History - Advances in S&T were centered on the

study of the evolution of present society and development of agricultural tools, and on
culture the invention of irrigation systems
Uniqueness: dimension of time
2 aspects: Natural Barriers
- Objective: evidence & research method They have both worked for and against the
- Subjective: interpretation & search for development of S&T
relevance Mountains and seas determined to some
What can it teach us? extent, the susceptibility of settlements to
Many people of the past have influence the way invasions and the direction of the development
we live today. of S&T
- Development of military technology
Pattern of Scientific and Technological - Production of defense weapons
Development in Ancient Times - Advancements in metallurgy & metal
Advances in S&T came about first casting
independently of each other then later
interdependently Climactic extremes explain the diversity in S&T
From this earlier independent development of Growth
S&T, arose dissimilarities in each culture, Long dry spells led to the construction of
which caused differences in the type and artificial irrigation systems
degree in S&T development Overflowing rivers, which caused floods
damaged crop brought about the invention of
The Degree & Rate of S&T Growth in the dikes and dams
Different Culture was Influenced by Crop rotation
Interactions of Different Factors Calendar came into existence to track seasons
1. External Factors Different raw materials were available for
those considered to be external to construction, clothing, etc.
communities Techniques, which could be used to process
- Geography the available resources
- Trade
2. Internal Factors Natural Resources
those which inhered in or may be Food clothing, household & other items used in
considered internal to communities daily living
- Mode of living Tools and implements, techniques and skills
- The peoples belief systems Houses, buildings, other structures &
construction materials
Geography Defense and Invasion
Favorable geographical situations enabled the Other industries
people to live in settlements and encouraged
village life Trade
All civilizations started near a body of water. Initially done through barter, trade became
Water is attributed to: increasingly sophisticated, with S&T both
- Water being a basic human need spurring and assisting the exchange of goods
- Good source of food and service. Thus, all civilizations which
- Needed for agriculture, food processing, engaged in trade, experiences foreign
and daily human activities influences, some of which were S and/or T in
- Avenue for various occupations (farming, nature
fishing, trade, etc.)
Thus, primitive man changed from being Factors which made trade and commerce
nomadic to being a settler flourished
Scarcity and excessed in supply from available
natural resources and/or production
 Increasing population Some religions provided venues for the pursuit
The emergence of urban societies and of art, literature, architecture, etc. with their
manufacturing industries, not only increase attendant requirements that spurred S&T
demand but also created new needs. developments
- the Greek Parthenon
The Effects of Trade - the Egyptian pyramids
Greater interaction and communication among - the Mesopotamian ziggurats
people and societies further facilitated
developments in S&T Law and Government
Development of transportation and Based on belief systems, law and government
communication technologies influence the direction of development that
Advances in monetary system S&T take
- Increase in wealth enabled savings and
investment in S&T research and Remarkable similarities in the way S&T
development developed in different places and times and
- The spread of scientific knowledge and among different people may be observed.
technological products across the ancient S&T are products of the activity of human
world internal factors (needs, motivation,
creativity)
Modes of Living
All early civilizations started out as agricultural I. S&T were brought about by efforts to fulfill
communities human needs and wants
- As such, S&T developments were directed S&T are some of the consequences of
toward improving agriculture, for example, human creativity grappling with to address
the invention of plow human needs and wants
Population increased with the increase and Generally, the thrust of S&T development in
stabilization of food supply with the consequent the societies considered was to increase
increase in the number of communities and the production and/or find other ways of
settlements meeting their needs and wants
- The growing population created markets for S&T are products of mans inevitable
a wide range of products made by interaction with his environment
specialized craftsmen and spurred trade - S&T are results of mans response to
further external factors (environment
Division of labor and specialization brought economics, social institutions, political
about further development in S&T systems)
- Each occupation specialized further, thus
expanding the frontiers of knowledge, II. S&T involved adapting to the environment
generating new technologies and requiring All civilizations have had to work with nature
new skills to be learned and environment
The S&T advancements of the different
Belief Systems societies, in fact, indicated how well people
Mans attitudes and the way he dealt with this responded to the challenges of their
surroundings environment
- The ways S&T have developed was
influenced by mans beliefs III. S&T brought with it social change
Changes in mans knowledge of nature and the
Belief Systems and Man universe brought about change in the way he
Major role played by belief systems in the acted and reacted
advancement of S&T Changes, too, in mans ways of doing things
- May hinder or promote S&T as these affect (technology), also brought about changes in
the acceptance of scientific discoveries and lifestyles, not just of individuals, but also of
the use of different technologies entire societies, civilizations, and nations
 Being
Conclusions: the most universal, the most comprehensive;
The emergence and growth of S&T in various hence, the deepest, the most profound of all
societies can be viewed from the perspective concepts
of human nature working within the variables the richest product of the human mind in its
of time and space effort to understand reality, the world, life, and
Underlying all kinds of S&T progress is man, all that is worthwhile
without which we can speak neither of S nor T, Metaphysical Structure of Relity: id quod est
nor progress (that which is) logical being and real being
In fact, one can discern the universality of
human nature in the emergence and growth Logical Being
of S&T in various societies it is purely conceptual eidos (idea) =
Since all social phenomena and historical essence
events come about as a result of human acts, - the concept idea refers to the essence of
man, in his search for truth and in his pursuit of logical beings
progress as he tried to fulfill needs, ultimately - Not everything that can be thought of
can be pinpointed to be the agent of all social necessarily exists
and historical changes Concepts the products of the intellect
- completely different from the material and
ManS&TPhysical world (tools of man) and individual things
its phenomena (realities) - only reflections of the things in our mind
Strong ties bind S&T since both emerged form - help us understand reality, but not to be
the same mind, i.e., the human mind, and identified with it
directed to the same object, i.e., the physical - What is material cannot be one in many
world and its phenomena as the universal is: the essence of man
Man is prior to and bove S&T expressed in the concept of man is one,
and still it is multiplied in many men. (de
Torre)
Introduction to Metaphysics Moderate Realism has its foundation on
reality
Metaphysics - The universal character of concepts is a
the science of beings as beings consequence of the intellects capacity to
branch of philosophy that treats of first abstract.
principles, includes ontology and cosmology, - Expressed by the verb to be: to unite two
and is intimately connected with epistemology concepts, without necessarily affirming their
embraces the whole of reality in its most existence
underlying aspects We affirm the truth when we correctly unite two
- it discovers the deepest principles and the concepts, not because we affirm the existence
most radical foundation of reality of the two concepts
regarded as a superior science Mans ability to put together concepts is what
- it studies the ultimate causes of things accounts for human creativity; what makes
- it takes the role of science that gives technology possible
orientation to the particular sciences
provides us with: Real / Extra-mental Being
- sound principles things differ in many ways, but in one thing
- greater clarity of thought they are the same: in that they are, and they
- a more discerning judgment in ordinary exist
affairs All things in the world are beings because they
all exist
The concept of being is analogical
- The term can be applied to things partly the
same, and partly different
 Being is predicated of everything in an - They are not exclusive of any being
analogical way Four Properties:
Being: id quod est: esse + essence That - One a single unit or entity
which is is a composition - True conforming to reality or factbeing
Ens: esse + essence to be or act of being in accordance with the actual state or
(manner of being or actuality of being) Ens condition
is an essence, which has the act of being - Good state of perfection; satisfactory in
- To be is one thing, the manner of being is quality, quantity or degree; of high quality
another - Beautiful delightful to the sense/mind;
Non-identity of esse and essence excellent of its king; wonderful; remarkable
- Esse (to be or act of actuality of being)
that by which anything is, not mere A Philosophy of Reality
existence as a revelation of being to the human mind
- Essence (manner of being) that which fruit of (wo)mens experiences, stem from
the thing is. It is what a thing is, together observation of nature
with all its fundamental characteristics, or - By observing things around them,
that whereby a thing is what it is nature pondering and then encapsulating
(The essence of anything considered as the experience in words of practical wisdom
principle of operation proper to that thing) When we understand things that they are and
- Esse (actualizes) + Essence (Potency) = what they are we know them
exist in reality Our minds tends to gear itself to both the
- Essence is potency; it is the act of being stable and transient in reality, because reality is
that actualizes it, it may or may not be. like that
Beings are contingent.
Philosophy vs. Particular Sciences
Aristotelian Composition of Things Philosophy studies the act of being;
(Hylomorphic) interested in that things are
Matter is the principle of individuation Particular Sciences concerned with the
(quantified matter) essences of things
- A human being is an individual by virtue of
his materiality Anthropological Foundation of S&T
Form is the principle of categorization (what
classifies things under certain species) Science - mans way to cope with his
Essence of material things: material and form environment through an understanding of nature
of things
Properties of Being Technology - the sum total of the processes by
reveal the richness of anything which man modifies the materials of nature to
- based on the perfection of being better satisfy his needs and wants
- depend on our vision of being or as Man - the principle of both science and
understood by our intelligence (in anything technology
that exists, our intelligence perceives some * S&T are products of mans intellectual activity*
properties which follow necessarily)
2 Kinds: 2 Divergent Facets of Mans Knowledge of
- Transcendental belongs to the level of the Material Universe
esse or the ens as the subject of esse Theoretical or Philosophical
- Predicamental belongs to the level of Practical or Technological or Factual
essence
Science grew out of mans philosophical
Transcendental Properties of Being speculation about nature
Properties found in everything as being Science as a system developed out of mans
They transcend all classifications curiosity to explain the whys of things
- They cannot be classified into any category
 Technology is a rational activity stemming We attempt to make things happen
from the practical facet of mans intellect 2. In terms of aim, technology is product- or
process-oriented
Science - reflecting on ones knowledge and Consequences are machines, gadgets, etc.
discovering why things are so, by looking for
the true causes or explanations of what one Some Aspects about Human Nature
knows Illuminated by S&T
Common Sense - spontaneous use of ones In an activity of S&T kind, man, the discoverer
reason in trying to understand reality, in an and the maker of things has no rival
unreflective way There is no wild animal so astute, capable of
making discoveries or developing techniques
1. Both deal with the same reality the way man can
2. Science brings common sense to perfection
by providing the reasons, the Humans forms Concepts/Ideas transform
explanations, the causes, the whys for the (through Technology) and understand & explain
certainties of common sense (through Science) Reality (the way every thing/
3. They are like two stages of development man/events are). Humans transcend and
observe reality; such that they are part of reality.
* Science is associated with know-why, Humans are self-aware of themselves.
through this, we seek to discover the workings
of nature and we attempt to explain why The Human Intellect
things happen What is the nature of the human intellect from
* In terms of aim, science is knowledge- which S&T take their origin?
oriented. Consequences are concepts, ideas,
theories, etc. The Human Methods (proofs differ in sense)
Natural Sciences
* Knowledge Science from Knowledge of: 1. - utilize empirical explanations involving
Organization, 2. Society, 3. Nature, and 4. observable and locatable elements, what
Individuals our external senses can perceive
* Scientific knowledge is organized into - Material (physical) realities have
concepts, which, if useful, have predictive dimensions, size, parts, and therefore, have
value boundaries. Therefore, they are
* Science is the theoretical framework, which measurable, observable, and locatable.
gives meaning to our factual knowledge Social Sciences
- utilize proofs that only our reason can grasp
Technology as a Rational Activity, stemming (reasoned-proof) arguments that are
from the Practical Facet of Mans Intellect converging and convincing which allow the
Man has the ability to know what things are for. attainment of the certainty about the truth of
He discovers the purposes of things. He, also, a reality
has the capacity to think systematically and
creatively. He can thus innovate and Sensible Realities vs. Intelligible Realities
consciously modify his environment in a way Sensible
no other terrestrial species has achieved. The - capable of being perceived by the senses or
capacity for constructing artifacts is a the mind
determining characteristic of man. - The material universe is sensible
Intelligible
Summary: - capable of being known or understood;
1. Technology is associated with know-how. comprehensible
Through technology, - Concepts that are, apprehended by the
We seek to invent new or improved tools mind only
and materials or better ways of doing
things
Opposition of Concepts and chemical actions and reactions, which
Matter necessarily follow the laws of nature
- anything that occupies space and has mass - Evidence of mans freedom of choice is the
- perceptible by our senses fact of a universal acceptance of a moral
Spirit code and of legal responsibility
- a simple substance
- a substance without parts, size, dimensions; What is man?
therefore, without boundaries Human Powers or Faculties
- not perceptible by our senses Through hid intellect, man us capable of
* Man has both intelligence and sensibility. forming concepts or ideas, of making
* Man perceives reality through his senses but judgements, of understanding and discernment
understands (or grasps) reality through his - Man can know things really and truly. He is
intellect capable of acquiring real knowledge.
Through his will, man is capable of loving, of
The Human Intellect making decisions and choices. Man may
Phenomenon of Human Language choose to act or not to act.
- Humans communicate conscious of what - Man possesses transcendental freedom,
they are talking about, unlike mere material that is, being lord of oneself.
apparatuses which simply emit or receive Human happiness consists in the intellect
signals knowing the truth and the will possessing the
Mode of Operation and Action good
- It has the ability to abstract the essences of Man possesses an intellect and a will, which
things. It is capable of seizing what is are immaterial or spiritual faculties.
permanent in them.
- Our sense perceives the things, but it is our Spirituality of man
intellect that captures or understands the What allows man to transcend the boundaries
things of material things
- The products of its abstraction of the The foundation or root of mans dignity
essences of things are concepts which are (Dignity is the quality of being in himself good,
universal valuable, honorable)
- It has the ability for reflection, that is, it can
understand its own understanding Scientific Objective Appraisal of Man
The intellect has the ability to act Classical Anthropology or Rational Psychology
independent of material things (Aristotle)
- Through the intellects mode of operation Man is a rational animal. (Man is a being
and action, it is a spiritual power capable of rational thinking.)
Rationality
The Human Will - the immanent capacity to grasp the
Mans faculty or power which makes us meaning or essences of things
capable of choosing and loving - what capacitates man
- It is also the power by which a person can to know reality
direct himself or not toward his perfection to be master of self and master of ones
Like the intelligence, the will is a spiritual acts
power
- Its object is the good in a universal or Phenomenological and Existential Appraisal
absolute sense of Man
- It reflects upon itself, that us, it can want to Man is the concrete, that is, the individual
want dynamic subject
Mans will is free, since he acts upon reality Every human being is a person.
with freedom of choices - That is, his nature is endowed with
- Mans decisions and actions cannot be intelligence and free will.
predicted; not as precise as the physical
 Every human being possesses the dignity of a We can discover our strengths and
person weaknesses, our tendencies and passions.
Man is not something, but a conscious We can come to know ourselves.
someone
Every human being that exist: Self-possession or Selfhood
- is a person What accounts for our experiences of
- with a body subjectivity
- thinking and willing - each one of us has an inner world or inner
- capable of subjective interpersonal life or intimacy
relationship - in Tagalog, kalooban.
This presence of self at the very core of each
Personhood of us is what makes us truly unique
what distinguished man from the rest in the No one else can think, feel, or act for us but
world us.
what gives him special qualities which only he - No other creature in this world realizes that
possess: it is a subject except us.
- self-knowledge, self-possession or - No other being is capable of having such
selfhood, self-determination, inalienability, signs of an inner life which grows to the
transcendence, freely giving of self extent that his intellect and will lead him to
live by what is true and good.
Self-knowledge
Better known as self-awareness or self- Mans Existential Value
consciousness Each man is gifted with a nature that cannot
- what allows us to become conscious of be eliminated; each is given a responsibility,
ourselves and of our actions which cannot be substituted; and each is gifted
The consciousness or awareness of ourselves with a dignity, which is inalienable. (Romano
and of our actions allows us to discover our Guardini)
subjectivity People must not be treated as objects of use
- to be aware of the I such that I am but as subjects to be loved. (Immanuel Kant)
different from you Human beings are more valuable for what
On discovering our subjectivity, we get to they are than for what they have. (Gabrielle
realize that we are the efficient cause of our Marcel)
actions. We become aware that the action
belongs to us. hat we own the act. We Self-determination
become aware that we are self-directing or Reveals the truth that we can put direction to
self-governing. This the conclusions: our actions
- I am free. We can direct ourselves or not towards our
- I am the master of my own acts. perfection: self-fulfillment or self-destruction
- Then, comes the awareness, also, of our We can choose what we are and what we
freedom with responsibility. become
Freedom is the power, rooted in reason and - I can bring myself to love and attain my
will, to act or not to act, to do this or that, and desired goals.
so to perform deliberate actions on ones own - I am the builder of my character.
responsibility: - I am the master of my destiny.
- by freewill, one shapes ones own life - Our lifes worth depends on what we make
- human freedom is a force for growth and of it. We cant, or we should not, allow
maturity in truth and goodness ourselves to be dominated by events or by
I, me and myself can be the object of my men. We possess the power to use these
knowing capacity as when I evaluate my events happening around us to our
intentions, my motives, or my aspirations in advantage, for our own good. To live is to
life. create, to produce, and to make a
 distinct product of the person, who is in for him; his life is senseless; if love is not
us. revealed to him; if he does not encounter
- In every human act, the person is love, if he does not experience it and make
actualizing his potentials. A person it his own, if he does not participate
determines himself through his act either for intimately in it. It is in this reality that man
good or for ruin. He becomes the person finds the greatness, dignity and value that
he is because of his choices. belong to his humanity. (Wojtyla, Karol)
- Man is becomingwhat he wants to be
through freedom, by the choices he makes. Personalism
(Gabrielle Marcel) Mans Existential Value
Those characteristics reveal the richness of
Inalienability our being a person. Each one of us is a self-
Being persons means we are not mere reflecting, self-evolving, self-defining
individuals in the species. individual
We are not simply objects but are unique and I can act through myself and not being acted
unrepeatable subjects. upon by others nor events.
The question Who are you? refers to your We have been empowered to move ourselves
specific identity which is unique. from within, which in turn gives us the capacity
- Hence, your claim that you are to orient or prevent acts.
irreplaceable is valid. Man, being the efficient cause of his acts,
can be a real agent who can contribute to the
Transcendence perfection of the society to which he belongs
Understanding, loving, and working - The most important resource of any nation
Some evidences of non-materiality or is its people. (Each one of us is that
spirituality, which transcends matters resource.)
The capacity to be more than what we are is Personalism presents the human being in his
also a dimension of our transcendence existential condition with his intersubjective
relations
Self-giving Personalism gives importance to mans
What is the meaning of human life? What are affectivity; and at the same time, esteems
human beings for? mans rationality.
Our personhood reaches its full development Personalism emphasizes the unmistakable
when we are in communication with others distinction between things and person
The concept of the person is a relational one. - The categories, which we apply to things
Only through our relations with other persons must not be applied to men.
does our personhood reach its zenith.
Man has always striven to develop his life
What is man for? through his mind and his work; today his efforts
Man belongs to himself and possesses himself have achieved a measure of success, for he has
only so that he may go out of himself. extended and continues to extend his mastery
Only the person who possesses him/herself is over nearly all spheres of nature. Thanks to
s/he who can give him/herself science and technology! Thanks above all to an
He can engage in interpersonal relationship, increase in all kinds of interchange between
which entails maturity. nations, the human family is gradually coming
Maturity, therefore, is born of self- to recognize itself and constitute itself as one
knowledge. (Wojtyla, Karol) single community over the whole earth. As a
Man is made to love. result man now produces by his own enterprise
- Every person is meant to love and be loved. many things which in former times he looked for
- Human fulfillment consists in achieving a from heavenly powers.
loving relationship with others.
- Man cannot live without love. He
remains a being that is incomprehensible
The Human Person * All fall short in explaining man and his
Man, in his own nature, is united in the behavior
material and spiritual worlds. * All are (in theory) threats to mans dignity.
A being in 2 dimensions: material and spiritual
A union of body and soul Moral Lessons
- Body and soul form one being 1. Every person is of absolute value. Every
- Union forms only one single nature human life is precious.
Materialism sees human as merely body - Human life is always valuable and
Spiritualism sees human as merely soul. independent of its biological situation:
Man is no two beings as in ghost in a machine usefulness, capabilities, etc.
dualism 2. Man, being a person, has rights and
- Our body is not the whole of our nature as obligations, flowing directly and
with the animals, neither is it outside of our simultaneously from his very nature.
nature as in the case of angels. - These rights and obligations are
universal and inviolable, so they cannot
Fact: 1+1=2 in any way be surrendered.
Consensus: Right? All agree.
Explanation: Something obvious (easily seen, Practical Applications
recognized, understood). Lacking subtlety, it is 1. Human life must be respected and protected
very evident. absolutely from the moment of its conception.
2. To alleviate man from ignorance and sub-
Fact: Man is a composite of matter and spirit. human conditions.
(Body and rational soul) 3. Mans Spirituality
Consensus: Right? Not everyone agrees. - The reason why there is a need to
Explanation: Spiritual reality is something struggle against poverty, misery, and
subtle. Difficult to perceive or understand. To every kind of situation that degrades
accept entails reflection on the facts laid before human dignity.
us by nature: Require mental acuteness, - Every person should be allowed
penetration or discernment , plus right moral conditions of life are in accord with
disposition, that is, openness, objectivity and human dignity.
sincerity. Hence, controversial. - We should employ all our energies to
foster true social progress, a progress
Human body that is every more worthy of man.
Living body due to soul
- Spirit is what gives life to matter; what Humans
makes man capable of thinking and loving. the principle of both science and technology
The body is fulfilled not enslaved by the soul the agent of all social and historical changes
Only humans are self-propelled (an interior life
Human soul is bared)
Form of the body
- No external shape but intrinsic meaning
The soul is expressed in the body (not
imprisoned as thought by Plato) Science as Mans Tool in Search for Truth
The Value of Truth
Most Influential Views on Man Only good can arise from the truth:
Charles Darwin an accidentally-evolved - The truth shall set you free.
clever ape - The truth will make you: a man of sound
Karl Marx a mere cog in an economic state judgment and a man of worth
machine A mans measure is often seen in the wealth
Sigmund Freud a suppressed sex maniac of ideas he stores in his mind.
* Reduced notion of man consider man as
soul less
 An intellectual is a person who reasons things - Search or research facts
out for whom the search for truth is a basic part - Organization and evaluation of data
of life. - Formation of hypothesis
Ignorance of the truth is the root of many - Testing the hypothesis
social evils.
A scientist:
The truth will make you free. has the ability to recognize the variables and to
This expression contains both a fundamental note the effect of changing one variable at a
requirement and a warning. time
- The requirement: an honest relationship has the ability to make careful measurements
with respect to truth as a condition for and to grasp the central theme of his
authentic freedom. observations
- The warning: to avoid every kind of illusory has the ability o sort out the useful aspects of
freedom, every superficial unilateral information and ignore irrelevant data
freedom, every freedom that fails to enter has the ability to formulate testable hypotheses
into the whole truth about man and the
world. * There is no single scientific method, which
when followed produces guaranteed results.
Liberation is particularly linked with * Scientists observe, gather facts, make
knowledge of the truth. hypothesis, but somewhere along the way they
Man becomes free to the extent that he comes to test their hunches and their organization of
knowledge of the truth and to the extent that this facts by experimenting
truthand not any other forceguides his will. * Scientists, like other human beings, are
intuition and generalized few facts.
World of Ideas (Plato) * Sometimes, scientists make mistakes.
Truth is to be sought for in the world of ideas
Truth, characterized by: universality and Man is capable of greatness!
permanence, cannot come from the material, With the enormous scientific and technical
sensible things progress done in the world, such that S&T
- Material / sensible things are merely techniques are evidences of mans dominion
reflection of reality, which exists in the world over nature
of ideas
- Material / sensible things participate of the Characteristics of Human Intelligence
ideal of its nature in the world of ideas Imperfect / fallible
Limited
Material World (Aristotle) Perfectible
Truth must be sought for in the material things Man is given great capacity It is made
Material / sensible things or realities contain powerful by his spiritual powers, the human
within themselves their own principles intelligence and will!
(naturalism)
The wold in itself is intelligible, that is, it can be Contemplating the Things around Us
known or understood by man. Man depends on reality for truth.
Man has the capacity to know. The truth in his mind is effect of the truth
Science is Geared toward the Discovery of outside of himself, which he has fully grasped.
Truth Knowledge of the things is like the effect of its
Science is a body of knowledge and acts as an truth.
intellectual process To wonder and ask oneself the questions:
Why is this happening? How is it possible that
Scientific Method something like this can happen?
a step by step method man uses to probe into An awe before the world and what occurs in
facts laid before him by nature it is the beginning of wisdom
- Definition of problem
 Ontological Truth: truth in the things the most evident, and that into which all
themselves; reality itself knowledge is resolved.
Logical Truth: the immaterial or intentional
identification of the intellect with the reality of Openness to Truth
things; agreement of the mind with reality; Our experience can grow and our knowledge
conformity of ones judgment with things as also progresses
they are Data change, context change, concerns
change, languages change
Truth versus Certainty - Things can be better conceptualized or
The mind is certain when its has a basis of better expressed
evidence 2 possible causes of error:
Truth should not be confused with certainty - the limitations of the human mind,
Truth: is reality itself; has an objective basis - bad moral dispositions (on some occasions)
Certainty: is the firmness of the assent of the To illustrate: the error of RELATIVISM, which
mind; is a subjective state takes man as the measure of all things, can
Two causes of certainty: lead to the error of SKEPTICISM: Man cannot
- the evidence of things directly in front of us know the truth.
- the authority of a witness who deserves our To be open to all sorts of information,
trust gives rise to human faith or belief, preparation, gift of discernment, and
or moral certainty devoid of these prudence are necessary.
sources of certainty, a mere probability can No one has the sole possession of the truth.
only give rise to opinion, not certainty. For there to be progress in our understanding,
Evidence may be either: direct, or we have to listen to what others have said and
demonstrable, that is, subject to proof say.
- These give rise to rational certainty. - By listening to all the expressions of a
- The mind not only sees the things but also particular reality, progress in our
sees that it cannot be otherwise. understanding and ways of expressing
things is possible.
Human Intellect is Imperfect
2 ways in which the human intelligence can Human Intellect is Fallible
reach the truth: Reality should be perceived by every man in
- Intuitively knowing indirectly without any the same way, because it is not a creation of
process the mind but exists outside of man. Mans
- Discursively knowing through the step by imperfect faculties prevent him from knowing
step reasoning process reality perfectly.
Human intelligence is speculative and There always exists the possibility of
practical. erroneous notions about reality.
Mans ordinary way of knowing is through the
discursive reasoning. The Light of Reason
- Man achieves the knowledge of the truth Applying his reason to the things surrounding
only after several operations. Hence, it is him, man can know or understand nature since
imperfect. it is intelligible.
Man can know things in their truth really and Mans reason can illuminate what is hidden in
truly; although many times imperfectly and nature.
incompletely. Man has the natural capacity to know, to
understand reality as they are, and draw out
Reality measures the Human Intellect the truth from these things.
Our intellect is measured by natural things, Man does this discursively, and not intuitively.
which it knows speculatively; and it is only the Mans reason is geared by nature to truth.
measure of the becoming of artificial things The human reason is a gift for the attainment
Being is the measure of knowledge and of its of the truth.
truth. It is the first thing known, because it is - Man is open to the truth.
 - Man has the ability to know the The things, in a certain sense, are the measure
conditions required for man to be able to and the rule of the truth of the intellect.
make judgment and decision.
Truth is necessary to man who is endowed Practical Human Intelligence
with intellect. When the intellect is the cause of becoming of
artificial tings.
Reality measures the Human Intellect It is only the measure of the truth of the
Truth is caused in the intellect by the things, artificial things, in the sense that, if the thing
and does not follow upon the intellects fulfills that for which it has been destined.
estimation of things but rather upon the
existence of things. Human Intellect is Limited
Knowledge is true once it manifests and Man is a composite of matter and spirit. S/he
declares the being of things. perceives reality through his senses but
- The true and the false are not in things but understands (or grasps) reality through his
in the human mind. intellect.
- Opinions of men are not a clear source of Man has both intelligence and sensibility.
truth. The starting point of mans knowledge is
through his senses.
Seeking the Truth is both an Intellectual Task - Mans knowledge begins with his sense
and a Moral Endeavor experience.
Requirements to find the truth Man has both external and internal senses. It
- Fundamental attitude of openness: being is through the external senses that man is in
free from prejudices and weighing up the direct contact with reality.
evidence calmly - Internal Senses:
- Upright intention 1. Coordinating senses or
- Sincerity to the truth consciousness the sense that
When a person shrinks from and does not makes man conscious of sensible
readily accepts things which it is possible for things.
the mind to receive he may with reason be 2. Memory the sense to recognize
accused of stupidity. past experience as past.
When he does not accept things which it is not 3. Imagination the sense to
possible to grasp by reason but only by faith, reproduce sense experiences and
the charge is no longer of stupidity but of elaborate on them.
incredulity. 4. Instinct (estimativa and cogitativa)
To know the truth is necessary to want to know. the sense to feel the good or ill of
- Right moral disposition is needed. sensible experience.

Close Relationships Mans Interaction with the World

Reality-truth-objectivity MAN WORLD
- refer to information wherein in an
observation of phenomenon, is devoid of Spiritual Sensitive Vegetative
any biases of human interpretation
Opinion-subjectivity-relativity Intellect Internal External
- refer to information which is given human Senses Senses
interpretation, biases, emotions, making it Will Emotions Body
relative from person to person
Conceptual Sense Simple In-flow
Knowledge Knowledge Sensations
Speculative Human Intelligence Rational Affectivity Physiological Out-flow
When the intellect contemplates the things as Human Reactions
they are. Acts
The Process of Human Knowledge - Men living in society would not be possible
We go to the intelligible through the sensible. if there were no mutual confidence; if they
Mans senses supply the raw materials of dont speak the truth to one another.
knowledge to the intellect. Damaging Effects of Lie
The intelligence, being a complete potency - Affects mans ability to know, the condition
with respect to all knowable things, has no required of every judgment and decision
innate or inborn ideas. - Constitutes all consequent evil in destruct of
Man gets all his ideas through his contact with society
reality and not from the intelligence itself (de - Eliminates trust and relationships among
Torre). people
A fruit of an attentive look into reality. Man, through education, is capable of
The intellectual knowledge begins in the sense becoming a masterpiece of human personality,
and return to the senses. no matter what limitations his genes,
The intelligence can go beyond the material / biochemistry and environment may present to
sensible things, albeit, keeping it as its point of him.
reference. Foster a hopeful attitude to life, that is, look
This close interdependence of senses and forward to the future. This optimism, however,
intelligence show the unity of man (de Torre). requires that you be demanding with
yourself. To have a sense of mission in
Rationalism life.
Human knowledge is reduced to intelligence
only
- Rationalists think they are the arbiters of
truth
- Anything which cannot be proved by logical
arguments is nonsense.
Empiricism
Human knowledge is reduced to sensibility
only
- Empiricists want to base all their beliefs on
things the sense can only perceive

Human Intellect is Perfectible

Faculty pertains to intellect (open to
improvement) while Object pertains to object.
Mans knowledge of the truth comes in The youth of today are the future nation-
increment builders
- At one glance, man cannot attain the whole All the elements of the material universe are
truth about everything but he can always summed up in man, and through his bodily
know more and more. condition, he us charged to bring all these
- Mans intellect is indeed imperfect but material realities to their highest perfection
perfectible. Men and women of sound judgment and right
- Truly, mans capacity to improve himself all decisions!
the time is remarkable. - Stages that lead to Right Decision
Progress, for development to occur, must be 1. To know reality objectively and clearly
carried out at the service of truth and good. 2. To judge rightly
What the world needs today are people with 3. To act consequently
clear vision and clean heart. Agents of Social and Historical Change
- You are the change that you dream as I am
Moral Lessons the change that I dream and collectively we
Loyalty to the truth are the change that this world needs to
be (Efren Peaflorida)
 The Millenials Generation are: - For that fact, his existence is not only simply
- Digital Natives heavy use of social existing, but existing with a purpose and
media; cyber bullying; instantaneous meaning to life
communication - Hence, he is inalienable.
- Technologically savvy self-taught through Each man is a unique individual subject.
experimentation and exploration of - Being rational, we enjoy a special and the
computers, internet, smart phones, etc. most perfect kind of individuality and
- Have exposure to vast information but go incommunicability, that is, our individuality is
less in-depth more defined.
- Multi-task well having juggled sports, - We exist in and through ourselves.
school and social interest as children
- Have high level of stress and anxiety What is a Robot?
A machine capable of carrying out a complex
Challenges of Human Life series of actions automatically, especially one
Exposure to a great variety of ideas: systems programmable by a computer
of human thought, of human knowledge, Purely material; Programmed by man; A tool or
various conceptions of the world and man, aid man uses for a purpose; Must be at the
various programs of human behavior, etc. service of man
- Coming from the different forms of They are mere objects that they have lesser
communication: movie, television, kind of individuality
newspaper, internet, etc. - Objects bear the mark of something to be
Prudence and Discernment are imperative used up, something to be consumed, and
requirements of humans cannot rise above this level on the hierarchy
How to make the right judgment and take the of values
right decisions?
- To distinguish true from false Human Intelligence
- To have a good grasp of facts Of humans
- To distinguish facts from opinions Execute functions or activities that are organic
- To be impartial and animated
Humans have pre-wired capabilities: large and
Big Hero 6 effective brains, genetic development of
A fine choice for STS for its many graces specialized functional areas (vision, speech,
- A good blend of science and arts such that reasoning, etc.)
it is an animated film with fantastic design Humans gain intelligence mostly through
and playful sense of figure and motion, and learning and experience.
showcases the latest developments in S&T Humans construct their own intellect through
A film almost realistic with minor distorted complex interactions with the world and other
views regarding the nature of man and robots people all their life long.
Humans can discover new axioms and rules.
What is Man? Humans learn individually. Each human has a
A human being is not simply a mass of atoms unique intelligence, and this is of great strength
holding a specific shape; that is a mere object. as it adds diversity, different strategies and
A human being is a rational, conscious wide range of solutions if applied properly.
someone capable of self-knowledge, self-
possession, self-determination / self-defining Artificial Intelligence
and of subjective interpersonal relationship / Of machines
capable for freely giving of self Programmed to simulate human intelligence
- Unlike any other animal, he is capable of system that can engage in behaviors that
perceiving, interpreting and even creating humans consider intelligent
reality. Blindly follow human instructions
Machines are dependent on human algorithms
and knowledge how to solve problems. Non-
 trivial solutions require understanding of ideas, Causes are intrinsic (material or formal) or
problem-solving, learning from experience and extrinsic (efficient or final)
much more everything what we can define
as intelligence. Causes that Bring about Society
It will always be limited by fixed axioms and A. Societys Intrinsic Causes
initial rules programmed by humans. The Material Cause of Society
It can quickly copy and replicate their The people living in the society
intelligence. - The family or families constitute the
immediate material of a civil society.
* Human intellectual capabilities are amazing - The individuals constitute only the
and unique! remote material.
The Formal Cause of Society
Anthropology Right Understanding of the The moral union of all the wills of a group of
Nature of Man human beings wanting, ultimately, the common
Cosmology Right Understanding of the good.
World
* Not all Truths are of Equal Importance B. Societys Extrinsic Causes
The Efficient Cause of Society
Is man capable of everything? Uniqueness of Human Society: the intrinsic
The human mind being spiritual renders man cause of human society is also its efficient
power but it has its limits! cause.
Man has just no power over everything! The members of the society themselves are
the ones who make the society come to be.
The Need to Uphold the Truth, regarding Man Society is something natural to them.
The Supreme Being infuses life into man. What - Man naturally forms societies.
makes man different is the fact that he receives The Final Cause of Society
his life directly from the Supreme Being. Love for the common good brings people
Mans existence as a living being comes together and keeps them together.
directly from the Supreme Being, that is, man - It is the ultimate goal of society.
is animated by a vital principle which does not
derive from the earth. What exactly is this supreme good that society is
By observing nature, one gets an insight of a meant to attain?
Supreme Being and His actions in the world The Common GoodSocietys Final Cause
and in the order found in nature. The totality of all social conditions that allow
people as groups and as individuals to reach
Importance of the Truth about the their proper fulfillment
Personhood of Human Beings - It is premised on the assumption that every
Of the untouchable dignity of man man has the right to all he needs.
Of mans inalienable rights - It is based on the moral order. It builds on
Of the indelible and happy equality among men the notions and principles of right and
Of the basic principle of human brotherhood wrong. It is not amoral.
Of the respect and true love due to each man, - It is the very basis which justifies public
because he is man authority or makes it necessary.
Of ethical principles - It is the ultimate goal which civil authority
Of moral concerns strives to attain.
Prerequisites of the Common Good:
- All citizens enjoy freedom, peace, and
The Society we Live in security This freedom must be exercised
The world where S&T operates according to right reason.
- The fundamental rights of the person are
Defining Society through its causes to a respected and promoted.
deeper understanding of what society is - Each individual can develop to his fullest.
Political Authority An Agency for Order in - In marriage the physical intimacy of the
Society spouses becomes a sign and pledge of
An agency in a society employs to put order spiritual communion
and coordination in the activities of a society so Openness to life
as to achieve the common good
Order in Society Procreativity
- Demand of human nature and the dignity of A characteristic property of the totality of love
the person Rights & Duties Legal in marriage
Framework Justice (to give to each one The reciprocal self-donation between husband
what is due to him) and wife in and through their respective
- Authentic human society requires respect sexuality by nature contains within itself the
for justice, and a just hierarchy of values possibility of the conception of a new human
- It requires that every body must be giving person, who bears the same nature and dignity
and receiving, carrying out duties, and as they do.
exercising rights. - Man and woman are meant to complement
- It is a system that calls for the sacrifice of and perfect each other, not only as husband
our personal advantages when justice and wife, but also as father and mother.
requires it, in order to attain the common Marriage place for sex
good. - Sex is not bad nor dirty but good and holy.
- Division of Labor implies the existence of - Sex is ordered towards the bonding the
differentiation in society, such that all may couple and bringing forth life.
work for the common good but in different There is only one context in which this is
ways and in different degrees. possible: in the marriage of one man and one
- Other Guides to the Organization of the woman.
State: - If there is no marriage, there is often no
1. Principle of Solidarity sense of true commitment and the bonding
2. Principle of Subsidiarity of the couple is weak.
3. Principle of Participation - If both genders are not represented, the
possibility of life is thwarted.
Different Types of Justice: Classification of Anything that directly violates either the
Justice according to the Relations between the bonding or the possibility of life is a disordered
Parties involved use of the sexual act.
1. Commutative Justice refers to the rights
and duties between or among equals
2. Distributive Justice refers to the rights and Purpose of Marriage:
duties between the state and the society as a Mutual help and support sustain each other
whole in self-giving
3. Legal Justice refers to the rights and - Men and women play an important role to
duties between the individual and the state help each other live, in truth and goodness,
and together they attain to their fulfillment
as persons.
Marriage - In marriage there is communion of persons,
Qualities of a Good Marriage as helpmate to each other.
Prerequisite: Freely contracted Transmission of human life and education of
children
A marriage marked by a commitment to: - A means for procreating a new person
Exclusivity or monogamous - Husband and wife transmit life to their
Stability or indissolubility descendants
- Implies irrevocability and fidelity - Open to life; Participate in the work of
- Sexuality is ordered to the conjugal love of creation; Ordained toward procreation and
man and woman education of children; and Give birth and
take care of children
*Responsible Parenthood - Man has the right to be born in an
- Parents role and responsibility as atmosphere of love and the right to a
procreators human environment for his full
- Parents are generally expected to produce development.
children, care for them, and help train them
in the ways of their culture. The family hold the key to a strong society.
The most solid foundation for attainment of
* Persons are subjects to be loved and not to be true personal and national growth is to place
used as objects of pleasure! the family first.
- The family is the school where citizens are
Husband-Wife Conflict first taught or brought up to be responsible
In marital relations, like all other human aware of and contributors to the common
interaction, conflict is natural and inevitable. good.
Common causes of conflict among Filipino - The family is the ground on which the seeds
couples: of responsible citizenship are sown.
- Infidelity
- Relationship with in-laws Value of Children
- Vices, like gambling and drinking The Filipino family has always been child-
- Lack of or difficulties in communication centered as evidence by the sacrifices the
- Personality or character problems, such as parents make for their children.
immaturity , irresponsibility and What motivates Filipinos to have children?
incompatibility - Provide help, financial help, support in old
- Financial reasons such as, inadequacy age, assistance in housework and childcare
as breadwinner or non-support - Take an active part in the family production
and maintenance activities, esp. in rural
Marital success is a consequence of marital areas
happiness, satisfaction and adjustment. - Provide social and emotional; benefits:
It is the achievement of one or more goals companionship, love and happiness, play
including permanence, companionship, and fun
fulfilling expectations. - Gives them incentives of success, satisfying
Understanding the Nature of Family their drive for achievement, providing a
Mans longing for completeness has formed sense of fulfillment in their lives
the basis of stability of a society, the family. - Serve as an inspiration to give them the
best in life
Family
Considered the as first and essential cell of
human society The World of Science and Technology
As an institution that develops out of marriage, The history of the world is full of technological
the family has a precise nature and breakthroughs arising form new scientific
irreplaceable role to play for the well-being of discoveries and technological innovations.
the person and of society. What started out as a painfully slow process of
A group of persons united by ties of marriage, discovery, invention, innovation, and
blood and adoption obsolescence has been replaced by what
- Constituting a single household seems top be in permanent flux as one
- Creating and maintaining a common culture development is superseded by another at
- Interacting and communicating with each breathtaking rates.
other in their respective social roles For instance, with the passing of time, mans
An intimate community of life and love ways of recording data and his manner of
- The first school in love and the first place writing has improved form carving with ink
where a person learns what it is to be a onto stone and then later writing characters
person. with ink onto paper and more recently, to
 encoding in the practically weightless and Human activity, understood only in this sense,
intangible cyberspace. provides the basis for speaking of culture as a
Progress has taken place at an increasingly connatural reality in relation to the human
exponential rate. being.
Technological changes we experience in our Man is a culture-creating being.
lives with the rapid change of the gadgets and
devices we use at work and at home everyday. Culture a Reality through Human Activities
Dimensions of Culture
Science, Technology and Culture - Objective: Culture as product; The totality
The history of science and technology is of human production as expression of his
inseparably united with the development of our rationality and freedom, e.g. works of arts,
culture. literary works; Materialization of Spirit
The different periods in history were classified - Subjective: What happens to the subject;
according to the kind of implements used by Cultivation of spirit intellectual, moral,
human beings in those eras, for example, the etc.
Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, and Culture, constitutes though human activities,
now, the Computer Age. express and in some sense reveals humanity.
Science and Technology are activities through Culture is basically oriented not so much
which we most fully express ourselves as towards the creation of human products such
human beings. as towards the creation of the human self
which then radiates into the world of products.
Significance and Value of S&T as Human Important for the constitution of culture through
Activities human activity
S&T as human activities are both transitive and - People become more human, and not
intransitive merely acquire more means.
- Transitive: tends beyond the subject; seeks - The various process of socialization
an expression and effect in the external stimulated by industrialization, production
world; is objectified in some product and consumption proportionally to the
- Intransitive: remains in the subject; process of personalization.
determines the subject immanent quality or Consumerism: a social and economic order
value; constitutes the subjects essentially that encourages the purchase of goods and
human quality service in ever greater amount; a
In any activity, we not only perform actions, but preoccupation with and an inclination toward
we also become ourselves through our actions. the buying of consumer goods.
- We fulfill or actualize ourselves in them. The culture that human beings create, creates
- We bring to a certain through partial their humanity.
fulfillment both what and who we are - Human beings create objects (objective
potentially. culture) and create humanity (subjective
Whatever we achieve in our actions, whatever culture) through objects.
effects or products we bring about in it, we End of objective culture is the subjective
always simultaneously make ourselves in it as culture.
well. We express ourselves, we in some way - Man cultivates and humanizes the world in
shape ourselves, we in a certain sense order to cultivate and humanize his
create ourselves. humanity.
Purpose of Human Activities
Culture develops Principally within the - To make the world a more human place or
Dimension of Self-determining Subjects to make human existence in the world
The essence of any of our activity consists in more human, in which we must ultimately
realizing ourselves and, at the same time in discover the human being as the subject of
making the nonhuman reality outside ourselves every, and all human activities.
more human. - This is cultures essential element.
 Culture and its accompanying transformation Morality and norms or rules of behavior to be
of nature or modification of the world followed if we desire to attain harmony and
- Any human activity involves a certain happiness are objective because of the
radiation of humanity to the extent that the objective existence of nature and of the
transformation or modification conforms universe.
to human reason and the objective order
of nature or the world, by virtue of which Objectivity of Morality
the effects of culture are properly inscribes Knowledge of morality is associated to
in the effects of nature. understanding the true natures of things and
beings what they are and how they work.
* Human Activities which does not bear the The consistent rhythm of nature, which can
stamp of a radiation of humanity. readily be observed, attests to the existence of
the physical, biological, and other scientific
Ethics laws, which govern the universe.
Ethics or Morals deals with By observing nature and human relationships,
- the right and wrong one gets an insight of God and His actions in
- the good and bad the world and in the order found in nature.
- the praiseworthiness and blameworthiness - If God does not exist, everything is
of human acts permissible!
Human acts are deeds, acts, or thoughts done
with sufficient knowledge and sufficient 2 Philosophies on Human Life
freedom for such human act to be attributable Quality of Life Ethics
to the persons will. - There are lives unworthy of life! Some
A human act is not to be arbitrarily judged good life is not worth living the morally right to
or bad. It is rather to be measured against a terminate life.
standard. - Criteria used: Whether wanted or unwanted
- The reference point the order imposed by another, for example, by the mother or
by the nature of things society; Too much pain; Severely
If the objectivity of the order existing in nature handicapped
is rejected or ignored, what is right or wrong - No objective criteria
becomes a matter of opinion, of consensus, Sanctity of Life Ethics
and other values such as practicality, - Sense of sacredness of human life
convenience, power, wealth, etc. - Presupposed in all our laws
By observing nature and human relationships, - Basis of morality
one discovers rules of behavior or instructions 1. Origin of man involves Gods
that God imprinted when he created the world creative action
and man, which provide the key to living a 2. Nature of man unchanging as
happy and successful life. human anatomy man remains
Ethical analysis involves examining forever in a special relation with
- 1st: Whether or not the goal to be attained Creator
to solve a problem is right 3. End of man God (sole end)
- 2nd: Whether or not the method for * There is a moral obligation to obey the laws of
attaining the goal is right nature. and give what is due to all creatures,
The morality of a human act is assessed by treating them according to nature.
asking the following questions: - In other words, things will go right if man
- Is the natural purpose of the act itself respects the nature of things.
morally upright? - Something or someone is not good for
- Is the intention of the person who performs another because it does not lead at least
the act morally upright? one if them to his end or purpose of
- Do the circumstances surrounding the act being.
affect the morality of the act?
 - On the other hand, if the order existing in Doctors must utilize all means to save lives. If
nature is not respected: disorder, harm, something unavoidable befalls in the event,
and evil, consequently, ensue. then lets leave it to destiny. In an inevitable
course of events, doctors are not liable for any
Case 1: Abortion harm that ensues.
The goal to be attained is the killing of an
innocent child? On Freedom
- Right or wrong? The ideas that entitles anybody to do what he
Abortion can never to right. wants regardless of whether it is good or bad?
- No reason at all to justify abortion. The freedom exercise according to rational
order of all things the capacity to choose
Are there reasons to justify abortion? If there is a what is good?
reason, does it make it in any way right? You are free to choose but not its
None consequences!
In ethics: Allowing oneself to be governed by ones
- One must first examine the purpose for sensuality, passions or pride, etc. has the
doing an act. If the purpose for doing an act consequences of being enslaved by these and
is detrimental to the person, that is, it is not the effect of having a clouded intellect. One
directed towards his perfection (or could even end up having a behavioral
fulfillment), then it is bad. problem!
- Second, one must examine the method to
achieve the purpose. If the method used to Case 2: Stem Cell Researched (Somatic and
achieve the purpose is nor right, then it is Embryonic)
bad. No problem with somatic, so long as consent is
Abortion is an intentional killing of a obtained.
defenseless child, since the goal is wrong. No However, any experiment done on the human
reason at all can justify abortion. embryo must be carried out on such a way that
respect for life and integrity of the human
Is there any situation where anyone has a right embryo as an individual is safeguarded for its
to take a life? Does the decision to take a human survival.
life make the abortionist any less human?
The legitimate defense of persons and On the Need for Right Education/Formation
societies is not an exception to the prohibition Optimization of the natural disposition and
against the murder of the innocent that capacities of the person
constitute intentional killing. The act of self- Cultivation of talents
defense can have a double effect: the Capability for self-governance; suited for
preservation of ones own life; and the killing of governance of others
the aggressor. The one is intended, the other is - Foster and promote capacity to choose:
not. self-mastery
We must learn to distinguish a person from his - Cultivate capability to control passions/
acts. Person, as the principle of his actions, emotions
must not be identified with his actions. Persons
must always be loved and respected, on the This is a Fight for the Sake of the Future
other hand, his actions, which are bad, must Generation!
be corrected and actions, which are good,
must be praised. Ethics
Developed out of concern for a moral response
Given a life-death situation for both mother and to all the societal problems we are
child, if the pregnancy is not terminated, which encountering day in / day out.
life must one choose: the life of the mother or of Fruit of peoples experience in the course of
the baby? history
- Stem from observation of the nature of man
and his behavior, pondering on them and
then encapsulating experiences in words of
practical wisdom.
- In the course of nature and the events of
human life, there can be found truth which
men discovers (recognizes or become
aware of, and are not invented)
- To live a meaningful life, everything that
man does should be guided by the ethical
principle: Do the right things to attain
the right goals.