Magnetospheric Substorms

S.-l. Akasofu

The magnetospheric substorm is (IMF) has a large northward (posi somewhat analogous to the generation
perhaps the most widely known yet tive) component, the above chain of in the troposphere of a series of cyc
most poorly understood facet of mag energy conversion processes proceeds lones (cyclogenesis), which is a tran
n e t o s p h e r i c d i s t u r b a n c e s . I t is steadily. However, when the solar sient process, but is much more effi
generally agreed that the substorm wind speed and the IMF vary, the cient (because of the horizontal mix
results from an explosive conversion efficiency of the dynamo action fluctu ing) in achieving heat energy transfer
of magnetic energy generated by the ates. In particular, when the north- between the tropical and polar regions
interaction between the solar wind south component B of the I M Fz than the Hadley cell-like convection.
and the magnetosphere. The energy decreases and becomes negative Figure 1 illustrates schematically
thus released causes a variety of mag (southward directed), the efficiency the generation of magnetospheric sub
netospheric and polar upper atmo of the dynamo action is considerably storms as a response of the mag
spheric disturbances. Although much increased, resulting in a large increase netosphere to a rectangular wave of
of the interpretation of substorm of the magnetic energy in the tail the B component of the I M F
z

observations is still a matter of great region of the magnetosphere [Burch, [Akasofu, 1977a]. The top curve
controversy, we have made considera 1974; Gonzalez and Mozer, 1974; shows what happens if the B compo
z

ble progress in understanding sub Caan et al, 1975; Holzer and Reid, nent changes suddenly from a steady
storm phenomena in terms of plasma 1975]. large positive value (say, F 5 y) to
processes, most of which are funda In this situation the magnetosphere a large negative value ( 5 y) and
mental in cosmic electrodynamics. tends to enhance the rate of dissipa returns to the initial condition after
tion of the magnetic energy by a maintaining the large negative value
Magnetosphere and series of impulsive and transient pro for 1 hour or so. The magnetosphere
Magnetospheric S u b s t o r m s cesses, in addition to an enhanced con responds to such a change of the B z

vection of magnetospheric plasma. component by generating a series of

The magnetosphere can be con The magnetospheric substorm can be magnetospheric substorms dissipating
sidered as a 'machine' which converts identified as this impulsive energy the magnetic energy acquired during
the kinetic energy of the solar wind dissipation process, which is much the above B component change (mid
z

into electromagnetic energy through more efficient than enhanced steady dle curve). The bottom diagram will
magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) dissipation processes. The situation is be explained shortly.
dynamo action. A part of the energy
thus converted is fed into the mag- IMF B z COMPONENT
netotail current system, which con 1 hr
sists of two 'solenoids.' Another part +5
is spent by powering a large-scale r
convective motion of magnetospheric o
plasma, namely, a 'motor.' The electric
field associated with the convective -5h
motion is communicated down to the
ionosphere by field-aligned currents. Electrojet Intensity
As the ionosphere is forced to partici
pate in the convective motion, the fric-
tional interaction with the neutral
component of the atmosphere causes
Joule heating [Axford and Hines,
1961]. On the other hand, part of the Auroral Oval
electrons which c a r r y the field-
aligned currents are accelerated along
the field lines and cause the aurora as
OOOQOOQ o
they interact with the upper atmo
sphere. Fig. 1 . Response of the magnetosphere to a rectangular change (wave) of the
north-south component 8 o f the interplanetary magnetic field (top), expressed in
z

When the solar wind is steady and terms of an intermittent surge of the auroral electrojet (middle) and of a series of
the interplanetary magnetic field auroral s u b s t o r m s (bottom) [Akasofu, 1 9 7 7 a ] .

68 0096-3941/78/5902-0068$03.00
 Feb 1973 1627 U T 2 5 Jan 1973 2132 U T
Fig. 2. Collection of D M S P satellite photographs of the dark hemisphere, chosen to show how the expansive phase of the
auroral substorm might appear if photographs could be taken minutes apart from above the north polar region [Akasofu
1977a].

Auroral S u b s t o r m s If one could look down at the earth poleward, generating a large-scale
from above the north pole, the aurora wave, called the westward traveling
would be seen along a nearly circular surge, which propagates along the
The development and decay of a belt which surrounds the dipole mag oval toward the evening sky. Morning
single magnetospheric substorm can netic pole. This belt is called the auroras tend to 'break up' into long
probably be best observed in terms of auroral oval. The first indication of isolated 'rays.' This violent activation
the development and decay of an the auroral substorm is signaled by a of auroras lasts about 30 min to 1
auroral substorm, which is one of the sudden brightening of a quiet auroral hour, resulting in a large bulge of light
manifestations (in fact, the only visi arc which lies in the midnight sector of (called the auroral bulge) centered in
ble manifestation) of the m a g the auroral oval. After the initial the midnight sector. This period is
netospheric substorm [Akasofu, 1968]. brightening the aurora moves rapidly called the expansive phase. Figure 2

69
shows eight photographs taken from a
Defense Meteorological Satellite Pro
gram (DMSP) satellite; they are
chosen to illustrate how the expansive
phase might appear if photographs
could be taken several minutes apart.
The bottom diagram in Figure 1
shows schematically how the aurora
responds to the rectangular I M F
wave. First, the auroral oval expands
rapidly e q u a t o r w a r d . Since the
auroral oval delineates the boundary
of the area from which the open mag
netic flux originates, the expansion of
the oval indicates an increase of the
open magnetic flux and thus an
increased dynamo efficiency. Next a
series of substorms takes place, the
first one about 1 hour after the arrival
of the IMF wave and later ones even
well after the passage of the wave.
Note that after each substorm the size
of the auroral oval contracts. Sub-
storms continue to occur until the oval
reaches what we call the minimum
size oval, i.e., until all energy accumu
lated during the passage of the wave
14 16
is dissipated. One may use the area x l O * km*
covered by bright auroras as a
measure of the intensity of mag Fig. 3. Relationship between the intensity of auroral substorm (estimated from
netospheric substorms. Then there is a the s i z e of the area covered by bright auroras) and the area of the auroral oval
[Akasofu and Kamide, 1 9 7 6 ] .
simple relationship between the inten
sity of substorms and the size of the substorm begins before the end of the magnetotail during the last decade has
oval (Figure 3), suggesting that the confirmed that electromagnetic fields
recovery phase.
intensity of substorms is in general in the magnetosphere do change con
proportional to the amount of the siderably during auroral substorms.
Major T o p i c s
magnetic energy accumulated in the However, much of the interpreta
magnetotail. tion of both satellite and ground
The aurora is analogous to an image
Table 1 shows the rate of energy on the screen of a cathode ray tube, observations during substorms is still
dissipation for three major substorm since the auroral emissions are pro a matter of great controversy. This is
processes [Akasofu, 1977a]: auroral duced by the impact of an electron partly due to the fact that one has to
particle precipitation, Joule heat dis beam on the polar upper atmosphere d e t e r m i n e how v a r i o u s m a g
sipation (both in the ionosphere), and which corresponds to the screen of the netospheric quantities observed at
injection of ring current particles into tube. Thus violent auroral motions different locations vary as a function
the Van Allen belt, i.e., inflation of the during a magnetospheric substorm of time after substorm onset. Ideally,
inner m a g n e t o s p h e r e . The t o t a l imply c o m p l i c a t e d c h a n g e s of such a study could be achieved if there
energy dissipation during a typical electromagnetic fields in the mag were a large number of satellites,
substorm (of lifetime of 2 hours) is netosphere. Indeed, an extensive observing simultaneously all the
also estimated. Note that the largest satellite observation of magnetic desired quantities at a large number
amount of substorm energy is con fields and plasma parameters in the of locations. Since this is impossible,
sumed in inflating the inner mag
netosphere and that a significant part
of it will finally be dissipated in the
T A B L E 1 . E n e r g i e s Associated With T h r e e Major Substorm P r o c e s s e s
upper atmosphere as ring current par
ticles eventually precipitate. Auroral Particle Joule Heat Ring Current
Precipitation Dissipation Injection Total
The recovery phase of the auroral
substorm begins when the auroral Rate, e r g s / s 10 *1 7
2.8 x 1 01 8
3 x 1018
bulge begins to contract; this phase Total, ergs 1.4 x 1 0 2 1 1.4 x 1 0
2 1
2 X 1Q22 2.3 x 1 0 2 2
lasts typically 1-3 hours. Eventually,
auroral activity ceases, leaving quiet *One hemisphere.
auroras all along the oval, or a new

70
one has to compile satellite data TWO S U B S T O R M MODELS
observed at different locations and at Before Onset Expansive Phase
different times for different sub
s t o r m s , a n a l y z e d by d i f f e r e n t Noon-Midnight
workers. In spite of these immense Cross Section
difficulties we have made remarkable
progress in understanding substorm X LINE
phenomena in the last decade and now MODEL
have a few 'modern' morphological
and theoretical models which are Equatorial
under serious consideration and Cross Section
debate among substorm workers.

Magnetic Energy Conversion

Noon-Midnight
F o r example, during the past Cross Section
several years the prevailing idea has
been that an X-type magnetic neutral CURRENT Current
Reduction
Rarefaction
Wave Frpnt
line would be formed in the near-earth DISRUPTION (disruption)
MODEL i
plasma sheet, where the magnetic ^ 'Si
\ \ \ \

/> w
energy in the magnetotail is converted Equatorial i
into the e n e r g y for the m a g Cross Section 1
~
\ \ \ '
netospheric substorm [Axford, 1969; /
McPherron et al, 1973; Hones, 1973; Current ^ i
Diversion Plasma Flow
Russell and McPherron, 1973;
Auroral Electrojet
Nishida and Hones, 1974; Schindler,
1975; Hones et al, 1976]. In the upper Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of two substorm models, the X line model and the cur
half of Figure 4 the X line formation is rent disruption model, in both noon-midnight and equatorial c r o s s sections.
schematically illustrated. On the other
hand, some of the interpretations of plays an important role in substorm In any case, there is no doubt that
the supporting evidence for the X line processes. magnetotail phenomena during mag
formation have recently been serious So far we have mainly been con netospheric substorms and their
ly questioned by Lui et al [1977]. cerned with the triggering and the theoretical implications will be among
In fact, it has been a great surprise e x p a n s i v e p h a s e of t h e m a g the most hotly debated topics for the
and puzzle, against an early expecta netospheric substorm. During an early coming years. In particular, it is of
tion soon after the discovery of the epoch of the recovery phase a high fundamental importance in cosmic
plasma sheet, to find that the plasma speed earthward flow of a very hot electrodynamics to find out plasma
sheet at distances greater than 10 R E plasma appears in the magnetotail. As processes involved in the magnetic
(earth radii) simply becomes very a result the plasma sheet becomes energy conversion. Among the mag-
thin, without any definite indication of even thicker and hotter than before netospheres of the planets and stars,
energization of plasma, when auroras substorm onset. The plasma sheet is as well as in the solar atmosphere, the
are most active in the polar region. thus considerably inflated again (re terrestrial magnetosphere is the only
Actually, it is only within a distance of flated) during an early epoch of the region where satellite-borne instru
less than 10 R that a hot plasma has
E recovery phase, so that the mag ments can make frequent detailed
been observed at about the onset time netospheric substorm is not simply a measurements. In particular, an
and during the expansive phase of result of the tendency for the mag observation of plasma waves in the
auroral substorms. As an alternative netosphere to relax from a stressed magnetotail is crucial in understand
to the X line formation hypothesis, condition to a dipolar configuration. ing plasma instabilities associated
some workers have suggested that the Eventually, the hot plasma sheet with substorms [Scarf et al, 1974;
cross-tail current at its earthward becomes gradually cooler and thinner Wickwar, 1975]/
edge (at a geocentric distance of about as the recovery phase proceeds. There
10 R^ is suddenly interrupted by a has been little theoretical effort in Plasma Injection and the
plasma instability process at substorm understanding this complex chain of Ring Current Formation
onset [Atkinson, 1967; Akasofu, 1972, phenomena during the r e c o v e r y
19776; Bostrom, 1972; Kan and phase. It is also an important problem Another important topic in mag
Akasofu, 1978]. In the lower half of to find out why the expansive phase is netospheric substorm studies is the
Figure 4 the current interruption checked after 1 hour or less without so-called injection of hot plasma from
model is schematically illustrated. dissipating all available magnetic the plasma sheet into the Van Allen
Since the magnetospheric substorm is energy at once during a single sub belt [DeForest and McRwain, 1971].
a transient phenomenon, there is no stormin other words, to discover The 'injected' plasma drifts around
doubt that an inductive electric field why a series of substorms takes place. the earth, forming the ring current

71
belt in which a westward directed Open field line High-speed solar
Coronal hole
electric current flows. The main region wind stream
efforts during the last several years
have been to backtrack the trajecto
ries of plasma particles in an attempt
Interaction of
to find out where they originated and Fluctuations in Fluctuations of
high-speed stream
how their motions were triggered. the interaction the IMF NS
with the ambient
However, it is rather a difficult task region component
solar wind
to treat the problem in a time-depen
dent situation, and thus it is a highly
c o n t r o v e r s i a l subject [Mcllwain,
1974; Williams et al., 1974; Smith IMF NS
Magnetospheric
and Hoffman, 1974; Walker and magnetosphere
substorms
Kivelson, 1975]. Interactions between interaction
the drifting plasma particles and
Fig. 5. Block diagram showing the relationship between the open field line region
plasma waves and the resulting pre in the photosphere of the sun and magnetospheric substorms [Akasofu, 1977a].
cipitation and V L F emissions have
been explored extensively by a com relation to the electrojet. Here we are which lead to magnetospheric sub
bined effort of theorists and experi dealing with the coupling of two storms, one important aspect of the
menters. systems, the magnetosphere and the solar-terrestrial relationship (see
A geomagnetic storm results when ionosphere, constituting a complicated Figure 5).
intense substorms occur frequently feedback system [Swift, 1967; Cor- In summary, we have begun to
[Akasofu and Chapman, 1972], and oniti and Kennel, 1972]. In fact, it has unveil quite systematically the pro
thus when the, ring current belt been suggested that the ionosphere cesses associated with the interaction
becomes unusually intense, causing an plays a critical role in triggering pro of a magnetized plasma with a mag
appreciable decrease (the so-called cesses of magnetospheric substorms, netized celestial body. This study was
main phase decrease) of the magnetic although it is controversial whether initiated by K. Birkeland and C.
field in low and middle latitudes on the the ionosphere has a suppressing Stormer in terms of motions of a
earth's surface [Dessler and Parker, effect or plays a triggering role in the charged particle in a dipole field, by S.
1959]. initial growth of the substorm. The Chapman in terms of a flow of
incoherent scatter radar at Chatanika diamagnetic plasma around a dipole,
Field-Aligned Currents and has proven to be most useful in pro and by H. Alfven in terms of a flow of
the Auroral Electrojet viding ionospheric electric field data magnetized plasma around a dipole. In
which are vital in studying this coup spite of the great complexity involved
The polar upper atmosphere is con ling process, the nature of the auroral in dealing with observations we have
siderably disturbed during a sub electrojet, and other substorm-related made considerable progress in under
storm. It has long been known that a phenomena in the polar ionosphere standing magnetospheric phenomena
c o n c e n t r a t e d ionospheric c u r r e n t [Banks and Doupnik, 1975]. during the last decade. Among them,
called the auroral electrojet flows the concept of magnetospheric sub
along the auroral oval, causing intense Nature of the IMF Fluctuations storms has provided a framework for
polar magnetic disturbances called the studies of magnetospheric distur
polar magnetic substorm [Kisabeth Another important problem associ bances and of the associated polar
and Rostoker, 1971; Kamide and ated with magnetospheric substorms upper atmospheric disturbances and
Akasofu, 1975]. The electrojet is con is the nature of 'fluctuations' of the has also unified them into a single dis
nected to field-aligned electric cur IMF. Various flow instabilities and cipline within the field of mag
rents in a very complicated way Alfven waves in a high-speed solar netospheric physics.
[Bostrom, 1 9 6 4 ; Bostrom and wind stream emanating from a coronal The next decade will be a most
Rostoker, 1 9 7 6 ; Yasuhara and hole have been suggested [Burlaga, exciting period for magnetospheric
Akasofu, 1977]. All discrete auroras 1975]. F o r magnetospheric physicists substorm studies, since the Interna
occur where upward field-aligned cur the nature of the fluctuations is the tional Magnetosphere Study will
rents flow, and the electrojet flows most important problem in linking undoubtedly provide crucial satellite
along the auroral oval. As is expected, solar activity and geomagnetic distur and ground-based data that will add to
such upward field-aligned currents bances; that is, although the sun has our understanding of the basic plasma
are considerably enhanced during sub long been known to be the source of processes involved in substorm pro
storms. Undoubtedly, an intense g e o m a g n e t i c (and thus m a g cesses. A Chapman Conference
auroral kilometric radio noise is netospheric) disturbances, one cannot entitled 'Magnetospheric Substorms
related to the enhanced field-aligned claim to understand this relationship and Related Plasma Processes,' to be
currents [Gurnett, 1974; Voots et al., without finding plasma processes held at the Los Alamos Scientific
1977]. However, at present we are which cause the 'fluctuations.' The Laboratory, New Mexico, October
still far from a full understanding of cause of the 'fluctuations' is the miss 9-13, 1978 (see January 1977 E 0 S , p.
the cause of the enhancement and its ing link in a long chain of processes 29), is timely in this respect in setting

72
the directions along which experimen ism for driving the gross Birkeland cur line in the near-earth plasma sheet, 2,
ters, analysts, and plasma physicists rent configuration in the auroral oval, J . Systematic study of Imp 6 magnetic field
Geophys. Res., 81, 235, 1976. observations, / . Geophys. Res., 82, 1547,
can work together toward our com
Burch, J . L.. Observations of interactions 1977.
mon goal of understanding the physics between interplanetary and geomagnetic Mcllwain, C. E . , Substorm injection bound
involved in s u b s t o r m p r o c e s s e s . fields, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., 12, aries, in Magnetospheric Physics, edited
F u r t h e r m o r e , this Chapman Con 363, 1974. by B . M. McCormac, p. 143, D. Reidel,
ference is a particularly appropriate Burlaga, L. F . , Interplanetary streams and Hingham, Mass., 1974.
their interactions with the earth, Space McPherron, R. L., C. T. Russell, and M. P.
one, because Chapman was the man
Sci. Rev., 17, 327, 1975. A u b r y , S a t e l l i t e studies of m a g
who introduced the term substorm. Caan, M. N., R. L. McPherron, and C. T. netospheric substorms on August 15,
Russell, Substorm and interplanetary 1968, 9, Phenomenological model for sub
Acknowledgments magnetic field effects on the geomag storms, J . Geophys. Res., 78, 3131, 1973.
netic tail lobes, J . Geophys. Res., 80, 191, Nishida, A., and E . W. Hones, J r . , Associ
1975. ation of plasma sheet thinning with
The author would like to thank C. T.
Coroniti, F . V., and C. F . Kennel, Mag neutral line formation in the magnetotail,
Russell and other members of the pro n e t o s p h e r i c s u b s t o r m s , in Cosmic /. Geophys. Res., 79, 535, 1974.
gram committee of the Chapman Con Plasma Physics, edited by K. Schindler, Russell, C. T., and R. L. McPherron, The
ference on Magnetospheric Substorms p. 15, Plenum, New York, 1972. magnetotail and substorms, Space Sci.
and Related Plasma Processes for DeForest, S. E . , and C. E . Mcllwain, Rev., 15, 205, 1973.
Plasma cloud in the magnetosphere, J. Scarf, F . L., L . A. Frank, K . L. Ackerson,
their comments on an early version of
Geophys. Res., 76, 3587, 1971. and R. P. Lepping, Plasma wave turbu
this paper. This work was supported D e s s l e r , A . J . , and E . N. P a r k e r , lence at distant crossings of the plasma
in part by a grant from the National Hydromagnetic theory of geomagnetic sheet boundaries and the neutral sheet,
Science Foundation Atmospheric storms, J . Geophys. Res., 64, 2239, 1959. Geophys. Res. Lett, 1, 189, 1974.
Sciences Section (ATM 74-23832) and Gonzalez, W. D., and F . S. Mozer, A quan Schindler, K., Plasma and fields in the mag
in part by a grant from the National titative model for the potential resulting netospheric tail, Space Sci. Rev., 17, 589,
from reconnection with an arbitrary 1975.
Aeronautics and Space Administra interplanetary magnetic field, J . Geo Smith, P. H., and R. A . Hoffman, Direct
tion (NSG 7281). phys. Res., 79, 4186, 1974. observations in the dark hours of the
Gurnett, D. A., The earth as a radio source: characteristics of the storm time ring
Terrestrial kilometric radiation, J . Geo current particles during the beginning of
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Banks, P. M., and J . R. Doupnik, A review S.-I. Akasofu, professor of geophysics at the Geo
of auroral zone electrodynamics deduced physical Institute, University of Alaska, received
from incoherent scatter radar observa his Ph.D. in geophysics from the University of
tions, / . Atmos. Terr. Phys., 37, 951, Alaska in 1961. He has published two books on mag
1975. netospheric substorms and coauthored Solar-Ter
Bostrom, R., A model of the auroral restrial Physics with Sydney Chapman. He was
electrojet, / . Geophys. Res., 69, 4983, awarded the Chapman Medal from the Royal
1964. Astronomical Society, England, and the Japan
Bostrom, R., Magnetosphere-ionosphere Academy Award for his study on magnetospheric
coupling, in Critical Problems of Mag physics. He is the convenor of the AGU Chapman
netospheric Physics, edited by E . R. Conference on Magnetospheric Substorms and
Dyer, p. 139, National Academy of Related Plasma Processes and a contributor to A R S
Sciences, Washington, D. C , 1972. volume 2 9 , Upper Atmosphere Research in
Bostrom, R., and G. Rostoker, A mechan Antarctica.

73