SOLID EARTH GEOPHYSICS

(EES337)

DR. ASHWANI KANT TIWARI

DEPARTMENT OF EARTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
IISER BHOPAL
SPECIALIZATION: EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY
❑ The total field,
which is calculated
every five years, is
called the
International
Geomagnetic
Reference Field
(IGRF). The main
field, with sources
inside the Earth, is
the negative
gradient of a scalar
potential V.

❑ The coefficients are

a function of time
and, for the IGRF,
are assumed to vary
at constant rates for
five-year periods.
It has to be recalculated regularly because of the secular variation. The IGRF is
now in its eleventh generation, having been revised in 2010 (Finlay et al., 2010).
Consequently, it is possible to obtain a theoretical value for the field strength of
the Earth’s magnetic field for any location on Earth. However, readers are
strongly advised to read the IGRF ‘health warning’ to be found at
www.ngdc.noaa.gov/IAGA/vmod/igrfhw.html about the numerical accuracy with
which the IGRF calculates values for the main magnetic field.
❑ Why there is a discrepancy between the
magnetic poles and geomagnetic poles?
(Because the terrestrial magnetic field is
more complex than that of perfect dipole)
❑The intensity of geomagnetic field is
generally stronger in the higher latitudes
than near the equator. The intensity is
especially low over the south Atlantic where
it is about 20μT weaker than expected.
❑The geomagnetic field shields the Earth
from cosmic radiation and charged particles
of the solar wind, therefore, this protection is
less effective over the South Atlantic.
❑Orbiting satellites note increased impacts of
extra-terrestrial particles over this region.
The feature poses hazards for astronauts in
low-orbiting spacecraft and also for pilots
and passengers in high-altitude aircraft that
pass through the region. The enhance
particle flux can interfere with their on-board
computers, communications and guidance
systems. Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)
The non-dipolar Field
❑ While the single dipole field approximates to the Earth’s observed
magnetic field, there is a significant difference between them, which is
known as the non-dipole field.
❑ The part of the field of internal origin (about 5% of the total field),
obtained by subtracting the field of the inclined geocentric dipole
from the total field, is collectively called the non-dipole field.
❑To describe this field requires all the terms in the potential expansion
of order 𝑛 ≥ 2 in the IGRF equation.
❑ The total intensity for the nondipole field from which several large-
scale features can be seen with dimensions of the order of several
thousand kilometers and with amplitudes up to 20,000 nT, about a
third of the Earth’s total field.
❑ Using the method of spherical harmonic analysis, it can be
demonstrated that the non-dipole field and the associated large-scale
features can be represented by a fictitious set of 8–12 small dipoles
radially located close to the liquid core. These dipoles serve to
simulate the eddy currents associated with the processes within the
liquid core.
Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)
 Secular Variation
❑At any particular place on the Earth the geomagnetic field is not constant in
time. The slow changes of the field only become appreciable over decades or
centuries of observation and so they are called secular variations. They are
manifest as variations of both the dipole and non-dipole components of the
field.

Secular Variation of the Dipole Field:

❑The dipole field exhibits secular variations of intensity and direction. At the
start of the twentieth century the decay became even faster and has
averaged about 5.8% per century during the last 80 yr. If it continues at the
same almost linear rate, the field intensity would reach zero in about another
2000 yr.
❑The cause of the quite rapid decay in intensity is not known; it may simply
be part of a longer term fluctuation. However, another possibility is that the
dipole moment may be decreasing preparatoryto the next reversal of
geomagnetic field polarity.
Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)
❑The position of the dipole axis also shows secular variation. The changes can be traced by
plotting the colatitude (the angle between the dipole axis and the rotation axis) and longitude of
the geomagnetic pole as a function of time.
❑For the past 400 yr the longitude of the geomagnetic pole has drifted steadily westward.

Secular Variation of non-dipole Field:

❑The secular variation of the non-dipole field therefore consists of a standing part (Only changes
in intensity, not position) and a drifting part (changes in position).
❑The most striking feature of the secular variation of the recent non-dipole field is a slow
westward drift. This is superposed on the westward drift of the dipole, but can be separated
readily by spherical harmonic analysis.
❑Westward drift is an important factor in theories of
the origin of the geomagnetic field. It is considered to
be a manifestation of rotation of the outer layers of
the core relative to the lower mantle.
❑Theoretical models of the geomagnetic field
presume conservation of angular momentum of the
fluid core. To maintain the angular momentum of a
particle of fluid that moves radially inwards
(decreasing the distance from the rotational axis) its
angular rate of rotation must speed up.
❑The outer layers of the core probably rotate more
slowly than the solid mantle, imparting a westward
drift to features of the magnetic field rooted in the
fluid motion.

Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)

 The magnetic field
of external origin:
❑ It is strongly affected by the solar wind, a
stream of electrically charged particles
(consisting mainly of electrons, protons and
helium nuclei) that is constantly emitted by the
Sun. The solar wind is a plasma.
❑The solar wind interacts with the magnetic field
of the Earth to form a region called the
magnetosphere.
❑The velocity of the solar wind relative to the
Earth is about 450 km/sec. At a great distance
(about 15 Earth radii) from the Earth, on the day
side, the supersonic solar wind collides with the
thin upper atmosphere. This produces an effect
similar to the build-up of a shock wave in front
of a supersonic aircraft. The shock front is called
the bow-shock region; it marks the outer
boundary of the magnetosphere.
Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)
❑Within the bow-shock region the solar wind is slowed down and heated up.
After passing through the shock front the solar wind is diverted around the Earth
in a region of turbulent motion called the magnetosheath.
❑The moving charged particles of the solar wind constitute electrical currents.
They produce an interplanetary magnetic field, which reinforces and compresses
the geomagnetic field on the day side and weakens and stretches it out on the
night side of the Earth. This results in a geomagnetic tail, or magnetotail, which
extends to great distances “downwind” from the Earth.
❑The transition between the deformed magnetic field and the magnetosheath is
called the magnetopause.
The Van Allen
radiation belts:
❑ Charged particles that penetrate the magnetopause are
trapped by the geomagnetic field lines and form the Van
Allen radiation belts. These constitute two doughnut-
shaped regions coaxial with the geomagnetic axis

❑ The inner belt contains mainly protons, the outer belt

energetic electrons. Within each belt the charged
particles move in helical fashion around the
geomagnetic field lines

Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)

 The Ionosphere
❑The Earth’s magnetic field acts as a shield against much of the
extra-terrestrial radiation. The atmosphere acts as a protective
blanket against the remainder.
❑Most of the very short-wavelength fraction of the solar radiation
that penetrates the atmosphere does not reach the Earth’s
surface.
❑Energetic 𝛾 and X rays and ultraviolet radiation cause ionization
of the molecules of nitrogen and oxygen in the thin upper
atmosphere at altitudes between about 50 km and 1500 km,
forming an ionized region called the ionosphere.
❑It is formed of five layers, labelled the D, E, F1, F2 and G layers
from the base to the top. Each layer can reflect radio waves. The
thicknesses and ionizations of the layers change during the course
of a day; all but one or two layers on the night side of the Earth
disappear while they thicken and strengthen on the day side.
Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)
Diurnal Variation
❑The Earth’s magnetic field changes over a daily period, the diurnal variations.
❑ These are caused by changes in the strength and direction of currents in the
ionosphere.
❑ On a magnetically ‘quiet’ (Q) day, the changes are smooth and are on average
around 50 nT, but with maximum amplitudes up to 200 nT at the geomagnetic
equator.
❑ The changes are least during the night when the background is almost
constant, and decrease in amplitude from dawn to midday, whereupon they
increase to the daily maximum about mid–late afternoon before settling down
to the night-time value.
 Diurnal Variation and
Magnetic Storm
❑ The ionized molecules in the ionosphere release swarms of electrons
that form powerful, horizontal, ring-like electrical currents. These act
as sources of external magnetic fields that are detected at the surface
of the Earth.

❑ The ionization is most intense on the day side of the Earth, where
extra layers develop.
❑ The motions of the charged particles through the Earth’s magnetic Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)
field produce an electrical field, according to Lorentz’s law, which
drives electrical currents in the ionosphere. These currents cause a
magnetic field at the Earth’s surface.

❑ As the Earth rotates beneath the ionosphere the observed intensity

of the geomagnetic field fluctuates with a range of amplitude of
about 10–30 nT at the Earth’s surface and a period of one day. This
time-dependent change of geomagnetic field intensity is called the
diurnal (or daily) variation.
❑The magnitude of the diurnal variation depends on the latitude at which it is
observed. The intensity of the effect depends on the degree of ionization of the
ionosphere and is therefore determined by the state of solar activity.
❑Solar activity changes periodically with the 11-yr cycle of sunspots and solar
flares. The enhanced emission of radiation associated with these solar
phenomena increases the ionospheric currents. These give rise to rapidly
varying, anomalously strong magnetic fields (called magnetic storms) with
amplitudes of up to 1000 nT at the Earth’s surface.
Convection in the outer core and the
Earth’s magnetic field
❑ Four possible models for producing the Earth’s main dipole field.
1. A magnetic dipole at the center of the Earth (Model is ruled out: Same as for uniformly
magnetized core)
2. A uniformly magnetized core (Model is ruled out: The Earth’s magnetic filed is not constant in
time but at present decreasing in strength and drifting westward. It undergoes irregular magnetic
reversal. This changeability indicates that it is unlikely that the core is uniformly magnetized or
that there is a magnetic dipole at the center of the Earth)
3. A uniformly magnetized Earth (Model is ruled out because of the factor==> (1)Mantle is
composed of silicates➔ not a candidate for the origin of the magnetic field; (2)Permanent
magnetization of the mantle or the core cannot produce the Earth’s magnetic field because the
temperature in the deep interior exceed the curie temperature for magnetic minerals.)
4. An nearly east-west electric current flowing around the core-mantle boundary (Most plausible
model for producing the magnetic field. The problem with this system it should be constantly
maintained If it were not it would die out in much less than a million year. Our paleomagnetic
studies shows that the magnetic filed has been in existence for at least 3500 Ma).
Source: Fowler, C. M. R. (1990)
 Earth’s
Magnetic Field
❑ The model that best explain the magnetic
filed===>Geomagnetic dynamo or
geodynamo
❑As a result of chemical differentiation and
radioactive heating, the Earth’s outer core is in
the state of turbulent convection. This setup a
process that is bit like a naturally occurring
generator. Where the convective kinetic
energy is converted to electrical and magnetic
energy. The motion of the electrically
conductive iron in the presence of the Earth’s
magnetic field induce electric currents. Those
electric currents generate their own magnetic
field, and as a result of this internal feedback,
the process is self sustaining so long as there is
energy source sufficient to maintain
convection.

Source: Marshak, S. (2018)

❑When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field, it experiences a deflecting electrical field (called
the Lorentz field) proportional to the magnetic flux density B and the particle velocity v, and acting in the
direction normal to both B and v. The Lorentz field acts as an additional source of electrical current in the
core. Its strength is dependent on the velocity of motion of the conducting fluid relative to the magnetic
field lines.When this term is included in the Maxwell electromagnetic equations, a magnetohydrodynamic
equation relating the magnetic field B to the fluid flow v and conductivity in the core is obtained. It is
written
𝜕𝐵 1
❑ = ∇2 𝐵 + ∇ × (𝑣 × 𝐵)
𝜕𝑡 𝜇0 𝜎
❑The first term in the right side of this equation is “Diffusion term”. It is inversely dependent on the
electrical conductivity and determine the decay of field in the absence of a driving potential. The better the
conductor, small is this term.
❑The second term in the right side of this equation is “Dynamo Term”. It depends on the Lorentz electrical
field, which is determined by the velocity field of the fluid motion in the core.
❑The conductivity of the outer core ((3 − 5) × 105 Ω−1 𝑚−1 )is high and for the fluid velocity of about 1
mm/sec, the dynamo term greatly exceed the diffusion term. Under these condition line of magnetic flux in
the core are dragged along by the fluid flow. This concept is called the Frozen-Flux Theorem, and it
fundamental to dynamo theory.
❑The diffusion term is only zero if the electrical conductivity is infinite. There is probably some diffusion of
the field through the fluid, because it is not a perfect conductor. However, the frozen-flux theorem appears
to approximate well the conditions in the fluid outer core.
❑The derivation of a solution of the dynamo theory is difficult. In addition to
Maxwell’s equations with the addition of a term for the Lorentz field, the Navier–
Stokes equation for the fluid flow, Poisson’s equation for the gravitational potential
and the generalized equation of heat transfer must be simultaneously satisfied.
❑The fluid flow consists of a radial component and a rotational component.
❑ The energy for the radial flow comes from two sources. The slow cooling of the
Earth produces a temperature gradient in the core, which results in thermally driven
convection in the iron-rich fluid of the outer core. This is augmented by latent heat
released at the boundary between the inner and outer cores as the inner core
solidifies.
❑ The rotational component of the fluid flow is the result of a radial velocity
gradient in the liquid core, with inner layers rotating faster than outer layers
❑The relative rotation of the conducting fluid drags magnetic field lines around the
rotational axis to form ring-like, toroidal configurations. The toroidal field lines are
parallel to the flow and therefore to the surface of the core. This means that the
toroidal fields are confined to the core and cannot be measured; their strengths and
configurations must be estimated from models.
 How do you find palaeopole position from the
orientation of a paleomagnetic dipole in a rock sample?
❑ The horizontal projection of the dipole arrow on the Earth’s
surface is like a compass needle that points to the paleopole;
that is the projection defines an imaginary great circle around
the earth that passes through the paleopole and the sample
(imaginary “paleolongitude ” line).

❑To find the specific position of paleopole

on this great circle, we must look at
inclination of the paleomagnetic dipole in
the rock. Inclination of the paleomagnetic
dipole defines the paleolatitude of the
sample with respect to the paleopole.
Paleolatitude simply represent distance
(measured in degrees) from the pole along
the great circle to where the sample
formed.
Source: Marshak, S. (2018)
If the angles of inclination and declination of our rock sample are measured ,
the position of paleomagnetic pole can be calculated.

❑If we assume N to be present north pole, P the paleomagnetic north pole, and X the location of the
rock sample.
𝐵𝑟
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐼 = = 2𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 = 2tanλ
𝐵𝑡

❑As per the cosine formula for the spherical triangle

❑After 𝜆𝑝 has bee calculated, as per the sine formula for the spherical triangle

Source: Fowler, C. M. R. (1990)

Source: Marshak, S. (2018)
Polar Wander Path
❑The relationship between the angle of inclination and the magnetic latitude means that a
measurement of the angle of inclination of the remanent magnetization of a suitable lava or sediment
laid down on a continent immediately gives the magnetic palaeolatitude for the particular piece of
continent.
❑If the continent has not moved with respect to the pole since the rock cooled, then the magnetic
latitude determined from the magnetization of the rock is the same as its present latitude. However,
if the continent has moved or if the rock has been tilted, the magnetic latitude determined from the
magnetization of the rock can be different from its present latitude.
❑Thus, the angle of inclination provides a powerful method of determining the past latitudes
(palaeolatitudes) of the continents. Unfortunately, it is not possible to use palaeomagnetic data to
make a determination of palaeolongitude.
❑If the angles of declination and of inclination of our rock sample are measured, the position of the
palaeomagnetic pole can be calculated.
❑If palaeomagnetic pole positions can be obtained from rocks of different ages on the same
continent, these poles can be plotted on a map. Such a plot is called a polar-wander path and shows
how the magnetic pole moved relative to that continent. If such polar-wander paths from two
continents coincide, then the two continents cannot have moved relative to each other during the
times shown. However, if the paths differ, there must have been relative motion of the continents.
 Apparent
Polar
Wonder:
A Proof
That
Continents
Move

Source: Marshak, S. (2018)

Magnetic
Polarity
Reversals
and
Chronology
of Reversals
Source: Marshak, S. (2018)
❑ By recording the paleomagnetic polarity preserved in a succession of basalt layers, each of which had been dated
numerically, a group of researchers established a magnetic-reversal chronology, a chart showing when reversals happened
and, therefore, how much time occurred between reversals (Fig. 3.19b, c). Their initial chart extended back 4.5 million
years. The researchers referred to a major interval of a given polarity as a chron. Chrons typically include short-duration
intervals of opposite polarity known as subchrons. They named chrons after famous researchers and subchrons after
localities.

Source: Marshak, S. (2018)

❑By assuming that seafloor spreading along a given ridge takes place at a
constant rate over a long period, geologist can define the timing of
magnetic reversals for time interval before 4.5 Ma. In fact, by using this
method, they eventually determine that the oldest seafloor currently on the
Earth formed about 200 Ma.

Source: Marshak, S. (2018)

Source: Marshak, S. (2018)
 The Magnetic Potential and Poisson’s Equation
❑The magnetic potential and hence the magnetic field strength associated with a magnetized body can be found
at any point in terms of the gravitational potential by use of Poisson's relation. This is particularly valuable for
predicting the magnetic effect of buried bodies. According to Poisson, the magnetic potential U can be expressed
in the form
𝐼 𝜕𝑉
𝑈=−
𝛾𝜌 𝜕𝑖

where V = gravitational potential; i = direction of magnetic polarization; I = magnetization or polarization; 𝜌= density; 𝛾

= universal gravitational constant
❑The corresponding magnetic field component in any direction s is
𝜕𝑈 𝐼 𝜕 𝜕𝑉
𝐻𝑠 = − = ( )
𝜕𝑠 𝛾𝜌 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑖
❑If the ore body is magnetized in the z (vertical direction) and if the horizontal component 𝐻𝑥 and the vertical
component 𝐻𝑧 are desired
𝜕𝑈 𝐼 𝜕 𝜕𝑉
𝐻𝑥 = − = ( )
𝜕𝑥 𝛾𝜌 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑈 𝐼 𝜕2 𝑉
𝐻𝑧 = − =
𝜕𝑧 𝛾𝜌 𝜕𝑧 2
 Magnetic Properties of Rocks
Susceptibility of Rocks
and Minerals
❑ It is an extremely important
property of rocks and is to
magnetic exploration
methods.
❑ Rocks having significant
concentration of ferro- or/and
ferrimagnetic minerals➔
higher susceptibility

Source: Reynolds, J. M. (2015)

Source: Reynolds, J. M. (2015)
❑ Whole rock susceptibly can vary considerably owing to a number of factors in
addition to mineralogical composition. Susceptibilities depend upon the
alignment and shape of the magnetic grains dispersed throughout the rock. If
there is mark orientation of particles, such as in some sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks, a strong physical anisotropy may exist.
❑ The variation of magnetic properties as a function of orientations and shape of
mineral grains is known as the magnetic fabrics. The magnetic fabric analysis
provide a very sensitive indication as to the physical composition of a rock or
sediment, which in turn can be important in interpreting physical processes
affecting that rock.
❑ Susceptibility can be measured either in the field using a hand-held
susceptibility meter such as the kappa meter, or on samples returned to the
laboratory where they can be analysed more accurately.
❑ For magnetic ore bodies with extremely high susceptibilities (𝜅 > 106 SI), the
measured susceptibility- more correctly referred to rock types as the apparent
susceptibility 𝜅𝑎 → can be reduced substantially by a shape demagnetization
effect. This involves a demagnetization factor 𝑁𝛼 which depends on direction 𝛼.
❑ For a sphere, 𝑁𝛼 =1/3 in all directions
❑ In the case of thin sheet like body with a high true susceptibility (𝜅~106 SI):
𝑁𝛼 ~ 1 in the transverse direction, therefore, 𝜅𝑎 =0.5𝜅; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝛼 ~ 0 in the
longitudinal direction, so that 𝜅𝑎 ≈ 𝜅
 Remnant Magnetization and
Königsberger Ratio
❑ The intensity of the remanent magnetization Jr may swamp that of the induced magnetization
Ji, particularly in igneous and thermally metamorphosed rocks.
❑ The ratio of the two intensities (Jr/Ji) is called the Königsberger ratio, Q, which can be
expressed in terms of the Earth’s magnetic field at a given locality and the susceptibility of the
rocks.
❑Nagata (1961) made four broad
generalization on the basis of Q:
➢ Q ~ 1 for slowly crystallized igneous and
thermally metamorphosed rocks in
continental areas;
➢ Q ~ 10 for volcanic rocks;
➢ Q ~ 30-50 for many rapidly quenched
basaltic rocks.
➢ Q < 1 in sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks, except when iron ore is involved. Source: Reynolds, J. M. (2015)
The various processes by which rock can acquire a remnant magnetization:

Source: Reynolds, J. M. (2015)

Remnant Magnetization in Rocks
❑A remanence acquired at or close to the time of formation of the rock is called
a primary magnetization; a remanence acquired at a later time is called a
secondary magnetization.
❑Examples of primary remanence are thermoremanent magnetization, which an
igneous rock acquires during cooling, and the remanent magnetizations
acquired by a sediment during or soon after deposition. Secondary remanences
may be caused by chemical change of the rock during diagenesis or weathering,
or by sampling and laboratory procedures.
Thermoremanent Magnetization:
❑ It is the most important type of remanent magnetization in igneous
(and high-grade metamorphic) rocks. Igneous rocks solidify at
temperatures well above 1000 0C. The grains of a ferrimagnetic
mineral are well above their Curie temperature, which in magnetite
is 578 0C and in hematite is 675 0C. There is no molecular field and
the individual atomic magnetic moments are free to fluctuate
chaotically; the magnetization is paramagnetic. As the rock cools, the
temperature eventually passes below the Curie temperature of the
ferrimagnetic grains and a spontaneous magnetization appears.

Detrital Remnant Magnetization:

❑The acquisition of depositional remanent magnetization (DRM)
during deposition of a sediment takes place at constant temperature.
Magnetic and mechanical forces compete to produce a physical
alignment of detrital ferrimagnetic particles. The particles become
aligned statistically with the Earth’s magnetic field.
❑The action of mechanical forces may at times spoil this alignment.
Water currents cause hydromechanical forces that disturb the
alignment during settling, giving rise to a declination error. On Source: Lillie, R. J. (1999)
contact with the bottom of the sedimentary basin, the mechanical
force of gravity rolls the particle into a stable attitude, causing an
inclination error. The DRM is finally fixed in sedimentary rocks during
diagenesis.
 Chemical Remnant Magnetization
❑It is usually a secondary form of remanence
in a rock. It occurs when the magnetic
minerals in a rock suffer chemical alteration or
when new minerals form authigenically.
❑ An example is the precipitation of hematite
from a goethite precursor or from iron-
saturated fluids that pass through the rock.
The magnetic minerals may also experience
diagenetic modification or oxidation by
weathering, which usually happens on the
grain surface and along cracks.
❑The new CRM is acquired in the direction of
the ambient field during the chemical change,
and so it is younger than the host rock. It has
stable magnetic properties similar to TRM.
Source: Lillie, R. J. (1999)
Methods of Paleomagnetism
❑A measure impetus to paleomagnetic study was the
invention of a very sensitive astatic magnetometers.
❑ The apparatus consists of two identical small
magnets mounted horizontally at opposite ends of a
short rigid vertical bar so that the magnets are
oriented exactly antiparallel to each other. The
assembly is suspended on an elastic fiber. In this
configuration the Earth’s magnetic field has equal and
opposite effects on each magnet. If a magnetized rock
is brought close to one magnet, the magnetic field of
the rock produces a stronger twisting effect on the
closer magnet than on the distant one and the
assembly rotates to a new position of equilibrium. The
rotation is detected by a light beam reflected off a
small mirror mounted on the rigid bar.
❑The astatic magnetometer became the basic tool of
paleomagnetism and fostered its development as a
scientific discipline.
❑ In modern paleomagnetic laboratories more efficient
spinner magnetometers and cryogenic
magnetometers are in common use.
Source: Internet
 Magnetic Surveying
The Magnetization of the Earth’s crust: Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)
❑ A magnetic anomaly as the difference between the measured (and suitably
corrected) magnetic field of the Earth and that which would be expected from the
International Geomagnetic Reference Field.
❑ The magnetic anomaly results from the contrast in magnetization when rocks
with different magnetic properties are adjacent to each other, as, for example,
when a strongly magnetic basaltic dike intrudes a less magnetic host rock. The stray
magnetic fields surrounding the dike disturb the geomagnetic field locally and can
be measured with sensitive instruments called magnetometers.
❑ Magnetic investigations of continental crustal rocks for commercial exploitation
(e.g., in ancient shield areas) can often be interpreted as cases with Qn1. The
magnetization can then be assumed to be entirely induced (Fig. 5.40c) and oriented
parallel to the direction of the present day geomagnetic field at the measurement
site, which is usually known. This makes it easier to design a model to interpret the
feature responsible for the magnetic anomaly.
 Magnetometers
Flux-gate Magnetometer:
❑Some special nickel–iron alloys have very high magnetic susceptibility and
very low remanent magnetization. Common examples are Permalloy
(78.5% Ni, 21.5% Fe) and Mumetal (77% Ni, 16% Fe, 5% Cu, 2% Cr). The
coercivity of the alloy is very low (i.e., its magnetization can be changed by
a very weak field) and its susceptibility is so high that the Earth’s field can
induce a magnetization in it that is a considerable proportion of the
saturation value.
❑The flux-gate magnetometer is a vector magnetometer, because it
measures the strength of the magnetic field in a particular direction,
namely along the axis of the sensor. This requires that the sensor be
accurately oriented along the direction of the field component to be
measured.
❑The flux-gate magnetometer does not yield absolute field values. The
output is a voltage, which must be calibrated in terms of magnetic field.
However, the instrument provides a continuous record of field strength.
Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)
 Proton-precession
Magnetometer
❑ The proton-precession magnetometer depends on the fact that the
nucleus of the hydrogen atom, a proton, has a magnetic moment
proportional to the angular momentum of its spin. Because the angular
momentum is quantized, the proton magnetic moment can only have
specified values, which are multiples of a fundamental unit called the
nuclear magneton. The ratio of the magnetic moment to the spin angular
momentum is called the gyromagnetic ratio (𝛾𝑝 ) of the proton.
2𝜋 Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)
𝐵𝑡 = 𝑓
𝛾𝑝
❑The intensity of the Earth’s magnetic field is in the range 30,000–60,000nT.
The corresponding precessional frequency is approximately 1250–2500 Hz,
which is in the audio-frequency range.
❑Although it gives an absolute value of the field, the proton-precession
magnetometer does not give a continuous record. Its portability and
simplicity give it advantages for field use.
❑The flux-gate and proton-precession magnetometers are widely used in
magnetic surveying. The two instruments have comparable sensitivities of 0.1–1
nT. In contrast to the flux-gate instrument, which measures the component of
the field along its axis, the proton-precession magnetometer cannot measure
field components; it is a total-field magnetometer. The total field Bt is the vector
sum of the Earth’s magnetic field BE and the stray magnetic field ∆B of, say, an
orebody. Generally, ∆𝑩 ≪ 𝑩𝑬 , so that the direction of the total field does not
deviate far from the Earth’s field. In some applications it is often adequate to
regard the measured total field anomaly as the projection of ∆𝑩 along the
Earth’s field direction.
 Absorption Cell Magnetometer:
❑Also known as alkali-vapor or
optically pumped magnetometer.
❑ The principle of its operation is
based on the quantum mechanical
model of the atom. According to
their quantum numbers the
electrons of an atom occupy
concentric shells about the nucleus
with different energy levels. The
lowest energy level of an electron is
its ground state. The magnetic
moment associated with the spin of
an electron can be either parallel or
antiparallel to an external magnetic
field. The energy of the electron is
different in each case. This results in
the ground state splitting into two
sublevels with slightly different
energies. The energy difference is
proportional to the strength of the Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)
magnetic field. The splitting of
energy levels in the presence of a ❑ The ambient geomagnetic field Bt that causes the splitting of the ground state
magnetic field is called the Zeeman
effect. is proportional to the Larmor frequency, and is given by
2𝜋
❑Absorption-cell magnetometers 𝐵𝑡 = 𝑓
utilize the Zeeman effect in vapors 𝛾𝑒
of alkali elements such as rubidium Where, 𝛾𝑒 is the gyromagnetic ratio of electron
or cesium, which have only a single
valence electron in the outermost ❑ The sensitivity of an optically pumped magnetometer is very high, about 0.01
energy shell. nT, which is an order of magnitude more sensitive than the flux-gate or proton-
precession magnetometer.
Cryogenic (SQUID) magnetometers
❑The most sensitive magnetometer available is the cryogenic magnetometer which operates
using processes associated with superconductivity. These magnetometers are perhaps better
known as SQUID (Superconducting QUantum Interference Device) magnetometers.
Measurement accuracy of the total field strength is within ±0.01 nT.

Gradiometers:
❑A gradiometer measures the difference in the total magnetic field strength between two
identical magnetometers separated by a small distance. In ground instruments, a separation of
0.5m to 1.5 m is common.
❑The magnetic field gradient is expressed in units of nT/m and taken to apply at the mid-point
between the sensors.
❑A major advantage of gradiometers is that because they take differential measurements, no
correction for diurnal variation is necessary as both sensors will be equally affected.
❑As gradiometers measure the vertical magnetic gradient, noise effects from long-wavelength
features are suppressed and anomalies from shallow sources are emphasized. For detailed
high-resolution surveys exploring for mineral targets, magnetic gradiometry is the preferred
method.
Magnetic Surveying
❑Magnetic surveying consists of (1) measuring the terrestrial magnetic field at
predetermined points, (2) correcting the measurements for known changes, and
(3) comparing the resultant value of the field with the expected value at each
measurement station.
❑The expected value of the field at any place is taken to be that of the
International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF).
❑The difference between the observed and expected values is a magnetic
anomaly.
 Measurement Methods
❑ The surveying of magnetic anomalies can be carried out on land, at sea and in the
air.
❑In a simple land survey an operator might use a portable magnetometer to measure
the field at the surface of the Earth at selected points that form a grid over a suspected
geological structure. This method is slow but it yields a detailed pattern of the magnetic
field anomaly over the structure, because the measurements are made close to the
source of the anomaly.
❑In practice, the surveying of magnetic anomalies is most efficiently carried out from
an aircraft. The magnetometer must be removed as far as possible from the magnetic
environment of the aircraft.
❑Airborne magnetometers generally have higher sensitivity (0.01 nT) than those used in
ground-based surveying (sensitivity 1 nT). This compensates for the loss in resolution
due to the increased distance between the magnetometer and the source of the
anomaly. Airborne magnetic surveying is an economical way to reconnoitre a large
territory in a short time. It has become a routine part of the initial phases of the
geophysical exploration of an uncharted territory.
❑The magnetic field over the oceans may also be surveyed from the air. However, most
of the marine magnetic record has been obtained by shipborne surveying.
Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)
 The Survey Pattern
❑In a systematic regional airborne (or marine) magnetic survey the
measurements are usually made according to a predetermined
pattern. In surveys made with fixed-wing aircraft the survey is usually
flown at a constant flight elevation above sea-level.
❑The survey focuses on the depth to the magnetic basement, which
often underlies less magnetic sedimentary surface rocks at
considerable depth. In regions that are flat or that do not have
dramatic topography, it may be possible to fly a survey at low
altitude, as close as possible to the magnetic sources.
❑The usual method is to survey a region along parallel flight-lines (Fig.
5.45c), which may be spaced anywhere from 100 m to a few
kilometers apart, depending on the flight elevation used, the
intensity of coverage, and the quality of detail desired.
❑The orientation of the flightlines is selected to be more or less
normal to the trend of suspected or known subsurface features.

Source: Lowrie, W. (2013)

 Noise and Corrections:
❑All magnetic datasets contain elements of noise and will require some form of correction to the raw data to
remove all contributions to the observed magnetic field other than those caused by subsurface magnetic
sources. In ground magnetometer surveys, it is always advisable to keep any magnetic objects (keys, penknives,
some wristwatches, etc.), which may cause magnetic noise, away from the sensor.
❑The most significant correction is for the diurnal variation in the Earth’s magnetic field. Base station readings
taken over the period of a survey facilitate the compilation of the diurnal ‘drift’. Measurements of the total field
made at other stations can easily be adjusted by the variation in the diurnal curve.
❑ In airborne and shipborne surveys, it is obviously not possible to return to a base station frequently. By
designing the survey so that the track lines intersect (Figure 3.26), the dataset can be appropriately corrected.
Some surveys use profiles and tie-lines at the same spacing to give a regular grid. Other surveys have tie-lines at
10 times the inter-profile line spacing.
❑Rarely, a terrain correction may need to be applied when the ground over which a survey is conducted is both
magnetic and topographically rough.
❑If the rough terrain is made up largely of low-susceptibility sedimentary rocks, there will be little or no
distortion of the Earth’s magnetic field. However, if the rocks have a significant susceptibility, a terrain factor may
have to be applied.
❑Another way of correcting for the effects of topography, or of reducing the data to
a different reference plane, is by upward continuation. This permits data acquired
at a lower level (e.g. on the ground) to be processed so that they can be compared
with airborne surveys. The effect of this is to lessen the effects of short-wavelength
high-amplitude features, as the magnetic force is indirectly proportional to the
square of the distance between source and sensor.
❑In some regions, metal pipes can become inductively magnetized by currents in
the atmosphere (Campbell, 1986) or are cathodically protected by passing a large
direct current (1–7 amps) through them to reduce internal corrosion. The presence
of such pipes can contribute a significant anomaly on high-resolution aeromagnetic
data (Gay, 1986). In hydrocarbon exploration over sedimentary basins up to 6 km
depth, basement faulting, which affects basement controlled traps and reservoirs,
can be identified from their respective magnetic anomalies which can have
amplitudes of only several nanoteslas. There is then a problem over differentiating
between a geologically significant fault and a cathodically protected pipe, as their
respective magnetic anomalies may appear to be similar.
Reduction of Magnetic Field
Measurements
❑The variations of magnetic field with altitude, latitude and longitude are dominated by the
vertical and horizontal variations of the dipole field. The total intensity 𝐵𝑡 of the field is obtained
by computing the resultant of the radial component 𝐵𝑟 and the tangential component 𝐵𝜃 :

𝜇0 𝑚 1+3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝐵𝑡 = 𝐵𝑟2 + 𝐵𝜃2 =
4𝜋 𝑟3
❑The altitude correction is given by the vertical gradient of the magnetic field:

𝜕𝐵𝑡 𝜇0 𝑚 1+3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝐵𝑡
= −3 = −3
𝜕𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟4 𝑟
❑It clearly depends on the latitude of the measurement site. At the magnetic equator
(𝐵𝑡 ≈30,000 nT) the altitude correction is about 0.015 nT/m; near the magnetic poles (𝐵𝑡 ≈
60,000 nT) it is about 0.030 nT/m. The correction is so small that it is often ignored.
❑In regional studies the corrections for latitude and longitude are inherent in the reference field
that is subtracted. In a survey of a small region, the latitude correction is given by the north–
south horizontal gradient of the magnetic field, obtained by differentiating 𝐵𝑡 with respect to
polar angle, 𝜃.
1 𝜕𝐵𝑡 𝜇0 𝑚 1 𝜕 3𝐵𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
− = 1+ 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 =
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 4𝜋 𝑟 4 𝜕𝜃 𝑟(1+3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)
❑The latitude correction is zero at the magnetic pole (00) and magnetic equator (900) and
reaches a maximum value of about 5 nT per kilometer (0.005 nT/m) at intermediate latitudes. It
is insignificant in small-scale surveys.
❑In some land-based surveys of highly magnetic terrains (e.g., over lava flows or mineralized
intrusions), the disturbing effect of the magnetized topography may be serious enough to
require additional topographic corrections.
Magnetic Anomalies
❑The gravity anomaly of a body is caused by the density contrast (∆𝜌) between the body and its
surroundings. The shape of the anomaly is determined by the shape of the body and its depth of burial.
❑Similarly, a magnetic anomaly originates in the magnetization contrast (∆𝑀) between rocks with different
magnetic properties. However, the shape of the anomaly depends not only on the shape and depth of the
source object but also on its orientation to the profile and to the inducing magnetic field, which itself
varies in intensity and direction with geographical location.
❑In oceanic magnetic surveying the magnetization contrast results from differences in the remanent
magnetizations of crustal rocks, for which the Königsberger ratio is much greater than unity (i.e., 𝑄𝑛 ≫ 1).
Commercial geophysical prospecting is carried out largely in continental crustal rocks, for which the
Königsberger ratio is much less than unity (i.e., 𝑄𝑛 ≪ 1) and the magnetization may be assumed to be
induced by the present geomagnetic field.
❑The magnetization contrast is then due to susceptibility contrast in the crustal rocks. If k represents the
susceptibility of an orebody, k0 the susceptibility of the host rocks and F the strength of the inducing
magnetic field, then the magnetization contrast:

∆𝑀 = (𝑘 − 𝑘0 )F
 Source: Lillie, R. J. (1999)

Interpretation of Induced
Magnetic Field
❑In the absence of remanent magnetization, the total magnetic field
observed in the vicinity of a magnetic body is the sum of Earth's ambient
field at that location and the field induced within the magnetic body

❑ Local perturbations in Earth's field thus provide clues to the presence of

magnetically susceptible materials in the subsurface.

❑ The total field anomaly is computed by subtracting the magnitude

(intensity) of the ambient field (Famp) from F.
Geometry of the Magnetic
Bodies in the Subsurface
❑Magnetization is induced in a material according to
the direction and magnitude of Earth's ambient field,
and the magnetic susceptibility of the material.
❑The ambient field lies at varying angles (inclinations)
with respect to Earth's surface, therefore, the forms of
induced magnetic anomalies depend on latitude.
❑The induced magnetization within the body is parallel
to the ambient magnetic field. Where induced
magnetic field crosses the surface with a component
in the same direction as ambient magnetic field, the Source: Reynolds, J. M. (2015)
total magnetic field anomaly is positive. In areas where
induced magnetic field has a component opposite to
ambient magnetic field, the total magnetic field
anomaly is negative.
❑For the same body, magnetic anomalies observed at
the magnetic north pole and the magnetic equator are
thus quite different. (The problem is even more
complicated, because the direction of the magnetic
profile is also important.)
❑For the two anomalies shown in Figure 3.30, anomaly A has a short wavelength compared with
anomaly B, indicating that the magnetic body causing anomaly A is shallower than the body causing B.
As the amplitude of anomaly B is identical to that of anomaly A, despite the causative body being
deeper, this must suggest that the magnetization of body B is much greater than for body A, as
amplitude decreases with increasing separation of the sensor from the magnetised object.

Source: Reynolds, J. M. (2015)

Data Reduction
Source: Reynolds, J. M. (2015)
Source: Lillie, R. J. (1999)
❑Forward modelling of magnetic
anomalies can be used to interpret the
distribution of magnetic susceptibility
contrasts in the subsurface, analogous to
estimating density contrasts from
gravity data.
❑Changes in the magnitude and direction
of Earth's ambient field, however, make
the forms of magnetic anomalies far less
intuitive than gravity anomalies.
❑The same mass anomaly, buried at a
given depth, will produce essentially the
same gravity anomaly anywhere on the
Earth; magnetic anomalies from the
same body, however, vary in form and
amplitude according to magnetic
latitude.
 Mapping of
Magnetic Bodies:
❑ Magnetics is a useful tool for mapping
materials that have susceptibilities or
remanent magnetizations that contrast with
those of surrounding rocks, and for
distinguishing between types of intrusive
bodies. Igneous rocks often have large
amounts of magnetite, inducing high
magnetization.
❑ Like igneous intrusions, salt domes are
recognized from seismic refraction
experiments as high velocity material.
Potential field studies can differentiate the
two features
❑ The high density and high magnetic
susceptibility of an igneous intrusion will
produce pronounced gravity and magnetic
anomalies, compared to a gravity minimum
and subdued magnetic anomalies resulting
from a low-density, low-susceptibility salt
dome.
Source: Lillie, R. J. (1999)
Depth of Magnetic Basement:
❑ High ferromagnetic minerals➔ high level of magnetization
❑ Crystalline basement rocks, which are commonly more mafic than overlying sedimentary deposits, are thus the main source of
magnetic anomalies in a region.

❑The depth to the basement

in a region can be estimated,
therefore, by studying the
pattern of magnetic
anomalies. Regions with
high magnetic anomaly
amplitudes, short
wavelengths, and steep
gradients suggest shallow
basement, in areas where
the basement is deep,
magnetic anomalies are
subdued.

Source: Lillie, R. J. (1999)

 B,mfb msda fucker vivek

Curie Depth:
Deeper than the Curie depth,
rocks lose their strong
magnetization as they heat ∆
up beyond the Curie
temperature( ≈ 600°C for
most rocks). Areas with high
geothermal gradient thus
have a shallow bottom to
magnetic basement,
compared to colder areas.

Source: Lillie, R. J. (1999)