or give warning that the signal-to-noise ratio is insufficient.
4.8 Scan resolution setting
It is recommended to record one A-scan per millimeter of probe displacement.
4.9 Setting of scanning speed
Scanning speed shall be selected such that it is compatible with the requirements
4.10 Checking system performance
It is recommended that system performance is checked before and after an inspection by

recording and comparing a limited number of representative A-scans.

4.11 System Verification Reference blocks
4.11.1Thickness requirements
4.11.1.2 Maximum thickness
The thickness of the reference block should be chosen such that the beam angle at the bottom
of the reference block is not smaller than 40, in order to avoid having a zone where there is no
diffraction at the bottom of the block. According to the following drawing this maximum
thickness (Tmax) can be calculated as follows:
S = Z tan and S = Tmax tan 40 Z tan = Tmax tan 40 Tmax= (Z tan )/tan 40
where Z is the focus point and is the beam angle of the chosen set-up.
Figure 4.1 Maximum thickness restriction
For example, when t = 35 mm and = 60 then with Z = t = 23,3 mm then:
Tmax= (23,3 tan 60)/tan 40 = 48,1 mm.
4.11.1.3 Minimum thickness
The minimum thickness of the reference block should be chosen such that the beam
intersection point (Z) of the chosen set-up is always within the reference block, see Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 Minimum thickness restriction

This means: Tmin Z.

4.11.2 Reference reflectors
For a thickness between 6 mm and 25 mm at least 3 reference reflectors are recommended.

The reflectors may be machined in one or more blocks:
One notch at the bottom of the block with length X and height h (Table 4.3);
One side-drilled hole located at 4 mm below the surface, with a diameter of 2 mm and a
length of 30 mm;
One side-drilled hole located at 1/2 t below the surface, with a diameter Dd (Table 4.3)
and a length of 45 mm. Alternatively a notch at the scanning-surface with a depth of 1/2 t, a tip
angle of 60 (see Figure 4.3), a width w (Table 4.4) and a minimum length of 40 mm may be
used.
Figure 4.3 Detail of notch tip
For a thickness > 25 mm at least 5 reference reflectors are recommended. The reflectors may
be machined in one or more blocks:
one notch at the bottom of the block with length X and height h (Table 4.3);
one side-drilled hole located at 4 mm below the surface, with a diameter of 2 mm and a
minimum length of 30 mm.
three side-drilled holes located at 1/4 t, 1/2 t and 3/4 t below the surface, with a
diameter Dd (Table 4.4) and a length l (Table 4.5). Alternatively three notches at the scanning-
surface with depths of 1/4 t, 1/2 t and 3/4 t, a tip angle of 60 (see Figure 4.3), a width w (Table
4.4) and a minimum length of 40 mm may be used.
The tolerances for all the dimensions are as follows:
diameter: 0,2 mm
length: 2 mm
angle: 2

Table 4.3 - Length and height of the notch near the bottom
Thickness [mm] X [mm] h [mm]
6 < t 40 t 1 0,2
40 < t 60 40 2 2 0,2
60 < t 100 50 2 2 0,2
t > 100 60 2 3 0,2
Table 4.4 - Diameter of the side-drilled holes / width of the surface notches
Thickness
Dd [mm] / w [mm]
[mm]
6 < t 25 2,5 0,2
25 < t 50 3,0 0,2
50 < t 100 4,5 0,2
t > 100 6,0 0,2
Table 4.5 - Length of side-drilled holes / surface notches for thickness t > 25 mm
3 holes in the 3 separated parts / 3 notches in the 3 separated part / 1

same part 1 hole per part same part notch per part
Minimum length Minimum length Minimum length Minimum Length

Depth
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
t /0 = 45 45 40 40
t /0 + 15 45 40 40
t /0 + 30 45 40 40

4.11.3 Typical reference blocks
Dimensions in mm
Key
W Width
L Length
T Thickness
N Notch width
Figure 4.4 - Reference block containing notches

Dimensions in mm
Key
A Reference block for calibration
Figure 4.5 - Reference block containing side-drilled holes

4.11.4 ASME REFERENCE BLOCK
Figure 4.6 TOFD REFERENCE BLOCK
T/4
3T/4
Cladding (when present)
Weld Thickness, in. (mm) Hole Diameter, in. (mm)
3
Up to 1 (25) /32 (2.5)
1
Over 1 (25) thru 2(50) /8 (3)
3
Over 2 (50) thru 4(100) /16 (5)
1
Over 4 (100) /4 (6)
General Notes:
(a) Holes shall be drilled and reamed 2 in. (50 mm) deep minimum, essentially parallel to the examination surface.
(b) Hole Tolerance. The tolerance on diameter shall be 132 in. ( 0.8 mm). The tolerance on location through
the block thickness shall be 18 in. ( 3 mm).
(c) All holes shall be located on the same face (side) of the block and aligned at the approximate center of the
face (side) unless the indication from one reector affects the indication from another. In these cases, the holes
may be located on oppoiste faces (sides) of the block.
(d) When the weld is broken up into multiple zones, each zone shall have a Tz /4 and Tz3/4 side-drilled hole,
where Tz is the zone thickness.

Figure 4.7 TWO-ZONE REFERENCE BLOCK EXAMPLE
T1/4
T1 3/4 Upper zone
T1
T2/4
T23/4 Lower zone
T2
Cladding (when present)
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) T1 equals the thickness of the upper zone.
(b) T2 equals the thickness of the lower zone.
TABLE 4.6
SEARCH UNIT PARAMETERS FOR MULTIPLE ZONE
EXAMINATIONS UP TO 12 in. (300 mm) THICK
Nominal Wall, Nominal Element Size,

in. (mm) Frequency, MHz in. (mm) Angle, deg
< 1.5 (< 38) 5 to 15 0.125 to 0.25 50 to 70

(3 to 6)
1.5 to 12 1 to 5 0.25 to 0.5 45 to 65

(38 to 300) (6 to 12.5)

TABLE 4.7
RECOMMENDED TOFD ZONES FOR BUTT WELDS UP
TO 12 in. (300 mm) THICK
Number of Beam
Thickness, t, Zones Intersection
In. (mm) [ Note (1)] Depth Range (approx.)
< 2 (< 50) 1 0 to t t

2 to <4 2 0 to t/2 t
5
(50 to < 100) t/2 to t /6 t
4 to <8 3 0 to t/3 2 t/9
(100 to < 200) t/3 to 2t/3 5 t/9
2t/3 to t 8 t/9
8 to 12 4 0 to t/4 t/12
(200 to < 300) t/4 to t/2 5t/12
t/2 to 3t/4 8t/12
3t/24 to t 11t/12
Figure 4.8 EXAMPLE OF A SINGLE ZONE TOFD SETUP
Zone 1
Figure 4.9 EXAMPLE OF A TWO ZONE TOFD SETUP (EQUAL ZONE HEIGHTS)
Probe 2 Probe 1 Probe 1 Probe 2
Zone 1
Zone 2

Figure 4.10 EXAMPLE OF A THREE ZONE TOFD SETUP
(UNEQUAL ZONE HEIGHTS WITH ZONE 3 ADDRESSED BY TWO OFFSET SCANS)
Probe 4 Probe 3 Probe 2 Probe 1 Probe 1 Probe 2 Probe 4 Probe 3
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
(2 offset scans)
Figure 4.11 EXAMPLE OF A FOUR ZONE TOFD SETUP (EQUAL ZONE HEIGHTS)
Probe 4 Probe 3 Probe 2 Probe 1 Probe 1 Probe 2 Probe 3 Probe 4
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Zone 4

5. TOFD DEPTH, RING-TIME ISSUES AND
ERRORS
In Chapter 2 we briefly touched on the loss of resolution that occurs in the lateral
wave due to the ring time effects. This was one of the limitations of TOFD. Most
users of the TOFD (time of flight diffraction) technique are familiar with the loss of
information that occurs immediately under the test surface. This is sometimes
referred to as the lateral wave dead zone. It results due to the fact that the pulse
ring-time limits the resolution of flaws immediately below the surface for a time
approximately equal to the depth equivalent to that ring time for the probe
configuration used.
However, some users of TOFD seem to be unaware that the same effect occurs at
every diffraction interface below the surface and a similar effect is had from the
backwall reflection boundary.
These three dead zones are identified and approximated in the EN standard EN-
583-6. No special corrections are made for wedge angle variations with depth and
the assumption is made that the indication is at the midpoint of the Probe centre
Spacing (PCS), the approximations are generally adequate for most applications.
Estimations of resolution limits of TOFD are one of the most important

considerations when using TOFD with fracture-mechanics based acceptance criteria.
When using of TOFD to estimate flaw size (height) the smallest resolvable flaw is a
function of the PCS, probe frequency and damping quality and the depth of the flaw
below the surface. Failure to understand this could lead to grossly overestimating the
capabilities of a system.
Failure to understand this has resulted in impossible expectations of TOFD

capability. E.g. a specification issued for a large corporation required extreme sizing
capabilities on the inside surface of a putatively critical component nearly 40mm
thick. Small (<0.5mm hight) surface breaking flaws were considered critical and
TOFD was identified as the means to both detect and size any flaws on that
surface. This seems to have been the result of an assumption that the improved time
resolution as one approaches the far wall would allow sizing and detection on this
minute scale. This assumption optimistically ignored the ring-time limits. Even when
using a 10 MHz probe with a 450 L wave, detection and sizing capability of <0.5mm
would be unlikely.
5.1 Depth and Ring-time Calculations
The calculations of the three dead zones are derived from relatively simple
trigonometric equations. Figure 5-1 illustrates the basic layout and associated A-
scan. It is assumed that the ultrasonic energy enters and leaves the specimen at the
index points of probes. When a flaw is assumed to be midway between the two
probes, depth d to the flaw is given by:

Where c is the acoustic velocity, t the time in the metal, t0 the time in the wedge and
S is half the probe spacing (i.e. half the PCS).
Figure 5-1 Depth-time for TOFD
Figure 5-2 Flaw height from TOFD
Depth d2 is calculated using the same formula as used for the upper tip so we need
only subtract the depths to determine the flaw height. This is then given as
h = d2 d1
The same parameters can be used to identify the limits of resolution in TOFD. The
lateral wave is seen as a pulse. This pulse requires a set amount of time based on
its frequency. The start of the pulse may be considered the entry point or zero depth.
Therefore, the time required to complete that cycle (or 1.5 cycles) is seen as the
lateral wave and had a depth in the metal equivalent to the pulse duration. This is
shown in Figure 5-3.

Figure 5-3 Lateral wave pulse duration
To calculate the equivalent depth in the test piece we need only solve Pythagoreans
theorem using the acoustic velocity and pulse duration to determine the travelled
equivalent distance for the lateral wave (correcting for the fact that it is the total
distance from transmitter to receiver, and half the PCS.
The ring time near the test surface is then defined by the pulse-duration
tp is the pulse duration to where the amplitude is
where 10% of peak
S is half the PCS
c is the velocity of sound of the mode used
From the equation we can see that reduction of lateral wave dead zone is by
decreasing PCS or use probes with shorter pulse duration (and to some extent a
higher angle).
Backwall signals present another source of lost information again due to the ring
time of the pulse. However, because the angle made at the backwall is smaller, the
equivalent depth for the same time is less. The equation to calculate the backwall
dead zone uses that fact that the reflection of the pulse uses up the equivalent depth
and subtracts the wall thickness from the total pulse-duration equivalent depth.
The equivalent depth ring time near the backwall surface is defined by the equation
Where : tw is the backwall time of

flight and W is the wall
thickness of the
component
Reduction of the backwall dead zone is by decreasing PCS or use probes with
shorter pulse duration (and to some extent a smaller angle)
Spatial resolution defines ability to resolve upper and lower tip signals (between the
lateral wave and backwall);
tp is the pulse duration to where the amplitude is

the time of-flight at depth d

Resolution increases with increasing depth, and can be improved by decreasing the
probe separation or the acoustic pulse length. If the flaw is less than the ring time at
the depth calculated it will not be possible to provide an estimate of flaw size based
on the TOFD principles of much less than the ring time equivalent depth.
Figure 5-4 Flaw Resolution limit for TOFD
For the most part TOFD probes are relatively broadband, i.e. have short pulse
durations on the order of a single cycle or 1.5 cycles. Since these are
approximations for ideal conditions they are to be used as a guide only.
A worked example is given below. The data in Table 5-1 illustrates the parameter
entry (yellow) and calculated values (green) for a test setup on a 32mm wall
thickness. The user must decide the depth at which the flaw is located to determine
the depth resolution. In the example in Table5-1 this is 12mm.
Table 5-1 Worked example of Dead zones

As an aid to visualising the limits of resolution a simple plot is provided. This is
illustrated in Figure 5-5 for the setup defined in Table 5-1. The three ring times are
denoted by the coloured lines extending back to the scale on the left. The red line
indicates the lateral wave dead zone, the yellow lines indicate the resolution that
may be expected for a flaw at the specified depth i.e. the minimum flaw height to see
a separate upper and lower tip signal) and the blue line indicates the height above
the opposite surface that a flaw must exceed before it is reasonably detected as
separate from the backwall echo.
Figure 5-5 Ring-time Resolution Limits for TOFD
Near and far surface dead zones are also calculated and illustrated in the ESBeam
images (e.g.Figures 4-4,4-5, & 4-8) and the old RD Tech display (Figure 4-9).
To validate the calculations the following images in Figure 5-6 are provided. The
scan is of a weld section 32mm thick using a 7MHz probe with a 100mm PCS.
Figure 5-6 Confirmation of dead zone calculations for TOFD

5.2 Flaw Position Errors
Due, primarily to uncertainties in the main parameters in the equations above, there
is a potential for error in depth estimates. Uncertainties exist for timing, acoustic
velocities, PCS and the lateral position of the flaw (i.e. the actual position of the flaw
between the transmitter and received probes). These uncertainties can be
reasonably approximated and the potential error in depth that could result can be
quantified.
5.3 Timing Error
Timing errors result from the fact that our timebase becomes digtised in order to
display data on the computer. Error in timing is primarily a function of the digitization
rate. for 100MHz ADC rate the error would be plus or minus one sample interval, or
10ns. For 50MHz the error band increases to 20 nos.
The depth error due to timing inaccuracy is quantified by the equation:
d= c t [d2 + S2]1/2/2d
Where c is the acoustic velocity, d the depth to the flaw, t the timing uncertainty
and S half the PCS. This incorporates the timing uncertainty into the Pythagorean
equation so the depth error due to timing uncertainty is also a function of flaw depth.
Using the parameters in our example in Figure 5-6 the error in depth estimate at
16mm assumed depth for a digitization rate of 50MHz (i.e. 20ns per sample interval)
would result in a depth uncertainty of 0.2mm.
5.4 Acoustic Velocity Error
Acoustic Velocity is another source of uncertainty. It has been assumed by most

users that the acoustic velocity for the compression mode in steel is 5920m/s. In fact,
the acoustic velocity can vary depending on the alloy and rolling or casting
conditions. Even basic low alloy carbon steel can vary from about 5800m/s to 6100
m/s. or more. This is further complicated by the anisotropy of some steels. This
implies that velocities can change with changes in direction (e.g. one velocity is
observed at 300 refracted angle and a different velocity is measured at say 700
refracted angle. Even when the assessments are relatively accurate there is some
uncertainty and 30m/s is about as accurate as most measurements can be made.
The effect on depth estimate error due to just acoustic velocity error is given by the
equation:
d= c [d2 + S2 S(d2 + S2 )1/2]/cd
Where c is the acoustic velocity, d the depth to the flaw, c the acoustic velocity
uncertainty and S half the PCS.

Using the parameters in our example in Figure 5-6 the error in depth estimate at for
a possible error in velocity assumption of 50m/s from the assumed 5920m/s would
result in a depth uncertainty of 0.07mm at an assumed depth of 16mm.
Although velocity can vary with angle in a specimen (called anisotropy) the effect is
not usually significant in TOFD. Velocity of a material can easily be determined using
the ultrasonic instrument in a pulse-echo mode with a 00 probe. This is done by
accurately measuring a section with parallel faces using a vernier calliper and
obtaining the pulse-eco time between the backwall and next multiple using a
digitisation rate of 100MHz. Velocity is then obtained by
2d
V= t
where: V = velocity
d = sample thickness (physically measured)
t = time interval (measured by pulse-echo)
Using these simple tools it is reasonable to expect thickness to be accurately

assessed to within +/-0.01mm and time +/-0.01s. This provides velocity accuracy of
approximately +/-50m/s.
5.5 PCS Error
Probe Centre Spacing (PCS) might be considered an assumed absolute value.

However, this setting is usually set by a ruler being slid under the probes and a
simple alignment of the exit point marks with the ruler markings. Parallax error is one
source of error here as is rounding of the value. Another source of error arises during
the scanning. The probes mounted in holders are often seen to move slightly due to
mechanical springing. The probes can be seen to be moving relative to each other.
These motions can be of two basic forms; closer and farther apart (especially when
weld caps are large and can catch the probes) and skewing (one probe centreline
does not align with the probe opposite). The skewing may occur due to rough
surfaces or mechanical recoil as the probe pair is slide along the weld causing one
probe to be slightly ahead or behind the other. These effects are easily seen as a
wandering of the lateral wave.
The effect on depth estimate error due to PCS variation is given by the equation.
d= S [(d2 + S2 )- S]/d
Here only the depth estimate and the PCS are involved in the error calculation. In
this equation d is the depth to the flaw, S the error (variation) in PCS and S half
the PCS.
Using the parameters in our example in Figure 5-6 the error in depth estimate for a
possible variation of 1mm from the assumed 100mm would result in a depth

uncertainty of 0.14mm at an assumed depth of 16mm. This parameter has a fairly
significant effect on results. Variations of 3-4mm due to mechanical springing are not
uncommon and depth variation of a millimetre or more can easily result depending
on the depth of the flaw.
5.6 Lateral Position Error
The last source of error we discuss occurs due to the fact that there is some
uncertainty as to the flaws exact position between the probes. This is considered
lateral positioning uncertainty.
This lateral uncertainty is given the notation y and is best explained by the
illustration in Figure 5-7 where it is seen as the displacement of the actual flaw from
the theoretical centerline between the probe exit points.
Figure 5-7 Lateral uncertainty of flaw position
Depth error estimation then incorporates the lateral uncertainty using equation:
d = (c2t2 4S2)1/2 (y2/c2t2)/(1-4y2/c2t2 )1/2
In a weld inspection there is some practical limit to how far off the centerline the flaw
might occur. Typically this will be not further than the heat affected zone (HAZ)
dimension. For our example in Figure 5-6, the error in depth estimate for a flaw
10mm from the weld centreline would be 0.25mm at an assumed depth of 16mm.
Constant Time Locus
Related to the lateral position uncertainty is a concept called the constant time
locus. For a given depth, the time taken for the sound to travel from the transmitter
to the flaw tip to the receiver is a minimum when the flaw is midway between the
transmitter and receiver. However, as a result of the lateral position uncertainty, that
time value t could be experienced by any combination of soundpaths t = t1 + t2 (see
Figure 5-8) where t1 and t2 are the path lengths from the transmitter to the flaw tip
and the flaw tip to the receiver respectively.

In Figure 5-8 it is seen that this is constant time traces out a semi-ellipse with
focuses at the probe exit points. This implies that, theoretically, a flaw seen on the
A-scan at a given time could have originated from any point along that locus.
However, there is a practical limit to this set of points. In order for a flaw to be
detected it need be located in the effective beam of the probe. This then limits the
lateral position off-set that the flaw MIGHT have. In figure 5-8 the shaded region
indicates the effective beam area where a flaw might be detectable. If the flaw was
located at the mid-point between the transmitter and receiver it would have a
maximum assessed depth for that time. If the flaw was off-set to one edge or another
in the beam its actual depth would be slightly less (as calculated using the depth
error estimation for the lateral uncertainty equation).
Figure 5-8 Constant time locus
The practical observation in this theory relates to how the parallel scan is used in
TOFD. Since lateral position uncertainty prevents us assessing the true depth of a
flaw with just a non-parallel scan it will be necessary to perform a parallel scan to
improve depth estimates. Once the operator has located the flaw using the
nonparallel scan they then position the probe pair at the flaw and offset the pair so
the transmitter or receiver exit point is centred over the weld centerline (if he weld
cap is not removed this extent of offset may be restricted). The encoder would then
need to be rotated 900 if the positional data was to be collected or a free-running
data collection could be made (i.e. time based as opposed to accurate positional
based data acquisition). The operator then moves the probe pair perpendicular to the
weld centreline such that the opposite probe-exit point reaches the weld centreline.
The result is an arc as the beam passes over the flaw. The point on the arc
exhibiting the shortest time (apex of the arc) will correspond to the probe-pair
position the straddles the flaw such that the transmitter and receiver are equidistant.
Figure 5-9 illustrates the sort of motion (left) and the image shape that would result
with a parallel scan. The B-scan on the right side of Figure 5-9 illustrates the arcs
that form from a parallel scan over 5 notches on the opposite wall ranging in size
from 0.5 to 5mm height

Figure 5-9 Parallel scan arcs
(Courtesy COFREND, France Journess Cofrend 2005)
The error on height estimation of internal (small) flaws is negligible. The operator
should be cautious for small flaws situated at the backwall. The constant-time locus
will compound the problems of dead zone due to pulse width. Even slightly larger
(higher) flaws may be poorly resolved and to undetected if located far enough from
the PCS midpoint. This shortcoming on the backwall may be partially addressed by
increased PCS and off-set scans. Offset scans are those where non-parallel scans
are made with the PCS midpoint not equal to the weld centreline.
Couplant Thickness no excuse for an error

Another source of depth error estimate indicated inBS-7706 is couplant thickness
variation.Although it is possible to use immersion methods for TOFD most practical
applications use contact testing. But couplant thickness should not be a concern for
contact tests. In fact, the coupling gap should be kept to a minimum (i.e. 0mm or no
gap between the wedge and test piece). Operators who adjust wear pins or other
gap control mechanisms, do so at the expense of gross deterioration of the
resolution capabilities of the TOFD technique. A gap between the refracting wedge
and test piece results in a portion of the sound being reflected in the couplant. This
results in a double lateral wave as the direct and couplant multiple incident pulse
enters the test piece. The effect is frequency dependent but typically more than
about 0.1mm gap (the thickness of a sheet of paper) will result in an interfering
multiple lateral wave.
For those concerned by the effect of local dips (areas blended by surface grinding)
where the couplant thickness might locally increase, there is a correction equation.
d= W v d/f(4c(d2 + S2)1/2) where W is the change in thickness of couplant and v

is the couplant velocity.
Using the parameters in our example in Figure 5-6 the error in depth estimate at
16mm assumed depth for a 1mm water gap would result in a depth uncertainty of
0.01mm

5.7 Frequency Content Effects
A factor not often considered when describing resolution limitations of TOFD is the
effect of frequency reduction in the off-axis portions of the beam. It must be
remembered that TOFD uses a broadband transducer. The short pulse results in
broad spectrum frequency content.
A TOFD probe is usually considered to have a bandwidth of 80% or more.

Bandwidth is determined by looking at the frequency content of the pulse. It is
determined by the equation
BW-[(fu-f1)/fc] * 100
Where fu is the upper frequency at the 6 dB drop, f1 is the lower frequency at the 6dB
drop and fc is the centre frequency.
Figure 5-10 illustrates the frequency distribution of a narrow band (upper image) and
broadband (lower image) transducer.
Figure 5-10 Transducer bandwidths
Since a probe has more than one frequency in the pulse content, it follows that the
diffraction patterns for each frequency must obey the laws of diffraction. This implies
that beam divergence for lower frequencies is greater than higher frequencies for
pulses off the same aperture (probe diameter). Figure 5-11 illustrates the effect of
variation in beam spreads with the frequency content from a broadband probe.
Figure 5-11 models a nominal 5MHz probe with frequencies ranging from 2-10MHz.
The 2MHz has the broadest divergence (portions from 2-4MHz form the lateral
wave) and the 10MHz region is limited to small angles off the centre beam.

Figure 5-11 Frequency Content Variation
An exercise to verify this is carried out by performing an FFT (Fast Fourier

Transform) on the lateral wave and backwall signals from a nominal 5MHz probe.
This is done in Figure 5-12 and the signals analysed indicate a centre frequency for
the lateral wave is about 1.9MHZz and the backwall is 3.3MHz. This is in accord with
the modeled approximations in Figure 5-11. The cause of this effect is termed
dispersion.
Figure 5-12 Frequency Content Variation

6. ANALYSIS SOFTWARE FEATURES & TOFD OF COMPLEX
GEOMETRY
There are many different kinds of digital processing techniques that can be applied to
ultrasonic data. Only a few of the more common techniques used with TOFD are
listed below. The considerable subject of modeling which can be of vital importance
in many applications and complex geometry is omitted. Also omitted is the
considerable subject w\of filtering and the use of more sophisticated algorithms for
characterizing signals and the subject of neural networks. The more common
features of image manipulation and contrast enhancement should be available on
any good digital ultrasonic system and are therefore not described.
6.1 Linearisation
The TOFD B or D scan data is a plot of consecutively recorded A-scan data. The
A-scan consists of series of digital samples on a linear time scale. Because of the
pitch-catch arrangement of TOFD, this scale is not a linear function of depth. The
linearization software is a file to file program which converts the data to a linear depth
scale. Normally there should be provision for self calibration by nothing the position of
the lateral and back wall signals in order to calculate the velocity and probe delay.
When the linearised file is displayed on the screen the cursor can be used to read of
the depth of signals directly.
6.2 Lateral /Back wall Straighten and Removal
Near surface defects may be partially hidden beneath the lateral wave and top-
surface opening cracks will cause a dip in the lateral wave. These hidden signals,
which will have interfered with the lateral wave can often be revealed by subtracting
an average lateral wave signal from the recorded data. Often it is necessary to
straighten the lateral wave first. One o f the main problems when scanning is that a
flexible mounting is required to take up any surface variations. But this often results in
slight variations in the PCS causing the lateral wave (and all the rest of the signals) to
jitter. This can make recognition of small dips in the lateral wave very difficult and
hence the need to straighten out the lateral wave.
The software is normally a file to file program. To straighten the lateral wave it is
usually necessary to define a training area in which the lateral wave is reasonably flat
and free from obvious defects in order to work out an average signal. Then a region
is defined over which the straightening is required. This is done by moving the
averaging signal along the defined region and finding for each A-scan the time shift

which gives the best correlation between the average and the new A-scan. Each new
A-scan is then time shifted by this amount in the output file.
Once the lateral wave has been straightened a similar operation is done to remove
the average signal from the defined region.
Depending on the ability of the software in difficult situations it may be necessary to

carry out the operation several times on selected areas before adequate results are
obtained.
Figure 6-1 Lateral Wave Straightening
Figure 6-2 Lateral Wave Removal
6.3 Parabolic Cursor
This facility produces a cursor shaped to the response of a point reflector on the raw
B-and D-scan data (i.e. liner time axis). As the cursor moves up and down the time
axis the parabola changes shape. The shape depends on the probe separation, the
digitization frequency, the parameters to enable absolute time to be calculated and
the sampling interval along the scan direction, all of which should be stored in the file

header. There also should be the ability to carry out self calibration on the lateral and
back wall signals to enable the velocity and probe delay to be calculated.
The parabolic cursor is used directly on the raw data (i.e. linear with time) for three
Purposes. The first use is to output the depth at the position of the cross wires. The
cursor should also output amplitude so the correct position for reading the depth can
be obtained after allowing for the phase.
The second use is to eliminate small flaw, such as pores. This is done by moving the
cursor so that the parabola overlays the characteristic response curve of the TOFD
signal (see Figure 6.3). If the fit is reasonable the reflector can be assumed to be
small, i.e. less than about 4mm in length.
Lateral wave
Parabolic cursor
on left and right
wing
a) Signal from defect with length b) signal from small pore
Figure 6.3 Use of Parabolic Cursor For Determining Length
The third use of the parabola is to measure the lateral length of the flaws. If the
reflector has some length it can be measured by positioning the cursor on each
separate wing of the TOFD signal in the turn and noting the position along the scan
axis (see Figure 6.3). The difference gives the length. The assumption is that the
ends of the reflector act as diffraction points and produces the arc shape as the probe
approaches and leaves the tip. If the arc are deep then the method is quite accurate
since we are using all the information in the wings to get a good fit. This is a quick
and easy method of measuring the length without having to carry out the alternative
of a SAFT calculation and a 6 dB drop size. The length in general does not have to
be measured as accurately as the flaw height.
6.4 Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique - SAFT
The Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT) combines the digitized of

waveforms for different probe positions to synthesise the effect of a large aperture
probe. The effect is that instead of having a divergent ultrasonic beam the probe has
in effect a narrow collimated beam of width equal to half the crystal diameter (see
Figure 6.4). Flaws at deeper depths are often smaller than the beam spread and thus
measurement of the length or height for conventional pulse-echo is difficult, but by in
effect reducing the beam spread SAFT allows the normal 6 dB drop process to be
carried out.
The SAFT process also improves the signal-to-noise. Thus SAFT enables the lateral
extent of smaller flaws to be determined more accurately. The SAFT process is only
effective for ranges beyond two near fields. The program processes a B-scan file of
TOFD data and produces a new output file.
Crystal Probe
Normal beam spread
Flaw
Beam spread after SAFT approximately

half crystal diameter
Figure 6.4 Effective Beam Spread with SAFT
The SAFT process is illustrated below. Ultrasonic data collected from a probe
scanning over a reflector produces a characteristic pattern due to the beam spread.
This pattern may be calculated, for a point reflector at a given depth, from the
geometry of the situation and corrected for in the manner shown in the Figure 6.4
from this pattern the time shifts required to correlate the signals from the point
reflector for the A-scan in which the signals were recorded can be calculated. If the
appropriate time shifted A-scans for a particular depth are then summed a large
signal will be small. Thus in the output image only signals will appear when the centre
of the probe beam is reflected and all the off axis signals from the probe will
disappear. In figure 6.4 an almost point reflector is shown for illustration, but in
practice the flaw will have length. The SAFT process works just the same and only
signals along the length of the flaw will remain after SAFT. The lateral extent of the
reflector can then be accurately determined by carrying out 6 dB drop sizing on the
resultant signal. The signal-to-noise of the output signals will also be improved since
the time shifting and summing process any random noise signal.

Will only be correlated on one A-scan. In addition since the signals are uncertified
random positive signals will be cancelled out by the negative going signals. Thus
SAFT will only be positive on uncertified data.
The time shifting and summing process described above must be carried out for
every point in the image, and therefore a considerable amount of processing time is
required. The time shifting algorithm depends on the depth of the point and is carried
out over the user defined aperture of the probe, i.e. a specific number of A-scans.
This aperture size can be derived from the recorded B-scan and is the number of
A-scans over which signals are observable as the probes scan a reflector.
Probe
reflector
Parabolic shape
for point source
Separate A-scans
at regular intervals
Time shifted
A-scans
Figure 6.5 the Saft Process
There are two geometrical situations with TOFD, parallel and non-parallel and since
the algorithm is slightly different for each type it is important to specify the correct
type in the file header.
Thus for TOFD data, SAFT is used to improve the accuracy with which the flaw
length cad measured and to clean up and simplify complex situations. Signals from
genuine reflectors will be reinforced and the hyperbolic wing shapes will disappear.
Also the amplitude of random noise signals will be greatly reduced. The same applies
to mode SAFT can therefore be useful for cleaning up complicated image e.g. cloud
of porosity or flaws near to each other. However, many interpreters prefer to work
with the raw TOFD data use the parabolic cursor as an alternative to SAFT
processing.

Figure 6-6 SAFT Processing
6.5 Split Spectrum Processing
Split Spectrum Processing (SSP) is a non-linear digital processing technique

developed by Newhouse et al. (Ultrasonic 20, 59-68, 1982) Which can produce
considerable improvements in signal-to-noise in ultrasonic images collected from
large grained
Materials. Very often the scattering from large grained materials can swamp out the
signal from defects and hence make the inspection very difficult. The method is
analogous to a kind of filtering and in many materials if carried out with care, and if
suitable board band probes are used, considerable improvements can made. The
improvement with austenitic materials is not always so clear since they can exhibit a
considerable degree of crystal alignment giving anisotropic properties.
Basically the idea is that the signal from a defect will be present at all frequencies of
the transducer spectrum but the sound scattered from the grains will have frequency
dependence. This is because the scattering from the grains will have interfere and
cause destructive and constructive addition of the signals. The technique consists of
taking the frequency spectrum of the signals for each A-scan and splitting the
bandwidth into a large number (40 or 50) of windows with suitable normalization to
allow for the variation of energy with frequency in the ultrasonic beam. The idea of
Newhouse et al was then to choose the window with the lowest amplitude
(minimization of squares of amplitude) and reconstruct the signal using this window.
The thought was that because the amplitude was the minimum there would be no
noise from the grains, only the defect signal.

6.6 Locus Plots
By carrying out a number of non-parallel scans with different probe positions or

separations the position of an indication can be found by plotting the locus of points
corresponding to the time-of-arrival of the diffraction signal from the indication for
each scan. The position of the indication is where the loci cross each other. This
approach is more often used when inspecting complex geometry samples where
access may be limited. Modelling algorithms are generally available for the drawing of
locus curves for the geometry of interest and for the analysis of possible mode
converted signals.
6.7. Curved Surfaces and Complex Geometry
6.7.1 Curved Surfaces
The TOFD probes may have to sit on curved surfaces, e.g. pipes. For normal pipe
welds the probes straddle the butt welds and are looking in an axial direction and the
curvature has little effect, but for the case of seam welds the curvature of the pipe
needs to be allowed for. The two situations of the probes on the outside of the pipe
and the inside of the pipe are shown in figure 6.7 and 6.8 respectively.
Figure 6.7 TOFD probes on convex surface
If the TOFD probes are situated on a convex or concave surface then the lateral
wave and back-wall echo will appear at the wrong depth with respect to the straight
line drawn through the index points of the two probes.
For the convex surface the lateral wave travels straight across the metal. Thus any
signals from defects above the straight line joining the two probes will appear after
the lateral wave and appear to come from the metal below the line. If defects are
suspected to be above this line then the probe separation needs to be reduced to
make the area of ambiguity as small as possible. One must be very careful if using
the back-wall as a calibration signal since its depth below the lateral wave (the
apparent surface of the metal) is D-x and this depth should be entered into the file
header if it is used as calibration signal. In this situation it may be simpler to use the
lateral wave and enter the velocity.
The height x, of the surface mid-way between the two probes above the lateral wave
is obtained from the formula.
2Rx - x = s
Where R is the radius of the outer surface, giving for x<s, x = s/2R
The resultant depth calculation will give the depth of a reflector with respect to the
lateral wave and the correct depth will be the apparent depth + x.
For the concave surface the lateral wave has to run around the surface of the metal.
Thus the lateral wave should not be used for calibration and if the back-wall is used
its depth must be entered into the file header as D + x. The resultant depth
calculation will give the depth of a reflector with respect to straight line joining the
index points of the two probes and the correct depth will be the apparent depth + x.
Figure 6.8 TOFD probes on concave surface
6.8 Complex Geometry
The geometry of T-butts, Nodes and Nozzles, etc., can be very complicated and
access very difficult. The situation may be such that normal pulse-echo inspection is
impossible.

Figure 6.9 Complex Geometry access to one surface only
In these situations it may be possible to carry out some kind of TOFD scan. However,
the data may be very difficult to interpret due to the large number of signals from the
geometry of the sample.
In these situations it is essential to either have a mock-up of the geometry or a good

ultrasonic modelling program. In the mock-up artificial reflectors should be inserted to
simulate possible defects and the test scans carried out. Having understand the
patterns of signals obtained it may then possible to tackle the real inspection.
Modelling programs are less expensive (once available) to run and give greater
flexibility in seeing what the effect of different parameters are.
Scan around object, i.e. into the page

Scan down the surface
Leave one probe stationary and scan down the surface with the other.
Figure 6.10 Complex Geometry access to two faces

Because of the specialized nature of such work only a very brief discussion will be
given. Some illustration situations are shown in figures 6.9 and 6.10
Consider first the situation shown in figure 6.9 were access to only one surface is
possible. On this surface pairs of TOFD probes can be mounted and a number of
possible scan patterns carried out,
If, as normally occurs in this situation, the defect is below the probes, and the angles
of the probes have been chosen appropriate to this position, then diffraction signals
will be observed. However, when trying to locate the position of the defect tip there is
a problem since it could be anywhere on the path of a locus of constant time as
shown in the figure 6.10. Thus it is necessary to carry out a second scan with a
different PCS. This will produce a second locus track and where the two cross will
define the position of the crack tip.
In the situation shown in figure 6.10 two surfaces are available for placing the probes
on, and a scan could be carried out around the object using a pair of TOFD probes as
shown. The problem in such situations is usually the large number of possible paths
between the two probes, some of which may be entirely reflections from the various
surfaces of the object. In this case one is looking for a change in the pattern and
again determining the exact location of the defect tip may be very difficult.

07 INTERPRETATION AND EVALUATION
7.1 Development of TOFD codes and standards
BS 7706 (1993) Guide to calibration and setting-up of the ultrasonic time-of-flight

diffraction (TOFD) technique for detection, location, and sizing of flaws. British
Standards Institute 1993.
pr EN 583-6 (1995) Nondestructive testing- ultrasonic examination - Part 6: Time-of-

flight diffraction technique as a method for defect detection and sizing.
7.2 ASME Adaptations to TOFD
ASME VIII Code Case 2235
Ultrasonic examination to be in accordance with ASME Section V, Article 4
Alternatively, for techniques that do not use amplitude recording levels,.
This has opened the door for TOFD to be used on Section VIII pressure vessels
7.3 Indications from surface breaking discontinuities
Surface breaking discontinuities can be classified into 3 categories
1. Scanning surface discontinuity:
This type shows up as an elongated pattern generated by the signal emitted from the lower
edge of the discontinuity and a weakening or loss of the lateral wave (not always observed).
The indication from the lower edge can be hidden by the lateral wave, but generally a pattern
can be observed in the mode converted part of the image. For small discontinuities, only a
small delay of the lateral wave may be observed.
2. Opposite surface discontinuity:
This type shows up as an elongated pattern generated by the signal emitted from the upper
edge of the discontinuity and a weakening, loss, or delay of the backwall reflection (not always
observed).
3. Through wall discontinuity:

This type shows up as a loss or weakening of both the lateral wave and the backwall reflection
accompanied by diffracted signals from both ends of the discontinuity
7.4 Indications from embedded discontinuities
Embedded discontinuities can be classified into categories
1. Pointlike discontinuity:
This type shows up as a single hyperbolic shaped curve which may lie at any depth.
2. Elongated discontinuity with no measurable height:
This type appears as an elongated pattern corresponding to an apparent upper edge signal.
3. Elongated discontinuity with a measurable height:
This type appears as two elongated patterns located at different positions in depth,
corresponding to the lower and upper edges of the discontinuity. The indication of the lower
edge is usually in phase with the lateral wave. The indication of the upper edge is usually in
phase with the back wall reflection. Indications of embedded discontinuities usually do not
disturb the lateral wave or the backwall reflection
7.5 BASICS OF DIMENSIONING
In this section there is explained some general rules for dimensioning TOFD image indications.
7.6 Height measurement
A principle in measuring the height of the indication is determined during the calibration of the
time scale. The height measurement shall be done from the A scan image.
The measuring the height of the indications must be done with similar principles as the
calibration of the timescale has been made.
Three possibilities for time base calibration and dimensioning are presented.
The rule of phase conversion must be included.

7.7 Method 1
Echo Corner
Time base calibration is based on the corner of the first rising echo, on this type of calibration,
inspector must take count the error possibility in case of high noise
Figure 7.1
The fist and sixth red lines presents the measuring point of wall thickness. The second and
third red lines presents the measuring point of indication upper tip and lower tip
in these figures the first echo is presented as a negative. The firs echo may also appear as a
positive. This alternation must be taken in to account in calibration and in dimensioning the
height
7.8 Method 2
First maximum
Time base calibration is based on the middle point of the first echoes maximum. In this type of
calibration, inspector must take in count the error possibility in case of echoes with same level
of amplitude
Figure 7.2
The first and sixth red lines presents the measuring point of wall thickness. The second and
third red lines presents the measuring point of indication upper tip and lower tip.
In these figures the first echo is presented as a negative. The first echo may also appear as a
height.
7.9 Method 3
Time base calibration is based on the maximum amplitude of the indication. On this type of
calibration, inspector must take in count the error possibility in case of phase shift that may
increase the amplitude of an echo
Figure 7.3
The first and sixth red lines presents the measuring point of wall thickness. The second and
third red lines presents the measuring point of indication upper tip and lower tip.
In these figures the first echo is presented as a negative. The first echo may also appear as a
height.
7.10 Examples
Figure 7.4

7.11 Length measurement
The length measurement shall be made from the echo of the upper tip or from the echo of the
lower tip, that presents the maximum measurable dimension of the indication.
A principle in measuring the length of an indication is that at first the parabolic shape of an
indication is searched.
If this parabolic shape is visible the length is measured from the point where the reduction of
the maximum amplitude can be noticed, an alternative method the 6 dB drop method may be
applied if possible.
7.12 Scanning surface discontinuity
Scanning surface discontinuity appears as a disturbance in the lateral wave or a change in the
time scale of the lateral wave. If the disturbance has parabolic ends the dimensioning is done
as shown in the figure 1. The dimension is based on the drop of the amplitude of the echo
In the case of lack of parabolic ends the length dimensioning is done in most conservative way
(See figure 2), the indication is assumed to begin immediately after a drop or change in the
lateral wave
Figure 7.5 Figure 7.6

Length measurement from parabolic ends. The Length measurement from parabolic ends. The
difference of the yellow lines presents the length difference of the yellow lines presents the length
of the indication of the indication

7.13 Opposite surface discontinuity
Figure 7.7
Length measurement of surface open indication. The cursors are set to place where the height of the indication is
1/3 of the total height of the indication. The difference of the yellow lines presents the length of the indication. This
method is valid for both surfaces
7.14 Through wall discontinuity

In these indications the same rule determined for parabolic shape and echo disturbance is
valid. A through wall discontinuity may not have any echoes inside the material, but may
have only disturbances in the lateral wave and in back wall echo
In case where no lower tip eco is visible the indication is classified to be without
measurable height
Figure 7.8 Figure 7.9

Indication is embedded with measureable height. Indication is embedded with measureable height.
Parabolic pattern is visible in the echo. The No Parabolic pattern is visible in the drawn echo.
length of the indication is measure from the Length measurement is made from the point of
parabolic ends. The difference of the yellow lines the disturbance. The difference of the yellow
presents the length of the indication. lines presents the length of the indication.

7.15 Embedded point-like indication
Measuring the position of a point like indication is done from middle of the highest eho visible.
For an example see figure 7.10
Figure 7.10
point like indication. The yellow line presents the position of the echo
7.16 Flaw Tip
Figure 7.11
Flaw lengths parallel to the surface can be measured from the TOFD image by fitting
hyperbolic cursors similar to SAFT correction but SAFT post-processes the data

7.17 Flaw Position Errors
Flaws will not always be symmetrically placed between the transmitter and receiver
transducers. Normally, a single pair of transducers is used, centered on the weld axis.
However, multiple TOFD sets can be used, particularly on heavy wall vessels, and offsets
are used to give improved detection. Also, aws do not normally occur on the weld
centerline. Either way, the aws will not be positioned symmetrically and this will be a
source or error in location and sizing.
There will be positional and sizing errors associated with a noncentered aw However,
these errors will be small, and generally are tolerable since the maximum error due to off-
axis position is less than 10% and the error is actually smaller yet since both the top and
bottom of the aw are offset by similar amounts. The biggest sizing problems occur with
small aws near the backwall. Exact error values will depend on the inspection
parameters.
7.18 EVALUATION
This section shows a variety of TOFD images and the interpretation/explanation.

Unfortunately, there are significant variations amongst aws and TOFD setups and
displays, so the following images should be used as a guide only. Evaluator experience and
analysis skills are very important as well
7.19 Single Flaw Images
(a) Point aws [see Fig. 7.12], like porosity, show up as single multicycle points between
the lateral and backwall signals. Point aws typically display a single TOFD signal since
aw heights are smaller than the ring-down of the pulse (usually a few millimeters,
depending on the transducer frequency and damping). Point aws usually show
parabolic "tails" where the signal drops off towards the backwall.
(b) Inside (ID) far-surface-breaking aws [see Fig. 7.15] shows no interruption of the
lateral wave, a signal near the backwall, and a related interruption or break of the
backwall (depending on aw size).
(c) Near-surface-breaking aws [see Fig. 7.16] shows perturbations in the lateral wave.
The aw breaks the lateral wave, so TOFD can be used to determine if the aw is
surface-breaking or not. The lower signal can then be used to measure the depth of the
aw. If the aw is not surface-breaking, i.e., just subsurface, the lateral wave will not be
broken. If the aw is near-subsurface and shallow (that is, less than the ringing time of the
lateral wave or a few millimeters deep), then the aw will probably be invisible to TOFD. The
image also displays a number of signals from point aws.
(d) Midwall aws [see Fig. 7.17] show complete lateral and backwall signals, plus

diffraction signals from the top and bottom of the aw. The aw tip echoes provide a very
good profile of the actual aw. Flaw sizes can be readily black-white, while the lower
echo is black-white-black. Also note the hyperbolic curve that is easily visible at the left
end of the top echo; this is similar to the effect from a point aw [see Fig. 7.14] and permits
accurate length measurement of aws.
If a midwall aw is shallow, i.e., less than the transducer pulse ring-down (a few
millimeters), the top and bottom tip signals cannot be separated. Under these
circumstances, it is not possible to differentiate the top from the bottom of the aw, so the
evaluator can only say that the aw is less than the ringdown distance (which depends on
transducer frequency and damping, etc.).
(e) Lack of root penetration [see Fig. 7.18)] is similar to an inside (ID) far-surface-
breaking aw [see Fig. 7.15]. This aw gives a strong diffracted signal (or more correctly,
a reected signal) with a phase inversion from the backwall signal. Note that whether
signals are diffracted or reected is not important for TOFD characterization; the analysis
and sizing is the same. Also note even though there is a perturbation of the backwall
signal, the backwall is still visible across the whole aw. This material also shows small point
aws and some grain noise, which is quite common. TOFD typically overemphasizes
small point aws, which are normally undetected by conventional shear wave pulse-echo
techniques.
(f) Concave root aws [see Fig. 7.19] are similar to lack of root penetration. The top of
the aw is visible in the TOFD image, as well as the general shape. The backwall signal
shows some perturbation as expected.
(g) Sidewall lack of fusion [see Fig. 7.20] is similar to a midwall aw [see 7.17] with two
differences. First, the aw is angled along the fusion line, so TOFD is effectively
independent of orientation, which is not a problem for TOFD. Second, the upper aw
signal is partly buried in the lateral wave for this particular aw. In this instance, the upper
tip signal is detectable since the lateral wave signal amplitude is noticeably increased.
However, if this were not the case, then the evaluator would be unable to accurately
measure the aw depth.
(h) Porosity [see Fig. 7.21] appears as a series of hyperbolic curves of varying
amplitudes, similar to the point aw [see Fig. 7.14]. The TOFD hyperbolic curves are
superimposed since the individual porosity pores are closely spaced. This does not
permit accurate analysis, but the unique nature of the image permits characterization of
the signals as "multiple small point aws," i.e., porosity.
(i) Transverse cracks [see Fig. 7.21] are similar to a point aw [see Fig. 7.14]. The
TOFD scan displays a typical hyperbola. Normally, it would not be possible to
differentiate transverse cracks from near-surface porosity using TOFD; further inspection

would be needed.
(j) Interpass lack of fusion [see Fig. 7.23] shows as a single, high amplitude signal in the
midwall region If the signal is long, it is easily differentiated from porosity or point
sources. It is not possible to distinguish the top and bottom, as these do not exist as
such. Note the expected phase change from the lateral wave. Interpass lack of fusion
signals are generally benign
0.43
0.43 in.
( 11mm)
0.59 0.59 in.
(11mm)
0.43 0.59
Lateral Top Bottom Backwall

wave echo echo echo
Figure 7.12 TOFD IMAGE SHOWING TOP AND BOTTOM DIFFRACTED SIGNALS FROM MIDWALL FLAW
AND A-SCAN INTERPRETATION

0.62 0.62 in.
(15.7mm)
0.88 0.88 in.

(22.4mm)
0.43 0.59
Lateral Top Bottom Backwall

wave echo echo echo
Figure 7.13 TOFD IMAGE SHOWING TOP AND BOTTOM DIFFRACTED SIGNALS FROM CENTERLINE
CRACK AND A-SCAN INTERPRETATION
A-scan
8.2
3.1 3.1
Indication
Lateral Backwall
Wave
Figure 7.14 SCHEMATICS OF IMAGE GENERATION, SCAN PATTERN, WAVEFORM, AND

TOFD DISPLAY SHOWING THE IMAGE OF THE POINT FLAW

Transmitter Lateral Receiver
Back wall echo
Lateral wave
No back wall echo

tip
Figure 7.15 SCHEMATICS OF IMAGE GENERATION, FLAW LOCATION, AND TOFD DISPLAY
SHOWING THE IMAGE OF THE INSIDE (ID) SURFACE-BREAKING FLAW
Surface-breaking flaw
SHOWING THE IMAGE OF THE OUTSIDE (OD) SURFACE-BREAKING FLAW

1
2
3
4
Figure 7.17 SCHEMATICS OF FLAW LOCATION, SIGNALS, AND TOFD DISPLAY SHOWING THE
IMAGE OF THE MIDWALL FLAW
Figure 7.18 FLAW LOCATION AND TOFD DISPLAY SHOWING THE IMAGE OF THE LACK OF ROOT
PENETRATION

1
Figure 7.19 FLAW LOCATION AND TOFD DISPLAY SHOWING THE IMAGE OF THE CONCAVE ROOT
FLAW
1
2
3
4
Figure 7.20 FLAW LOCATION, TOFD DISPLAY SHOWING THE IMAGE OF THE MIDWALL LACK OF
FUSION FLAW, AND THE A-SCAN

1
Figure 7.21 FLAW LOCATION AND TOFD DISPLAY SHOWING THE IMAGE OF THE POROSITY
Figure 7.22 FLAW LOCATION AND TOFD DISPLAY SHOWING THE IMAGE OF THE TRANSVERSE
CRACK

Transmitter Lateral Receiver
Reflected
Back wall
L B
Reflection
SHOWING THE IMAGE OF THE INTERPASS LACK OF FUSION
2 - Incomplete 3 - Slag 4 - Incomplete

sidewall fusion fusion at root
Figure 7.24 SCHEMATIC OF FLAW LOCATIONS AND TOFD IMAGE SHOWING THE LATERAL

WAVE, BACKWALL, AND THREE OF THE FOUR FLAWS
7.20 Multiple Flaw Images
TOFD images of awed welds contain four aws each. 3.17.1 Plate 1 [Fig. 7.25]
Top
3
2
1
4
GENERAL NOTES:
1. Root crack (right): ~ 1.6-2.5 in. (40-64 mm) from one end.
2. Incomplete sidewall fusion (mid-left): ~ 4-5 in. (100-125 mm). 3. Slag: ~ 6.4-7.2 in. (163-183 mm).
4. Incomplete fusion at root (left): ~ 9.3-10.5 in. (237-267 mm).
Figure 7.25 clearly illustrates the significant advantages of TOFD (midwall aw detection,
aw sizing), the limitations due to dead zones, and that
(a) the sidewall incomplete fusion shows up clearly, as does the slag.
(b) the incomplete fusion at the root was not easily detected, though it did disturb the
backwall. This is not surprising in the backwall dead zone due to a shear-shear diffracted
wave. This example illustrates the potential value of using information later in the time base,
but this is outside the scope of this interpretation manual.
(c) the root crack is not visible at all due to the backwall dead zone.
3.17.2 Plate 2 [Figure 7.26]
3 4
2
GENERAL NOTES:
1. Incomplete fusion at root (left): ~ 0.6-.8 in. (15-45 mm) from one end.
2. Toe crack (top left): ~ 3-4 in. (80-100 mm).
3. Porosity: ~ 5.5-6.25 in. (140-160 mm).
4. Incomplete sidewall fusion (upper right): ~ 8-9.25 in. (200-235 mm).
Figure 7.26 shows that:
(a) all four aws are detectable
(b) the incomplete fusion at the root shows up clearly in this scan because it is deeper. Both
the backwall perturbation and the aw tip signals are clear.

(c) the crown toe crack is clearly visible, both by complete disruption of the lateral wave and
by the bottom tip signal. Both the incomplete fusion at the root and crown toe crack are
identifiable as surface breaking by the disruption of the lateral wave and backwall signal,
respectively.
(d) the porosity is visible as a series of signals. This cluster of porosity would be difficult to
characterize properly using the TOFD scan alone, since it could be identified as slag or a
planar aw.
(e) the incomplete sidewall fusion is clearly visible and could be easily sized using cursors
1 - Incomplete 2 - Toe crack 3 - Porosity 4 - Incomplete

fusion at root sidewall fusion
Figure 7.27 SCHEMATIC OF FLAW LOCATIONS AND TOFD DISPLAY SHOWING THE LATERAL WAVE,
BACKWALL, AND FOUR FLAWS
7.21 Typical Problems With TOFD
TOFD images can be corrupted by incorrect setups or other problems such as electrical
noise. The following images were all made on the same plate to show some of the typical
problems that can occur. Starting first with an acceptable scan, and then subsequent
scans made to show various corruptions of this image.
(a) Acceptable Scan [Fig.7.28]. The gain and gate setting are reasonable, and the
electrical noise is minimal.
(b) Incorrect Low Gain Setting [Fig. 7.29]. The lateral wave and some of the diffracted
signals are starting to disappear. At yet lower gain levels, some of the diffracted signals

would become undetectable.
(c) Incorrect High Gain Setting [Fig. 7.30]. The noise level increases to obscure the
diffracted signals; this can lead to reduced probability of detection, and poor sizing. High
noise levels can also arise from large grains. In this case, the solution is to reduce the
ultrasonic frequency.
(d) Correct gate settings are critical, because TOFD A-scans are not that easy to interpret
since there are multiple visible signals. As a minimum, the gates should encompass the
lateral wave and longitudinal wave backwall signal; the gate can extend to the shear
wave backwall, if required. Typically, the best signal to use as a guide is the first
(longitudinal wave) backwall, since it is strong and always present (assuming the
transducer separation is reasonably correct). The following Figures show examples of
incorrect gate positioning, which will inherently lead to poor aw detection.
The first example, Fig. 7.31, shows the gate set too early, the lateral wave is visible, and
the backwall is not. Any inside (ID) near-backwall aws will be missed
The second example, Fig. 7.32, shows the gate set too late. The lateral wave is not
visible. The first signal is the backwall, and the second signal is the shear wave backwall.
With this setup, all the outside (OD) near-surface aws will be missed.
The third example Fig. 7.33 is with the gate set too long. Though this is not technically
incorrect, the image will show the diffracted backwall shear-shear wave signal. These S-S
waves may show additional and confirmatory information. The diffracted shear waves
show the porosity more clearly than the diffracted longitudinal waves and there is a strong
mode-converted signal that occurs just before the shear wave gate, which could cause
interpretation problems. Normally, the gate is set fairly short to enclose only the lateral
wave and the longitudinal wave backwall to clarify interpretation.
(e) Incorrect (too far apart) transducer separation [Fig. 7.34] results in the backwall signal
becoming distorted, the lateral wave becomes weaker, and some of the diffracted signal
amplitudes drop.
(f) Incorrect (too close together) transducer separation [Fig. 7.35] results in the lateral
waves becoming stronger, and the backwall weaker. Again, the TOFD image of the aws
is poor.
(g) If the transducers are not centered on the weld [Fig. 7.36], the diffracted signal
amplitudes will

OD Surface-breaking flaw
Lateral
wave
Near Surface
flaw Buried
Region of
porosity -
often difficult
to detect
Backwall
Figure 7.28 ACCEPTABLE NOISE LEVELS, FLAWS, LATERAL WAVE, AND LONGITUDINAL WAVE BACKWALL
Signals
becoming
invisible
in this area
Figure 7.29 TOFD IMAGE WITH GAIN TOO LOW

Signals are
becoming
confused
in these areas.
Figure 7.30 TOFD IMAGE WITH GAIN SET TOO HIGH
Lateral wave
Figure 7.31 TOFD IMAGE WITH THE GATE SET TOO EARLY

L-wave
backwall
S-wave
backwall
signal
Figure 7.32 TOFD IMAGE WITH THE GATE SET TOO LATE
Lateral Wave
L-wave
backwall
S-wave
backwall
signal
Figure 7.33 TOFD IMAGE WITH THE GATE SET TOO LONG

Distorted
L-wave
backwall
Figure 7.34 TOFD IMAGE WITH TRANSDUCERS SET TOO FAR APART
Strong
lateral wave
Weak L-wave
backwall
signal
Figure 7.35 TOFD IMAGE WITH TRANSDUCERS SET TOO CLOSE TOGETHER

Figure 7.36 TOFD IMAGE WITH TRANSDUCERS NOT CENTERED ON THE WELD AXIS
Figure 7.37 TOFD IMAGE SHOWING ELECTRICAL NOISE INTERFERENCE

d1 A-Scan
d1
h
t1 t2
Cursors Build-in
t1, t2 d1, d2 and h are automatically
calculated. P
D-Scan
Figure 7.38 MEASUREMENT TOOLS FOR FLAW HEIGHTS
S S
Transmitter Receiver
t0 t0
Figure 7.39 SCHEMATIC SHOWING THE DETECTION OF OFF-AXIS FLAWS

S S
Transmitter Receiver
t0
t1 t2
Figure 7.40 MEASUREMENT ERRORS FROM FLAW POSITION UNCERTAINTY
Flaw Position Uncertainty

GENERAL NOTE: In practice, the maximum error on absolute depth position lies below 10%. The error on height estimation of internal
(small) aws is negligible. Be careful of small aws situated at the backwall.

OmniScan Orientation
OmniScan principles
Instrument features
Menu navigation
File extensions & file management
Slide 1
The R/D Tech OmniScan MX

innovative and portable multi-
Technology NDT instrument.
OmniScan Principles
Phased array flaw detection
NDT instrument having ECT, UT and PA A-scan, B-scan, and C-scan
Capabilities Imaging with mechanical
Encoders
Works from a Microsoft OS
Data Storage Options
Battery powered or AC supplied
Internal and external data storage options

Compact Flash
USB Mass Storage devices
External Hard drives
Bluetooth Wireless
Slide 2

OmniScan Front Panel

Scroll knob
Accept/Cancel keys
Alpha/Numeric key
pad
On/Off (green)
Option keys
Help (yellow)
Menu keys
Main menu key
Slide 3
The left-side panel of the

OmniScan
Instrument Features Standard computer interface ports used

for expanded connectivity.
Left-side panel of theLeft-
OmniScan
Ports, Links & Connections
USB 1.0 ports (3)
Each one of the three USB 1.0 ports can
USB 1.0 ports (3) accommodate a USB peripheral, such as
EthernetTM (Rj-45) port(Rj- an external keyboard, mouse, storage
Serial port device, printer, Bluetooth wireless
network adapter, etc.
Ethernet (RJ-45) port

Used to connect to an Ethernet network.
Serial port
Used mainly for debugging.
Slide 4

Right-side panel of the

OmniScan
Instrument Features
Right-side panel ofRight-
DC power adapter plug
OmniScan Headphone
Ports & Connections Microphone
DC power adapter plug
AC adapter input Memory card slot
Headphone jack
Microphone jack Battery compartment door
CompactFlashTM
Battery compartment
Slide 5
Top Panel of the OmniScan
Instrument Features There are three connectors located on the

top panel of the OmniScan.
Top Panel of the
OmniScan Scanner interface
Scanner interface Used to connect a mechanical scanner.
Alarm and I/O Alarm and I/O
SVGA output
Used as an alarm output and a control
input.
SVGA output
An external VGA or SVGA monitor can be
connected to this
DB-15 port, which mirrors the OmniScan
display.
Slide 6

Instrument Features
Front Panel of the OmniScan
Front panel of the
OmniScan
The front panel of the OmniScan is the
Function keys location of the main controls.
Power key found. This panel is divided into nine
Help key areas:
Option keys Main Control Area
Menu keys Function Keys
Power Button
Up and Down Keys
Menu Key
Submenu Keys
Help Key
Option Keys
Indicator Lights
Slide 7

Main Control Area
Control keys You can control the OmniScan completely

from there if you wish.
It contains three elements:
Scroll knob
Used to navigate
through selections
Scroll knob
without resorting to
a keyboard or a Used to navigate through selections
mouse without resorting to a keyboard or to a
Accept key mouse.
Cancel key
Scroll Up (keys)
Used to move up a Cancel key
vertical list and left Used to cancel the current selection or to
on a horizontal list
go back up one level in the menu
Scroll Down hierarchy.
Used to move down a
vertical list and left
on a horizontal list
Accept key
Used to confirm a selection.
The use of these keys is described in

more detail in chapter 4, OmniScan
Slide 8
Interface.
Function Keys
Instrument Features There are 14 types of function keys on the

OmniScan front panel. These keys
possess up to three types of information
written on them, each of these types
Function Keys being color-coded as follows:
Key Pad
Alpha
Numeric
White: primary function when connected
Delete functions
to ECT or UT modules
Short cuts
Yellow: alphabetical characters and
symbols
Green: numeric characters and signs
10
Slide 9

Gain key
Used to access the Gain (control) edit
button (UT >General > Gain) when used
in edit mode.
Function Keys
Phase Rotation/Display Delay
Short Cuts
key
Gain key Used to access the Start (delay/rotation)
accesses the gain edit/cyclic button (UT > General > Start)
control edit box
Phase
when used in edit
Rotational/Display mode.
Delay key
accesses the Start Frequency/Range key
(delay/rotation)
edit/cyclic box Used to access the Range (frequency
Frequency/Range key control) edit/cyclic button (UT > General >
accesses the Range
(frequency/control)
Range) when used in edit mode.
edit/cyclic box
File key File key
accesses the file Used to access the File submenu (File >
submenu
File > File Manager) when used in edit
mode.
Slide 10
Display key
Function Keys Used to access the Display list (Display
>Selection > Display) when used in edit
Short Cuts
mode.
Display key
accesses the display
list Channel Selector key
Channel select key
Used to switch
Used to switch between acquisition
between acquisition channels. The equivalent software
channels command path is Reading >Cursor >
Set reference key
allows you to set the
Channel.
reference without
accessing the menus
Erase/Clear key
used to erase all
Set Reference key
previously stored Used to set the reference without having
acquisitions to access the menus. The equivalent
software command path
is UT > Advanced > Set Ref.
Erase/Clear key
Slide 11 Used to erase all previously stored
acquisitions.

Start/Stop key
Used to start or stop an inspection. This
Function Keys key will reset the previously acquired data
and/or encoder if
Short Cuts selected. The equivalent software
Start/Stop key command path is Scan > Start > Start.
Used to stop/start
an inspection
will reset the
previously Store/Print key
acquired data Used to save a screen capture or to print
and/or encoder if
selected the current screen (provided that a printer
Store/Print key is connected to the
Used to save a OmniScan). The equivalent software
screen capture or command path is File > File > Save Data.
to print the
current screen.
Slide 12

Keys
Help key
Access to online Help key
help about the
current function Pressing this key displays online help
that you are using. about the current function you are using.
Power
Used to activate or
shutdown the
OmniScan.
Power button
Used to activate or shut down the
OmniScan.
Menu
Used to display all
available menus Menu key
from almost any
location within the Used to automatically display all the
software. available menus from almost any location
within the software.
Slide 13
User Interface options

User Interface Options
Menus
Sub- Menus
User interface organized in menus, Parameters
sub-menus and parameters.
Navigation Options
Navigation options include menu
keys, parameter keys, function keys, Menu Keys
control area knob, external scroll Parameter keys
mouse, and keyboard. Function keys
Control knob
Scroll mouse
Keyboard

Slide 14

Software Navigation Interface Description
The following are the major elements in

the OmniScan interface.
Data Display
Information Fields
Menu Button
Submenu Buttons
Option Buttons
Battery Indicators
Setup Status Indicators
The above interface elements are each
addressed in detail afterwards in a
specific
section.
Slide 15

Data Display
The data display area is located in the

OmniScan Software Interface middle of the interface display. Where
incoming data is graphically displayed and
analyzed. Its colors can be customized.
Data Display
Information fields
Menu buttons
Submenu buttons
Option Buttons
Setup status
indicator
Battery indicators
Slide 16
OmniScan Software Interface Menu Button

Menu button
The menu button contains all the main
Displays menus menus available in the current software
pertaining to package. Some of these menuslike
selection made in File, Reading, User, and Utilitiescan
the submenu list be found in every software package, while
others are package-specific.
The main menus represent the first-level

commands. When a selected menu from
that list is chosen, the submenus and
options appear automatically in the
respective areas.
The menu button is displayed above the

submenu buttons. The name on the menu
Slide 17 button displays which menu is currently
selected.
Each menu contains between two and five
submenus, which are displayed directly

beneath it.
Submenu Buttons
The submenu buttons are also found on
OmniScan Software Interface the left side of the interface display, just
below the menu button. They contain
Submenu buttons second-level commands. Between three
and five
submenus are displayed whenever a
menu is selected. The content of the
submenus
depend on the menu that is selected.
When a submenu is selected, the options
associated to that submenu appear in the
option area at the bottom of the screen.
To select a submenu
1 Select a menu by using one of the
navigation methods.
2 Select the desired submenu button at
the left of the data display area.
If applicable, this will transfer you to the
option area.
Slide 18

Option Buttons
The option buttons are located at the
OmniScan Software Interface bottom of the interface display and they
contain third- and fourth-level commands.
Option buttons There can be up to six option buttons per
submenu.
Command
Toggle Command
List
This type of button causes a specific
Edit
action to be carried out.
Edit list
i.e. Save As
Edit cyclic
Toggle
This type of button allows you to alternate between
two settings.
i.e. Probe On/Off
List
This type of button displays a list of options from
which you must choose.
i.e. Range of frequencies available
Edit
This type of button allows you to enter an
alphanumerical value or modify an existing value.
i.e. File Name
Slide 19 Edit list

This type of button is similar to a list button, but
possesses an editable field as the last option in the
list. This means that
you can either choose one of the present options or
create your own.
Edit cyclic
This type of button contains two different values that
can be edited separately.
OmniScan Software Interface

Setup status Setup Status Indicators
indicators
The setup status indicators display
indications about the current status of the
OmniScan. They are located in the upper-
left corner of the display screen.
Slide 20

OmniScan Orientation Power Supply Management
The OmniScan is a portable instrument
and it can draw power either from Lithium-
Ion batteries or from a DC power adapter.
OmniScan Software Interface Lithium-Ion Batteries

The OmniScan can store up to two
Battery indicators batteries, but it only needs one to be
operational. If two batteries are present,
the OmniScan will operate from the least
charged battery by
default and it will automatically switch to
the next battery once the remaining
charge of the first battery is less than 5%.
A battery can be replaced without shutting
down the OmniScan, this is termed a
HOT SWAP as long as there is
another valid power source (DC power
adapter or another battery).
Battery Status Indicators

The battery status indicators on the
upper-left corner of the display screen
indicate the amount of power left in each
battery in one of the two following different
ways.
Slide 21
The remaining operational time is
displayed inside the battery status
indicator.
The OmniScan requires around 15
minutes of operation to display this
information.
The charge indicator (bar) inside the
battery status indicator represents an
approximation of the amount of power left
in that battery.

File Menu
File Menu
The File menu manages the options
pertaining to data files, reports, setups,
formatting, and similar options.
File
The File submenu manages data storage,
setup, and file management options.
Parameters
Destination
Main Menu Lists the destinations where data can be
stored.
Storage Card:
Stores data, setups, and reports on the
CompactFlash memory card.
Disk On Chip:
Stores data, setups, and reports on the
integrated memory chip.
That space is very limited, so use it with
caution.
Slide 22

Reading Menu Reading Menu
The Reading menu provides various

measurement options and statistical tools.
Menu
Result
The Result submenu manages various
reading display options.
Main Menu Field (1, 2, 3, or 4)
These four buttons specify which reading
will be displayed in
the respective reading fields at the top of
the display screen
Slide 23
Utilities Menu Utilities Menu

The Utilities menu includes different
system utilities available in the OmniScan
software. combination (if you have a
keyboard plugged in) or selection of the
OmniScan button on the taskbar.
Main Menu
Slide 24

UT Menu UT Menu
The UT menu covers the ultrasound

settings of the OmniScan.
General
Main Menu The General submenu manages the main
parameters that are applied
simultaneously to all channels.
Slide 25
Scan Menu
The Scan menu manages the options
related to storing an area based on a time
Scan Menu base or
on an x and y encoded signal.
Encoder
The Encoder submenu manages the
configuration of the encoders.
Main Menu
Slide 26

Display Menu
Display Menu
The Display menu manages the options
related to the display screen.
Selection
The Selection submenu manages the
signal that will be displayed.
Display
Main Menu Allows the selection of display type(s)
desired on the data display.
Source
This button only appears when the
operator selects the C-scan display type.
which allows specification of the source
for the C-scan.
Slide 27
Probe/Part Menu
Probe /Part Menu
The Probe/Part menu contains the
parameters that relate to the probes
themselves, the
wedge, and the part to inspect.
Select
The Select submenu manages the
descriptions of probes and wedges used
in the inspection process.
Main Menu Note:
Auto Probe recognition or PR is a main
feature of the OmniScan.
Should mention that probe recognition will
override the probe manager.
Auto Detect
When activated, this option bypasses the
automatic probe detection in order to
configure the probe manually.
Slide 28 Probe Definition Manager

The Probe Definition Manager is used to
define the parameters of a custom probe.

Probe Probe Menu
The PGM Probe menu manages the

parameters related to the programming of
a probe.
Configuration
Main Menu The Configuration submenu manages
the parameters related to the type of
scans performed by the probe.
Slide 29
Gate/Alarm Menu
Gate/Alarm Menu
The Gate/Alarm menu manages the
parameters pertaining to the gates and
the
alarms.
Gate
The Gate submenu manages the position
of the gates.
Main Menu Gate
Allows specification of which gate requires
modification
A: Gate A (red)
B: Gate B (green)
I: Gate I (yellow)
Alarms
The Alarms submenu manages the
configuration of the different alarm
conditions.
Slide 30 Select
Allows specification of which alarm
requires modification
Activation
When activated, this option activates the
alarm.

Calibration Menu Calibration Menu

The Calibration menu contains multiple
step-by-step procedures that help the
operator perform all required calibration
operations.
The options contained in the submenus of

Main Menu the Calibration menu all work as follows:
The Action option describes the actual

step being performed.
The option buttons located to the right of
the action buttons contain configurable
parameters related to that step.
When you have finished selecting or
entering your options, choose the Apply
button. This brings the process to the next
step of the procedure and continues until
the entire procedure has been completed.
Slide 31
User Menu
User Menu
Main Menu
Slide 32

Peripheral Connection
Peripherals R/D Tech recommends to shut down the
OmniScan before installing a peripheral,
Probes unless it is a USB peripheral, in which
case a shutdown is not necessary.
Manual scanners
Video and voice
recording
Generate & print Probes, scanners and other
reports
accessories
Storage devices
The OmniScan offers the connectivity,
data storage and imaging to satisfy the
most demanding requests in order to
achieve the highest testing performances
in NDT.
Slide 33
Peripheral Connection
R/D Tech recommends to shut down the
Peripheral Connection OmniScan before installing a peripheral,
unless it is a USB peripheral, in which
case a shutdown is not necessary.
Probes, scanners and other

accessories
The OmniScan offers the connectivity,
data storage and imaging to satisfy the
most demanding requests in order to
achieve the highest testing performances
in NDT.
The OmniScan features an Ethernet port
(LAN) to contact other work stations, USB
ports to connect other peripherals such as
a keyboard, a mouse, a printer or to
facilitate data storage to any PC external
storage device.
The OmniScan also supports probes and
manual scanners to have a complete test
solution as well as video and voice
Slide 34 recording capabilities to generate
complete reports based on your test
sessions.

File Manager
File Management Using the File Manager
File manager
The File Manager is a utility used to
Utilities manage the files on the memory card.
This section explains how to use the File
Manager utility (Utilities > Service > File)
General Function
Close
Closes the file manager and returns to the
display screen.
Manage
Manages the files on the memory card.
The operations always affect the files
located in the left pane of the File
39 Manager.
Slide 35
Using the File Manager

File Management When copying files from one location to
File manager another, The operations always affect the
files located in the left pane of the File
Utilities > Service > File
Manager.
Manager
40
Slide 36

File Naming Convention File Name Options
Used to modify the name of the current

It is important to have an established file. The following variables can be used:
naming convention in place for all file #: number (data### becomes data001,
types, for example: data002, and so on)
%D: date (dd_mm_yyyy format)
Setup/Calibration files %T: time (h.mm.ss format)
Cal_PA_60.ops Example: Report _ ###%D_%T becomes
Data files Report001_16 09 2003_5.33.00
60_F02A_09.opd
Reports
REJ_60F02A.htm
Capture files
EntryPA_F02A_0002.bmp
41
Slide 37
File Management Overview

File Management Overview
The file management structure is
broken down into a flow chart for
quick reference.
42
Slide 38

Encoder Calibration
Introduction
to
Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD)
&
Phased Array (PA)
Using the OmniScan MX
Slide 1
OmniScan
Encoder calibration applies to:

UT
TOFD
Phased Array Techniques
Slide 2

Encoder Calibration
The distance can be measured from any

standardized location on the
Encoder Calibration array/encoder/wedge
Encoder
Allows you to select the encoder to configure.
Polarity
Allows you to reverse the count of the encoder if

the probe can only scan in the opposite direction of
intended travel.
Type
Allows you to specify the type of the selected

encoder.
Clock/Dir: clock/direction type signal
Quad: quadrature type signal
Up: upward counter type signal
Down: downward counter type signal
Quad Up: quadrature and upward counter type

Slide 3 signal
Time: Firing is done at precise time intervals. Quad Down: quadrature and downward counter
type signal
Encoder 1: Firing is done at precise distance intervals based on a single position of
the encoder. Resolution
Encoder 2: Firing is done at precise distance intervals based on two positions. Used to set the number of counts per unit of the
selected encoder.
Index
Origin
Field is not editable. When applicable, it is always set as the opposite of the Scan
option. Used to set the value to which the selected encoder
is preset when the Preset command button is used.
Scan Speed
Preset
Used to set the scanning speed.
Presets the selected encoder to origin.
Area
Synchro
The Area submenu manages the options of the area to be scanned.
The Synchro submenu manages the firing source
Scan start
for single or two axis scans.
Used to set the starting location of the scan axis.
Source
Scan length
Allows you to select the source of the acquisition
Used to set the length of the scan axis. pace.
Scan Resolution Clock: internal clock
Used to set the step at which the points will be acquired on the scan axis. One Axis: x or y mechanical movement with
encoder
Index start
Both Axes: x and y mechanical movement with
Used to set the starting location of the index axis. encoder
Index length External: external signal

Used to set the length of the index axis. Scan
Index Resolution Allows you to specify the source of the data
positioning for the scan axis.
Used to set the increment of the index axis.

Encoder Calibration
Display of various encoder types
Encoder Calibration
Slide 4
Scan Settings
Scan Settings
To calibrate the encoder ensure that under
the Scan Menu is the appropriate settings
Encoder for the encoder calibration
Encoder
Polarity Encoder
Type
Resolution Under encoder there are couple of options
Origin available for performing a one or two axis
Preset scan.
For our applications we will be performing

one axis scans and therefore would select
Encoder 1
Slide 5

Encoder Calibration
Scan Settings
Scan Settings
Encoder Select Encoder 1:
Encoder 1 Select the encoder or axis to calibrate.
Encoder 2
Axis Select
Allows you specify which encoder you
want to modify.
Encoder 1 Pos
A read only button that displays the
position of the first (1st) encoder.
Encoder 2 Pos
A read only button that displays the
position of the second (2nd) encoder.
Slide 6
Polarity
Scan Settings
Applies to scan direction
This is Normal or Inverse and allows you
Polarity to perform scans on either side of the plate
Inverse while maintaining the 0 position on both
Normal scans.
Also allows you to reverse the count of the
encoder if the probe can only scan in the
wrong direction (the direction in which you
do not wish to scan).
Slide 7

Encoder Calibration
Scan Settings Type
Scan Settings
Type
Type Allows you to specify the type of the

Clock/Dir selected encoder.
Quad
Up
Down
Clock/Dir Down
Clock/Dir Up
Quad Up
Quad Down
Slide 8
Scan Settings > Resolution

Scan Settings
Resolution
Resolution Used to set the number of counts per unit

CPU (counts per unit) of the selected encoder.
1 unit = 1
resolution of
selected encoder
Scan Settings > Origin
Origin
Origin
Applies an offset to
Used to set the value to which the selected
the scan start encoder is preset when the Preset
position compared command button is used.
to 0
Slide 9

Encoder Calibration
Scan settings > Synchro

The Synchro submenu manages the firing
Scan Settings source for single or two-axis scans
Synchro
One Axis Select
Encoder Select
Index
Scan Speed
Slide 10
The Area submenu manages the options of

the area to be scanned.
Scan Settings Scan start
Area Used to set the starting location of the scan

Scan offset axis.
Scan End
Scan length
Scan Resolution
Index Start Used to set the length of the scan axis.
Index Resolution
Scan Resolution
Used to set the step at which the points will

be acquired on the scan axis.
Index start
Used to set the starting location of the

index axis.
Index length
Used to set the length of the index axis.

Slide 11 Index Resolution
Used to set the increment of the index axis.

Encoder Calibration
Start
The Start submenu manages the different

parameters that need to be reset before a
Scan Settings scan.
Start Mode
Start Allows you to specify the action to be

Mode
applied when the acquisition is started.
Reset Encoder Reset All:

and Data
Resets all parameters (encoder presets
Reset Encoder and display pane settings).
Reset Data
Reset Encoder:
Pause
Start Resets both encoders only to their Origin
values.
Reset:
Only the display pane is refreshed.

Pause
Slide 12 When activated, this option pauses the
firings.
Clear
Clears the display panes (Cscan, Bscan,

etc.).
Calibration
Encoder Calibration
Calibration Select Axis
Axis The Axis submenu manages the
Select Encoder calibration of one or two encoders.
The Axis submenu is similar to a

procedure in four steps. Each time the
Apply button is chosen, a new set of
options appears. You may skip to any step
of the procedure by selecting the desired
step in the Action list box.
Slide 13

Encoder Calibration
Set Origin > Origin
Used to set the origin point of the axis.
Encoder Calibration
Set Origin
Position the encoder
at zero position
14
Slide 14
Set distance
Encoder Calibration To set the distance input the distance that

you intend on moving the encoder along the
ruler to calibrate it. Input a distance then,
Set Distance move the encoder that distance and select
Move encoder to calibrate.
selected distance
and select calibrate Distance
Used to set the distance of the axis.
Encoder 1 Pos
A read only button that displays the position
of the first encoder.
15
Slide 15

Encoder Calibration
Accept Calibration
Encoder Calibration To verify the calibration resolution move the

encoder to the origin and ensure the
numbers listed for that axis return to zero
Accept Calibration
Slide 16

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What is TOFD and how does it work?

What is TOFD and how does it work?

What are the main components of TOFD equipment?

What are the main components of TOFD equipment?

TIME OF FLIGHT DIFFRACTION

1. ULTRASONIC NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

If an electric potential is applied to a piezoelectric type material it oscillates and if it is

Velocity = wavelength X Frequency

1.1 PULSE-ECHO DETECTION OF FLAWS

An Ultrasonic inspection of a sample is carried out by scanning the metal with a

Rev 0 Nov 2011 Page 1 of 147

The decision to report the presence of a reflector in pulse echo inspections is

1.2 FLAW SIZING WITH THE PULSE-ECHO TECHNIQUE

Figure 1.1 Flaw Size in relation to beam spread

Rev 0 Nov 2011 Page 2 of 147

Rev 0 Nov 2011 Page 3 of 147

Defect positions Through-thickness Length

1.3 COMPARISION OF FLAW SIZING ACCURACY FOR DIFFERENT

Rev 0 Nov 2011 Page 4 of 147

1.4.1. BACKGROUND TO THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TOFD TECHNIQUE

If it could be proved by successive Ultrasonic examinations of the defects that they

Rev 0 Nov 2011 Page 5 of 147

1.5 History of TOFD Development

Figure 1.3 Illustration of Importance of accurate sizing measurements

Rev 0 Nov 2011 Page 6 of 147

1.6 TOFD Advantages and Limitations

TOFD (especially when used with a positioning encoded

Generally levels of accuracy attainable by TOFD are

Rev 0 Nov 2011 Page 7 of 147

When a TOFD scan can be made using a single non-

Commercial considerations make speed an important

Most NDT methods have volume coverage and resolution

The full volume of weld material and HAZs at speeds

Rev 0 Nov 2011 Page 8 of 147

This item may be an advantage or disadvantage. It

Easy discrimination of defects and geometry

A common problem experienced in manual ultrasonic

Because of the omni-directional aspect of diffracted

TOFD data can be collected by manual or mechanised

Rev 0 Nov 2011 Page 9 of 147

Reduced Operator Reliance

Since TOFD data can be collected and stored to a

Typically the diffracted signals associated with

The most widely accepted limitation to TOFD is

Rev 0 Nov 2011 Page 10 of 147

If such defects are of genuine concern then a

Rev 0 Nov 2011 Page 11 of 147

Rev 0 Nov 11 Page 12 of 147

2.3 Conventional Use of Diffraction

Rev 0 Nov 11 Page 14 of 147

Mode converted (shear wave) echo

Define top and bottom of part

Note phase change

2.5 Basics of TOFD inspection

Rev 0 Nov 11 Page 15 of 147

2.7 A-Scan with Defect Present

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2.9 Back Wall Signal

Rev 0 Nov 11 Page 17 of 147