GEOCHEMISTRY AND GENESIS OF LATERITE IN

PARTS OF CANNANORE DISTRICT, NORTH KERALA

THESIS SUaMITTED TO THE

COCHIN UNIVE.. SITY OF SCIENCE ... TECHNOLOGY
FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN THE FACULTY OF MARINE SCIENCES

By

NARAYANASWAMY M.Sc.

CENTRE FOR EARTH SCIENCE STUDIES

- a.5 031, INDIA

THIRUVANANTHA~URAM

AUGUST. 1 2

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this thesis is

record of research

~ork

an

authentic

carried out by Sri Narayanaswamy, M.Sc.

under my supervision and

guidance

in

the

Centre

For

Earth

Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram for the Ph.D. degree of the

Cochin University of Science and Technology and no part
has previously formed the basis for

the

award

of

any

of

it

other

degree in any university.

Thiruvananthapuram - 31
August, 1992.

Dr.K. Soman
Scientist in-charge
Geo-data Information Group
Centre for Earth Science Studies
Thiruvanathapuram 695 031

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

..... .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

iii

LIST OF FIGU RES

iv

LIST OF TABLES

vii

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION

1.1. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION - A REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON

LATE RITE GENESIS
1.2. GENESIS OF LATERITES

1.3. STUDIES ON LATERITES FROM KERALA

1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

1.5. LOCATION

10

1.6. METHODOLOGY

10

1.6.1.
1.6.2.

Field studies included

Laboratory investigations included

10
10

1.7. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE AREA

11

1.8. CLIMATE

11

..

1.9. VEGETATION

12

CHAPTER 2 - GEOLOGIC AND GEOMORPHIC SETTING

13

2.1. REGIONAL GEOLOGY

2.1.1.

Precambrian rocks

13

2.1.2. Tertiary formation

2.1.3. Quaternary formations

22
23

2.1.4.
2.1.5.

23
24

Laterite
Recent deposits . . . .

2.2. GEOMORPHOLOGY

25

2.3. GEOLOGY OF THE CANNANORE DISTRICT

27

2.3.1.

Granulites and related gneisses

30

2.3.2.

Ven gad Group

33

2.3.3.
2.3.4.

Quartz-mica -schist
Anorthosite . . . . .

35
36

2.3.5.
2.3.6.

Gabbro bodies
A conspicuous igneous body of granophyre

38
39

2.3.7.

Quaternary to Recent Sediments

43

2.4. STRUCTURE AND TECTONIC FEATURES

44

2.5. GEOMORPHOLOGIC SETTING OF THE STUDY AREA

46

CHAPTER 3 - LATERITES OF THE CANNANORE DISTRICT

3.1. TERMINOLOGY

49

3.2. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION AND COLOUR

51

3.3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY

52

3.4. LATE RITE PROFILE DESCRIPTIONS

52

3.4.1. Laterite profiles over charnockites

3.4.2. Laterite profiles over gneiss

.. . .

3.4.3. Laterite profiles over fuchsite quartzite

3.4.4. Laterite profiles over ultramafites

52
53
54
54

.. ..
..

55
55

3.4.7. Laterite profiles over gabbro-granophyre rock units

3.4.8. Laterite profiles over alkali syenite
.

55
56

3.4.5. Laterite profiles over quartz-mica-schist

3.4.6. Laterite profiles over anorthosite .
.

3.4.9. Laterite profiles over sedimentary formations

3.5. LATERITISA TION CYCLES IN CANNANORE DISTRICT

56
57

CHAPTER 4 - MINERALOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY

4.1. MINERALOGY

59

4.1.1. Profiles over Tertiary sediments

62

4.2. GEOCHEMISTRY OF LATERITE PROFILES

64

4.2.1. Profiles over charnockite

....... .

65

4.2.2. Profiles over hornblende-biotite gneiss

4.2.3. Fuchsite quartzite
4.2.4. Profiles over ultramafic rocks

66
66
67

4.2.5. Profiles over quartz-mica-schist

4.2.6. Profiles over anorthosite

68
69

4.2.7. Profiles over gabbro . . . .

4.2.8. Profiles over granophyre

70
70

4.2.9. Profiles over alkali-syenite

4.2.10. Profiles over sedimentary formation

71
72

4.2.11.' Element d istri b ution contou r maps

73

4.3. CONCLUSIONS

............. .

4.4. RARE EARTH ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY OF LATERITES

4.4.1. Samples and methods

4A.A.

K~~v...tt--')

74
76
76

........ .

il

4.5. HYDROGEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN THE STUDY AREA

79

4.4.S. ConclusIon

4.'::.' Samples and methods .

79

4 . .5<1. Results and discussion

80

4.6.CONCLUSIONS . . .

83

CHAPTER 5 - GENESIS AND GEOMORPHIC SIGNIFICANCE

5.1. LATERITE GENESIS AS RELATED TO GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE REGION

5.2. CONCLUSION

........................

89

93

CHAPTER 6 - SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES
APPENDICES .

99

111

ABSTRACT

The term 'Iaterite' was coined by Francis Hamilton Buchanan in 1800 to

denote a building material used in the Malabar region of Kerala. Since then
occurrences of this material have been descri bed from many regions of the
tropics. Presence of various mineral deposits/occurrences associated with the
laterites contribute to the general economy of the warm, humid parts of the
world. Problems of laterite utilisation has more often been discussed from the
agronomic point of view, and in recent times the importance of laterites in
civil engineering and hydrological studies is rapidly increasing.
Besides these economic factors, lateritisation process is closely linked
to landform evolution, and the subject matter of tropical geomorphology is
concerned mainly with the study of this process and its products.
Kerala is the type area for laterites, and a substantial portion of it is
occupied by lateritic cover of varying thickness, developed over rocks of
different composition and age. The major soil type of Kerala belongs to the
lateritic variety, and hydrogeological conditions here among others, are also
controlled by the nature and extent of weathering profile development. It is.
therefore, of paramount importance to understand the nature and course of
development of the weathered rock mantle over various rock units in terms
of their genesis and potential application.
In this backdrop, and in the absence of comprehensive and detailed
information on laterite profile development over various rock units pertaining
to the Kerala region, the present study on laterites was undertaken, with the
prime object of characterising the course of laterite profile development over
rocks of different composition and age through mineralogical, geochemical and
geomorphic approaches.
The thesis consists of

six chapters.

Definition and

classification of

laterites, together with the concepts on laterite genesis as evolved through

time are descri bed in the fi rst chapter. Status of laterite research, objectives
of the present study and methodology are also projected.
The general

geologic and

geomorp hic

setti ng of the Kerala

region,

followed by a detailed account of the geology, structure and geomorphology

of the Cannanore district is the subject matter of the second chapter.
Thirty laterite profiles developed over various lithological units like
charnockite, gneisses, fuchsite quartzite, ultramafites, quartz-mica-schist,
anorthosite, gabbro, granophyre, alkali syenite and sedimentary formation have
been described in detail. Specific gravity of the laterites vary from 1.72 over

:ii:
charnockite to 2.41 over the sedimentaries. Two lateritisation cycles. namely
pre-Warkalli and post-Warkalli based on this study.
Stability of minerals during weathering applicable for the study area
has been established. pyroxenes are the first minerals to undergo alteration
during weathering in the area, while quartz remains stablest of all. Variation
diagrams of major elements in laterite profiles studied show two stages in the
development of laterite over charnockite, gabbro - granophyre, ultramafites,
gneisses, alkali syenite and fuchsite quartzite; and three stages over
sedimentaries and anorthosite. Out of the total discernible trends in the
profiles, the first stage is marked by rapid depletion of silica, lime, magnesia
and al kalies and enrichment of AI 2 0 3 , Fe 2 0 3 and Ti0 2 The second stage is
marked by a gradual depletion of Si0 2 ' CaO, MgO, Na 2 0 and K 2 0 with
enrichment of AI 2 0 3 ' Fe 2 0 3 and Ti0 2 In the third stage as observed in the
case of anorthosite and sedimentaries, rapid depletion of silica and partial
removal of ferric iron with residual enrichment of alumina is noticed.
Variation diagrams of trace elements show enrichment of V, Cr, Co, Ni
and Cu whereas Ba and Zn show depleting trend during lateritisation process.
Ni enrichment is noticed in laterite profiles over ultramafites. Geochemical
mobility series of elements during weathering over various lithological units
have also been calculated. The elemental behaviour during weathering has
been attributed to change in pH regime. Water geochemistry data indicate that
kaolinite is the stable phase in the weathering milieu of rocks of the study
area. REE patterns suggest that laterites in general are depleted in REE
abundances compared to the parent rocks except in Ce and Eu values.
Similarity of REE patterns of parent rocks and overlying laterites suggests
that bed rock character in unexposed
patterns of laterites.

areas can be elucidated using REE

The major factors influencing the course and consequence of laterite

profile development in the study area are suggested to be the bed rock
character and topographic features to a limited extent. Prolonged rock-water
interaction resulted in varying pH regimes in the rock provenances,
influencing differential mobility and enrichment of elements leading to Fe or
AI rich laterites. Five planation surfaces have ben identified in the area, and

these are related to various stages of laterite profile development. The most
extensive planation surface supporting thick laterite profiles (P 3 ) occurs at an
elevation of 60-160 m. Laterite is also seen at lower levels. The major economic
mineral associated with the lateritisation process in the area is the china clay
deposit at Palayangadi, derived from weathering of peraluminous gneisses. This
is overlain by a thick column of sedimentary kaolins.
It has been concluded that the course of laterite genesis on different
rock types is not similar, though their physical appearance is similar.

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.1 Generalised geological map of Kerala (after GS1, 1976).

Fi g.2 Geological map of Cannanore District (modified after Rao, 1973; 1,1976; Nai r
et al., 1980;Nair and Vidyadharan, 1982).
Fig.3

Photomicrograph of well smoothened and oval shaped pebbles in

conglomerate: Note the schistocity defined by ribbon quartz and mica
flakes, crossed nicol x 25.

Fig.4 Photomicrograph of tounge-shaped and elongated quartz in conglomerate,

crossed nicol x 25.
Fig.S Photomicrograph of a micro quartzite pebble in matrix; Note the polygonal
outline of quartz in the pebble and sharp contact between pebble
and matrix. Crossed nicol x 25.
Fig.6 Photomicrograph showing granophyre texture. Crossed nicol x 25.

Fig.7 Photomicrograph of microcline in Alkali

twi nni ng. Crossed nicol x 25.

Syenite showing cross

hatched

Fig.8 Photomicrograph of vein perthite undergoing merichimsatia in alkali syenite.

Crossed nicol x 25.
Fig.9 Lineament map of Cannanore district and adjoining areas.
Fig.10 Rose diagrams of lineaments of the Cannanore region.
Fig.11 Isolineament density and isolineament intersection maps for the Cannanore
region.
Fig.12 Distribution of lineaments in different azimuth classes.
Fig.13 Map showi ng distri bution of laterite in Cannanore district.
Fig.14 Vermiform laterite showing tubular cavities filled with Kaolinitic clay (a)
black and white photograph (b) colour photograph. Crossed nicol x
25.
Fig.1S Field photograph showing relict structures in weathered parent rock.
Fig.16A Sketches of laterite profiles developed over different rock units: profile
Nos. 1 to 4 : over charnockite, 5 & 6: over hornblende-biotite-gneiss,
7: over fuchsite quartzite, 8-10: over ultramafites.

:v:
Fig.16B Sketches of laterite profiles 11 and 12 : over quartz- mica-schist, 13 to
16 : over anorthosite, 17 to 20 : over gab b ro.
Fig.16C Sketches of laterite profiles 21
over Alkali syenite

to 26 : over granophyre, 27 and 28

Fig.16D Sketches of laterite profiles 29 and 30 : over sedimentary formations.

Fig.17 Field photograph showing inter relationship between various units of the
laterite profile over anorthosite. R = parent rock, PW = partly
weathered CW
completely weathered and V
vermiform laterite.

Fig.18 Field photograph showing interrelationship between various units of the

laterite profile over gabbro.
R = parent rock, PW = partly
weathered CW = completely weathered and V = vermiform laterite.
Fi g.19 Field p hotog raph showin 9 i nterrelationshi p between various units of the
laterite profile over granophyre.
R = parent rock, PW = partly
weathered CW
completely weathered and V
vermiform laterite.

Fig.20 Field photograph showing the laterite profile at Palayangadi.

Fig.21

Photomicrograph showing alteration of pyroxenes

feldspar in charnockite. Crossed nicol x 25 .

preceding

that

of

. Fig.22 X-ray diffractograms of laterite developed over different litho units. (a)
ove;' charnockite (b) over gneiss (c) over fuchsite quartzite (d) over
ultr~mafites (e) over quarti..;. mica-schist (f) o\or gabbro (9) oVt...:r
granophyre (h) over al kali syenite.
Fig.22..Photomicrograph showing desilication of Kaolinite(k) to gibbsite(G). Crossed
nicol x 25.
Fig.23

Photomicrograph showing pyroxene alteration in gabbro. In this rock also

alteration of pyrox~ne proceeds that of plagioclase. Crossed nicol x
25.

Fig.24

Photomicrograph showing alteration of pyroxene which also preceds

alteration of feldspar in granophyre. Note: feldspar grains (F) are
less altered than pyroxenes(P). Crossed nicol x 25.

Fig.25 Laterite profile over Tertiary sediments at Palayangadi, together

geochemicai plots, porosity, DT A and IR data.
Fig.26

with

X-ray diffractogram of laterite profile over Tertiary sediments at

Palayangadi : primary clay (1), secondary clay(2), laterite(3), ball
clay(4), laterite (bauxitic patch;
(5), laterite (6), aluminous
laterite/bauxiteC7 ).

Fig.27 SEM photomicrograph of primary clay showing well crystalline Kaolinite.

Scale shown on photograph.

:vi:
Fig.28 SEM photomicrograph of secondary clay showing poor crystalline Kaolinite.
Scale shown on photograph.
Fig.29 SEM photomicrograph of ball clay showing the disordered nature kaolinite.
Scale shown on photog raph.
Fig.30 Si02-AI203-Fe203 ternary diagram showing maturity of laterites developed
over different lithounits (after Schellemann, 1981).
Fig.31

Major and trace element variation

charnockite(31 A to 310).

diagrams of laterite

profiles over

Fig.32 Major and trace element variation diagrams of laterite

h6rnblende-biotite-gneiss (32A & 32B).

profiles over

Fig.33 Major and trace element variation diagrams of laterite profile over fuchsite
quartzite.
Fig.34 Major and trace element variation
ultramafites (34A to 34C).

diagrams of laterite

profiles over

Fig.35 Major and trace element variation diagrams of laterite

quartz-mica-schist (35A and 35B).

profiles over

Fig.36 Major and trace element variation

anorthosite (36A to 360).

profiles over

diagrams of laterite

Fig.37 Major and trace element variation diagrams over laterite profiles over
gabbro (37A to 370).
Fig.38 Major

and trace element variation

granophyre (38A to 38F).

Fig.39 Major and trace element variation

alkali-syenite (39A and 39B).

diagrams

of laterite

profiles

over

diagrams of laterite

profiles

over

Fig.40 Major and trace element variation diagrams of laterite

sedimentary formation (40A and 40B).

profiles over

Fig.41 Major element distribution contour maps of Cannanore dis- trict based on
bed rock data (41 A : Si0 2, B : Fe 203 C : A1 20 3, 0 : MgO, E : CaO, F
: Na20, G : K20, H : Ti0 2, I : LOI.
Fig.42 Major element distribution contour maps of Cannanore district based on
weathered rock data (42 A : Si0 2, B : Fe 203 C : A1 20 3, D : MgO, E
CaO, F: Na20 G : K20, H : Ti0 2, I : LOI.
Fig.43 Major element distribution contour maps of Cannanore district based on
laterite data (43 A : Si0 2, B : Fe 203 C
A1 20 3, 0 : MgO, E : CaO,
F : Na 20 G : K20, H : Ti0 2, I : LOI.
Fig.44 REE plots of laterite and parent charnockite (R

= bed

rock, L

= laterite).

:vii:
Fig.45 REE plots of laterite and parent alkali syenite (R
Fig.46 REE plots of laterite and parent granophyre (R

= bed rock, L = laterite).

= bed

rock, L

= laterite).

Fig.47 Stability diagram of water chemistry data (after Garrels and Christ, 1965).
Fig.47A Dec

1981/Jan1982 (i). plots of water chemistry data in the system

plg-kaol-gibb (after Loughnan, 1969). (ii). plots of water chemistry
data in the system K-felds-kaol-gibb-K-mica (after Garrels and
Christ, 1965)

Fig.478

Nov. 1982 (i). plots of water chemistry data in the system pi g-kaolgibb (after Loughnan, 1969). (ii). plots of water chemistry data in
the system K-felds-kaol-gibb-K-mica (after Garrels and Christ, 1965)

Fig. 47C

Jul y 1983 (i). plots of water chemistry data in the system pi g-kaolgibb (after Loughnan, 1969). (ii). plots of water chemistry data in
the system K-felds-kaol-gi bb-K-mica (after Garrels and Christ, 1965)

Fig.48 Grouping of certain elements according to ionic radii and charges.

Fig.49 Geomorphological map of Cannanore district.
Fig.50 Geomorphological map of a part of Cannanore district showing planation
surfaces.
Fig.50A Cross and superimposed profiles showing various planation surfaces.
Fig.51 Cross profiles across Fig.50.
Fig.52

An

areal view of the extensive

Cannanore district.

laterite

surface

near

Chimeni

Fig.53 Laterite flat resembling marine terrace at Cannanore section

area,

:viii:

List of Tables
Table 1

General ised
of Kerala.

geological succession of the various rock

Table 2

Generalised geological succession

Table 3

Process and related geomorphic units in Cannanore district.

Table 4

Chemical composition (wt %)

Palayangadi, north Kerala.

Table 5

Major
element
district.

Table 6

Trace element
district.

Table 7

REE abundances in laterite profiles.

Table 8

Trace element composition (ppm)

terrain, Cannanore district.

composition

of rocks of Cannanore district.

of kaolins

composition

of

of

formations

and

laterite

the

of

associated

profiles,

laterite

profiles,

ground

water

laterites,

Cannanore

Cannanore

from

lateritic

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION - A REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON

LATERITE GENESIS

Laterite was first reported by Dr. Francis Hamilton Buchanan from Angadipuram in Kerala (India) on 20-21 December, 1800, while on a journey through
the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar (Buchanan, 1807).
served

a type of

weathered

material

used

for

building,

Buchanan obwhich

was

an

indurated clay with full of cavities and pores, containing a large quantity of
iron in the form of red and yellow ochre.
could be cut with any iron instrument.

It was very soft when fresh and

When exposed, it became hard and

resisted air and water much better than any bricks.

"Laterite" to designate this material.

He coined the term -

In Latin "Iaterite" means brickstone and

it is equivalent of the vernacular terms' iticacu//u' or vettucu//u'.

However,

there exists some dispute in regard to the authorship of the term "Iaterite".
Prescott is of the opinion that Babington (1821) was the first to use the term
scientifically.

Laterite is a characteristic weathering product, first discovered in India

and later found

in the whole of the tropical belt.

Fermor (In Fox,

1936)

characterised Buchanan's laterite as 'Iithomargic laterite' and even in part as

'Iateritic lithomarge' while the high-level laterites of the Deccan were termed
as the finished products - fully formed laterite.

Initially, geologists were

interested

and

relationship

in

the study

with

bauxite.

of

laterite as
Later, du ri ng

rock,

the fi rst

on

account of

its

half of the twentieth

century pedologists got interested in the study of laterite, as the upper parts
of laterite profile were referred to as "soil forming", and they regarded it as

:2:
their domain of investigation.

Occurrence of laterite at the surface was

believed to be due to the removal of "soil".

Soon, those who described

laterite as a rock qualified this by saying that it was a weathered or altered

rock or, it was the product of alteration or weathering of an original rock.

Buchanan realized the disadvantage of using specific word for a material

whose analytical characters were poorly known, and used the words laterite
and brickstone indiscriminately during the period 1807 to 1814.

It was only

towards the end of his I ife he restricted the use of the term 'Iaterite' to a
material of soft consistency which hardened on exposu re to ai r.

It can thus

be seen that the term 'Iaterite' was applied originally to a particular type of
rock with a remarkable property.
works of Newbold (1844, 1846).

Descriptions on these lines are found in the

Lake (1890) reviewed a considerable number

of studies on Indian laterites, formed over various rock types.

Babington

(1821), Benza (1836), Cole (1838), Clark (1838), Wingate (1852), Kelaart (1853),
Blanford (1859), Buist (1860), King and Foote (1864), Wynne (1872), Theobald
(1873), Mallet (1883) and Voysey (1833) were also associated with the laterite
studies during the nineteenth century.

Though the alteration product developed on a particular rock type and

with specific physical properties, was originally termed as laterite, it soon
became axiomatic on account of its diverse origins, that too in various regions.
The difficulties in the use of the term became apparent with the mention that
in some cases lithomarge/mottled clays may also harden on exposu re to ai r
(Blanford, 1959; Kellog, 1962).

Really, Du Preez (1949) and Sherman (1952)

elimi nated from Buchanan's defi nition the requl rement of hard ness.

However,

the property of absolute hardness rather than the ability to harden

gained popularity.

has

:3:

The chemical characterisation of laterite was attempted by Mallet (1883)

who suggested

that

laterite

was ferruginous

and/or aluminous,

Buchanan had already drawn attention to the high iron content.

(1898)

who established

the mai n

chemical

although

It was Bauer

characteristics of laterites and

suggested that these have elevated contents of Fe 2 0 3 , AI 2 0 3 and low Si0 2

based on analysis of laterite from Seychelles.

Presence of aluminium hydrox-

ides and low silica values enabled comparison of these laterites with bauxites.
A little later, Warth and Warth (1903) published chemical analysis of Indian
laterites.

While some of these laterites contained small amounts of alumina,

others were rich in iron oxides.

Others contained large amounts of aluminium

oxide with relatively poor iron content.

Similar results were obtained from

other parts of tropical regions (Du Bois, 1903; Holland, 1903).

Thus chemical

composition of laterites seemed to offer a good criterion for a comprehensive

definition of laterite compared to Buchanan's definition.

Since many of the tropical weathering products and soils are enriched
in alumina, this criterion has been used to define laterite.

Holland (19Q3)

reported that the alumina in laterite exists as it does in bauxite in the form
of oxides,

while

Fermor (1911)

stated

that

laterite must contain

besides

hydrated iron oxide, oxides of aluminium and titanium, and recognized several
kinds of lateritic weathering products namlily lithomarge, true laterite, lateritic
rocks, siliceous laterites, bauxite and iron ore.

Fox (1923) stressed that if the

laterite contains enough hydrated alumina which can be used as aluminium ore,
it should be called bauxite.
is identical to bauxite.
whether the term
(Scrivenor, 1932).

Warth and Warth (1903) considered that laterite

Thus, there has been considerable dispute as to

laterite

be

discarded

in

favour

of the

term

bauxite

At this juncture, it became imperative that laterite should

:4:
be defined either in terms of iron enrichment or of desillcification.

The

definition based on desilicification is however not free from constraints.

the synonimity of lateritisation
characterised

by

kaolin could

with

If

desilicification is accepted, a material

be considered as an

process of lateritisation as kaolin could

example of incomplete

further be desilicified

(McFarlane,

Clays and hydrates normally occur together in varying proportions in

1976).

laterite, and bauxite may occur as segregations (Bishopp, 1937; Dey, 1942) and
as one of the constituent units of the laterite profile (Fox, 1933; Karunakaran
and Sinha Roy, 1971).

This clearly shows that laterite has been recognised

as a product of weathering

by

which

desilicification takes place

and

an

enrichment in either alumina or iron or both results (Fermor, 1911; Humbert,

1948; King, 1962).

Thus,

within the broad

perspective of the definition,

silicious, ferruginous or aluminous varieties of laterite have been suggested

(Scrivenor,

As

1937).

progressive change

lateritisation

in the

or

proportions of

weathered material, the ratios of Si0 2 ,

provide a basis for laterite definition.
if Si0 2

desiiicification
silica and

Fe 2 0 3 and

results

in

the

sesquioxides of the

AI 2 0 3 are considered

to

Martin and Doyne (1930) stipulated that

AI 2 0 3 ratio is less than 1.33, the material should be termed as laterite

and for lateritic soils the ratio should be 1.33 to 2.0.

upper limit of this ratio for laterite at 2.2.

Later they modified the

Karunakaran and Sinha Roy (1971)

and Sinha Roy (1967) proposed that materials having Fe 2 0 3

AI 2 0 3 ratio less

than 1.33 be termed as ferruginous laterite, while those with Fe 20 3

rather less than 1 and Si0 2

AI 20 3

AI 2 0 3 ratio less than 1.33 as aluminous laterite.

Since all the chemical - mineralogical classifications proposed hitherto ignored

factors

such

composition

as

the

of the

intensity

parent

of

rocks

the
that

weathering
generally

conditions,
determine

type

the

and

ultimate

composition of the weathering products etc., no satisfactory and universally

acceptable classification could be so far arrived at.

More recently proposed

......

.&:,

definitions particularly

by pedologists

ignoring the chemical criteria,

are

woven around the morphological - physical characteristics including those of

the indurated products.

Considering the inadequacies of the existing classifications, Schellmann

(1981) proposed

types.

a new classification for laterite formed on

different rock

"Laterite fields" developed over various rock types have been shown

on Si02-AI203-Fe203 ternary diagrams (Schellmann, 1981, 1986).

1.2.

GENESIS OF LATERITES

Li ke the definition, the genesis of laterite has also precipitated much

debate and controversy.

Until the first quarter of the twentieth century,

laterite was regarded as a rock type.

(1844) and Bain

(1852) characterised

The earliest description of Newbold

it as a "purplish, or brick red

prevalent in the tropics, but unknown in Europe.

rock

In Australia its affinity to

"desert sandstone" delayed the acceptance of the rock name in Australian

geological context (Mallet, 1883; Prescott and Pendleton, 1952). Wetherell (1906)
considered

laterite as

sedimentary

formation.

Models

suggesting

the

activities of nitrifying bacteria (Holland, 1903), and termites (Erhart, 1951)

have not evoked much support.

However, most of the early workers who

unreservedly believed laterite to be a rock, emphasising that laterites has a

residuum (Babington,

1821;

Clark,

processes of physico-chemical

1838;

weathering

Benza,

1936)

formed

by

complex

leading to the concentration

of

sesquioxides and removal of silica and alkalies (Russell, 1889; Harrison, 1911;
Hartman, 1955).

Further they suggested that under conditions of tropical

weathering the alteration of basic or intermediate rocks at or close to water

:6:
table under conditions of more or less perfect drainage results in

nearly

complete removal of Si, Ca, Mg, K, Na oxides, leaving a residuum of alumina,

iron oxides, some altered feldspar, secondary quartz and resistant minerals.
Two phases of mobility of the

elements were

implied

in the

process of

residuum accumulation: (1) the residual components became mobile and were
precipitated in immobile or related immobile form, (2) this mobility which was
certainly less than that of the component completely washed away, was short
lived, and led to accumulation or precipitation.

Maclaren (1906) stressed the importance of ground water in the formation

of laterite and

decomposition of
ground water.

stated

rocks,

that

but a

laterites are not the

replacement of

result of

decomposition

in

products

situ
by

Marbut (1932) suggested that the thickness of laterite zone is

the width of the scene of the fluctuation of the water table.

The source of

enrichment of the ground water is considered to be located below the laterite

horizon.

Laterite as a precipitate also stemmed from the recognition of pallid

zones that generally underlie the true laterite.

This led to the recognition of

a higher degree of mobility of the accumulated materials than was formerly

thought of, suggesting that the concentration was due to the higher mobility
(Campbell,1917).

After the formulation of the concept of laterite being a precipitate

(Campbell, 1917), numerous chemical studies on mobilisation and reprecipitation
were carried out mostly by pedologists (Britton, 1925; Deb, 1949) and others
reinforcing the former suggestion.
either as

a soil

horizon or

definition of laterite.

This led to the description of laterite

resulted

in

a chemical

rather than

physical

However, this was not readily accepted by geologists

(Pendleton and Shrasuvana, 1946).

At the same time, a study of Hawaiian

:7:
laterites by Sherman (1952) concluded that as a consequence of extensive
chemical weathering in the tropics the sequence of changes involve derivation
of hydrated oxides from secondary alumino silicate clay minerals that are
formed due to alteration of primary minerals.

Silica is leached out, leaving

behind free oxides of iron and aluminium, while titanium hydroxide is brought
to the zone of dehydration by capillary action

Although laterite formation was largely aided by capillary action (Holmes,

1914; Woolnough, 1927) and considered to be one of the mechanisms that plays
an important role in the formation of duricrusts (Stamp, 1961; Loughnan et al.,
1962), it was later disputed by Goudie (1973).

The concept involving the

combined effect of capillarity and water table fluctuations in essence suggests

the upward migration of enriched solutions with the seasonal rise of water
table and their precipitation near the upper limits of the range of fluctuations
(Pendleton, 1941), the efficacy of which was even emphasised by Fox (1923),
who suggested that colloids are generated during chemical weathering and
these are p reci pitated in the laterite zone.

Recent thinking, especially after the 1960's, through interpretation of

precise data exposes the inadequacies of many of the basic assumptions upon
which rested the previous theories of laterite origin as a precipitate.

Occur-

rence of laterite in varied geological envi ronments, general! y under conditions

of low relief, made geomorphologists make a synthesis between the old model
of

down-wasting

with

residual

accumulation,

precipitation in a planation surface profile.

and

the

later

model

of

The distribution of laterite under

anomalous conditions requires something more than climatic change to explain

its occurrence.

This led geomorphologists to believe that weathering profile

:8:
development, including the thickness of the
topographical

conditions existing

on

profile is dependent on

a peneplain

or on

the

remnant of a

dissected peneplain, having implications on landscape evolution.

Association

of laterite development with planation surfaces has been unequivocally established in many parts of the tropics (Vaidyanadhan, 1967; McFarlane, 1976;
Subramanian and Mani, 1981; Karunakaran and Sinha Roy, 1981).

In short,

research on

laterite in tropics

invariably

recognises

the

precipitationary aspect of laterite, and the essentially residual accumulation

under favourable conditions of planation.

1.3.

STUDIES ON LATERITES FROM KERALA

Dr. Francis Buchanan described and coined the term laterite in 1800,
within the territory of Kerala.
controversy.

Since then it has been a subject of scientific

Furthermore, the laterite of Buchanan's type area in Angadi-

puram has been later found to vary in composition from limonitic hematite to
argillaceous or siliceous limonite (Scrivenor, 1937) and represents a halfway
product between kaolinised parent rock and bauxite (Dey, 1954).

Fox (1936)

indicated the presence of detrital components in the laterite of this area.

Chemical analyses of laterite of this area were reported by Chacko (1919) and
later by Fox (1936).
from Malabar area.

Lake (1933) described a series of laterite occurrences

Fox (1936) and Dey (1954) studied Buchanan's laterite of

Malabar, and Stephens (1961) described the structural features of the laterites
from Angadipuram.

Gopalaswamy and

Nair

(1975) worked out the

micro-

morphological aspects of Kerala laterites. Studies on mineralogy, geochemistry,

genesis and relationship to landform evolution have been attempted by many

:9:
workers in the recent years (Gopalakrishnan and Nair, 1976; Sinha Roy, 1979;
Subramaniyan et al., 1980,1981; Karunakaran and Sinha Roy, 1981; Mallikarjuna
et al., 1981; Nair and Thomas Mathai, 1981; Raghavan Nambiar et al., 1981;

Sambandam and Prasad, 1981; Ghosh, 1982a, b, 1983; Ghosh and Narayanaswamy,
1982; Soman, 1982; Sambandam and Nair, 1982; Ghosh, 1986; Narayanaswamy,
1986; Narayanaswamy and Ghosh, 1987; Rajendran and Narayanaswamy, 1987;
Soman and Slukin, 1987).

1.4.SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRESENT STUDY

Although a considerable amount of work on laterites of Kerala, on their

geomorphic significance, mineralogy and genesis have been carried out, a
systematic geological, geomorphologlcal, mineralogical and geochemical study of
laterites developed over various lithological units in one region was lacking.
Discerning of the geochemical course and

consequence of laterite

profile

development and its relation to landform evolution was also lacking.

In

addition, studies on the occurrences of exogenic minerallsations In Kerala

associated with weathering profiles also remained fully unattended to.
this background and
study was initiated.

With

with aims of achieving these objectives the present

The Cannanore district of north Kerala was chosen, since

the laterites were relatively less investigated and the weathering

developed over a diverse variety of rocks.

profiles

:10:
1.5.

LOCATION

The study area falls within longitudes 7510' - 7556' and latitudes
11 40' - 1218'.

1.6.

1.6.1.

METHODOLOGY

Field studies included

a) Preparation of geomorphic map of the study area and map showing the
distribution of laterite (scale 1 :50000); b) Field checking of compiled geological
map of the study area (scale 1:50000) and c) Laterite profile description and
systematic collection of samples from the profiles developed over various litho
units.

1.6.2.

Laboratory investigations included

a) Petrography of bed rocks and laterites (90 thin sections)

b) Mineralogical analyses using:

i) X-ray diffraction (XRD) - 38 Nos.

il) Infra Red Spectroscopy for 7 clay mi neral samples.

iii) Differential thermal analysis for 7 clay mineral samples.

: 11 :
iv) Scanning Electron Microscopy for clay minerals - 12 Nos.

v) Specific gravity determinations of laterite and weathered rock

samples - 40 Nos.

c) Geochemlcal analyses:

i) Major and trace element geochemistry - (124 samples from 30 profiles)

ii) Rare Earth Element geochemistry (9 samples from 3 profiles covering

3 rocks types).

1.7.

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE AREA

The area of investigations falling

within

the

Cannanore district

is

flanked to the east by hills of the Western Ghats and to the west by the
Arabian Sea.

The maximum elevation of the area is 1156 meters at Cherumudi.

Physiographically the area can be divided into three longitudinal units namely,
the low-lands 10 m) the midlands 100 m) and the highlands (>100 m).

Area

wise, the low land unit constitutes 6% of the total area, the mid land region
covers 54% and the hi gh land region covers 40% of the total area.

1.8.

CLIMATE

Climate of the area is hot and humid with temperatures varying between
16C and 37C.

Mean daily maximum temperature is about 33C with mercury

:12:
shooting

to the

maximum

during

the

months of

April

and

May.

Night

temperatures are lowest in the months of December and January, being about
20C.

On individual nights of these months temperatures may drop to 16C.

The average annual rainfall

is 3488 mm, of which 80% precipitation occurs

during the south-west monsoon, and the rest during the north-east monsoon
season.

1.9.

VEGETATION

The ghat region of the area, barring the reserved forests are under
rubber plantation.
slopes.

Coffee plantation exists at a few places, mostly on steep

The skeletal plateau areas and scrub lands with gravel beds are

under cashew nut, grass, medicinal and aromatic grass species.

The narrow

valleys though at higher elevations are also under cultivation, predominantly

for plantation crops like coconut, arecanut and nutmeg in patches.

Ginger

and turmeric are cultivated on raised beds.

The midland region consisting of laterite plateau is planted with rubber

and cashew nut.

On hill slopes coconut is cultivated.

border areas.

The broad

vegetables.

valleys are cultivated

Tapioca is cultivated in
for paddy, banana and

The dissected laterite plateau of the lowland is mostly cultivated

for coconut and cashewnut on the top of mounds.

also raised in narrow valleys.

Coconut and arecanut are

The broad valleys are cultivated for rain fed

paddy followed by vegetables and banana.

Chapter - 2

GEOLOGIC

AND

GEOMORPHIC

SETTING

2.1.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY

The Kerala region constitutes an important segment of the western

passive continental margin of the Indian shield, and is bounded by Western
Ghats on the east and the Arabian sea on the west.

The rock types found in

this region can be grouped into: (i) the Precambrian rocks (ii) the Tertiary
formations and (iii) the Recent to sub-Recent sediments (Fig. 1).

The genera-

lised geological succession of the various rock formations of Kerala is given

in Table-1.

2.1.1.

Precambrian rocks

These are the most widely spread rock types in Kerala.

falling

within

this

age

are

referred

under

(a)

Khondalite

The rocks
Group

Charnockite Group (c) Sargur Group and (d) Dharwar Group of rocks.

(b)

Rocks

of these groups are intruded by basic and ultrabasic rocks (e) and granites
and related rocks (f).

(a) The khondalite group consists of light coloured, fine to medium grained,
of garnet - sillimanite schists containing varying amounts of graphite, and
some quartz and orthoclase.

In khondalites, sillimanite occurs as hair like

needles, as also broken crystals; graphite forms nests or pockets; and calcite,
biotite and rutile are generally present (Pichamuthu, 1967).

In Kerala, the

khondalites have been identified and mapped for the first time by Jacob during 1965-'66.

These rocks traversed by narrow bands of pyroxene granulites

and charnockite make up the southern part of Kerala between Punalur - Adoor
and Cape Comerin (Now in Tamil Nadu - Narayanaswami, 1967) and
the Pal ghat district.

parts of

a OO' C Q

,,;;;;;;;,:;;

;:;;:;;;
_~w

llil

__

iI_ .._

eJ c;;;;-cn..Ii!!!

u",,_';;;'-;;;;i~

DJ

' oo~

..

,",'''iiWai'''

Ll

gj

';ICUlTS

;;:JJ$Toc:U<1
.~.

..... 0<,,1!Not

.c;;;-EII~O:OIC

c-.;",;; ;-..

;
...;..;...;;.;._ i-.;;;;;
;;.........
"';';;:;;;'''; ;;;;.;;.;......

01,... _

1976 ).
Fig.1 Gener alised geolog ical map of Kerala (after GSI,

Epoch

Vaikom Formalion (7)

Lale 01 igocene

Palaeogene
('7)

Quilon Formation

Warkallai Formalion

Pliocene-Up
t'1iocene t'1iddleLt-. ~1 i ocene

Neogef,e

Soil, Alluvium, beach sands, limeshell, peal

beds, calcareous clay wilh shells, elc.
------------------------------------------------Uncoflformily-------------------

Quaternary

Period

Lithostraligraphic Unils

Pt-ecarnl:w i an

Cenozoic
-Mesozoic
Creta~eous

Palaeoqene-

( \'<\Cl J..Jv LA

gabbros~

e -N"\fJ'-",

111 ~)

Char"'-IDck i le--

~~honda 1 i

le

Sar--qur- Gr-oup

[lhan.Jar Gr-oup

Gf-OUpS

Acid and Basic intrusives of Oharwar Group

___ Unconformity ________________ _

Basic dykes (doleriles and

-----------------------------------------------------------Unconformity------------------

Cenozoic

Et-a

Geological-Time units

Table 1: Generalised geological succession of various rock formations of Kerala

:15:
In Trivandrum district, the khondalites are interbanded with garnetiferous 1967).

biotite gneiss, leptynite and

narrow bands of charnockite (Jacob,

Graphite mineralisation associated

Vellanad,

and

chrysoberyl

associated

with sillimanite gneisses around

with

pegmatites

are

characteristic

features of the khondalite group of rocks of this region (Gopalakrishnan and

Raju, 1976).

In Quilon district the khondalite are intruded by swarms of

pegmatites and the region is highly sheared (Jacob, 1976).

yam

district,

lenticular

bands

of

garnet-sillimanite

In parts of Kottagneiss

along

with

garnet-biotite gneiss and cordierite are observed (Thampi and Selvan, 1972).
Lenticular bands of crystalline limestone and calc-granulites occur interbanded
with these rocks in Palghat, Quilon, Kottayam and Trivandrum districts.

Crawford (1969) has reported four Rb-Sr whole-rock model ages for
these rocks, and the values range from 2155 to 3070 m.y.

Chacko et al.

(1987) reported a poorly defined Rb-Sr isochron age of 2100 m.y.

khondalite from south Kerala.

for the

The recent U-Pb Zircon ages indicate 2200 m.y.

(Soman et al., under publication).

(b) The charnockite group of rocks are the predominant rock type in Kerala
and are well exposed in the central and northern parts of the state.

The

charnockite group in Kerala consists of (i) lenses of hypersthene - diopside

- hornblende - magnetite- biotite rocks (pyroxenites, ultrabasic charnockites),
(ii) lenses, bands and schlieren of hypersthene - diopside - granulites (basic
charnockites), (iii) hypersthene - diopside - hornblende - biotite gneisses and
migmatites (intermediate charnockites), and (iv) lenticular sheets, bands and
layers of hypersthene
charnockites).

bearing quartzo-feldspathic alaskite granites

(acid

The prevalent rocks in the erstwhile Cochin province is the

intermediate charnockite and the acid rocks occur in the peripheral regions

:16:

of the intermediate

rock exposu res (Chattergee,

The

1974).

intermediate

charnockite types are met where the felspathic and acid charnockites are in
migmatitic association with the basic granulites (Mahadevan, 1964).

The charnockites
magnetite

quartz

with

rocks

narrow

are

the

bands
most

of

pyroxene

widespread

granulites

group

of

rocks

Cannanore, Kozhikode, Palghat, Trichur, Kottayam and Quilon districts.

and
in

These

rocks also constitute the high ranges of Western Ghats and extend to the
Nilgiri

massif.

frequently

In the

cross

intermediate to

Wynad

region,
the

tongues of unfoliated

the

foliation

of

older

basic

varieties

(Damodaran,

gneisses

1958).

In

and

charnockites
are

mainly

Nilambur

Valley,

Kozhikode district, magnetite - quartzite, pyroxene and hornblende granulites

and charnockite gneiss constitute the charnockite group (Sarwarkar, 1980).
In Trichur region, the charnockite and the associated interbanded rock types
are well foliated (Mahadevan, 1964).

In Tiruvalla area, this is interbanded

with pyroxene granulites and cordierite gneiss.

In the Periyar Valley region

in Idukki and Kottayam districts, pyroxinites, alaskites, magnetite - quartzites

and calc - granulites constitute the charnockite group (Nair and Selvan, 1976).
The acid and intermediate charnockites in Quilon district arO} migmatites and
are layered (Jacob, 1976).

In the eastern fri n ges of t!",e Western Ghats, the

charnockites have undergone intense fold:ng and migmatisation (Mahadevan,

1964).

The charnockites in mt'l.:",y places are intruded by granites, dolerites

and pegmatites.

The foliation is, in general, poorly developed, and its regional strike is
NW-SE to WNW-ESE having a steep dip of 50-85 dominantly towards SW and
SS~.

There is a swerve in the above regional strike to ENE-WSW and finally

to NE-SW

in Wynad, Silent

Valley and

Attapadi

Valley

area flanking

the

:17:
Anamalai - Palani hill range, and in Periyar lake area flanking the Varshanad
hill range (Narayanaswami, 1976).

Occurrence of incipient charnockite from Ponmudi within the Khondalite

group of rock has been reported recently (Ravindra Kumar et al., 1985).

This

observation has dispelled the presumption that i nci pient charnockite is characteristic of the transitional zone, and that it is absent further south of the
regional orthopyroxene isograde in south India.

Incipient charnockites are generally coarse - grained compared to the

host rocks and occur as patches, veins or structures with green appearance.
In incipient charnockites, apart from the mineralogy of garnet-biotite gneisses
(garnet

biotite

orthopy roxene

is

K-feldspar

noticed.

plagioclase

Depending

on

quartz

individual

cases

graphite),

and

on

the

pervasiveness of transformation, the modal proportion of orthopyroxene varies.

The texture

is

homogeneous

granoblastic

with

no

preferred

orientation.

Incipient or arrested charnockite occurrence is identified normally by the

following

criteria.

(i)

cross-cutting

relation

to

the

gneissic

foliation.

Emanating from these patches are tongues of charnockite spread parallel to

foliation (ii) coarse grained crystallised nature of charnockites which generally
obliterate the gneissic foliation; only in rare cases the relict foliation is still
preserved.

(iii) Warping and doming of adjacent gneissic foliation with the

development of charnockite and (iv) common contact with shears (5. Kerala:
Ravindra Kumar and Chacko, 1986; Ravindra Kumar et al., 1990).

Interrelationship between the rocks of the charnockite group, and other

prominent rocks of the Archeans is not yet clear.

In Walayar, Pal ghat dis-

trict, the khondalites structurally overlie the charnockites (Murthy et al.,

:18:
1976). Radiometric age determination by Rb-Sr method of a charnockite sample
from

Ayoor

has

given

an

age

of

2155

m.y.

and

Kizhaikonam, Trivandrum district has given 2780 m.y.

another

sample from

(Crawford, 1969).

The

charnockites of the Nilgiri hills, which are the extension of the charnockites
of Kerala and has given an age of 2635

125 m.y.

(1982) has reported U-Pb zircon ages of 2930

Nedumannur area.
m.y.

(Crawford, 1969).

Odom

50 m.y. for charnockites from

The incipient charnockite (Ponmudi) has been dated at 540

by U-Pb methods (Srikantappa et al., 1985).

Biotite - hornblende gneisses and cordierite gneisses are seen closely

associated with charnockites and
biotite -

hornblende gneiss and

khondalites in

Kerala.

Narrow

zones of

gneisses of granitic composition are well

exposed in the Wynad - Nilambur - Kozhikode region, Attapadi Valley, Palghat

gap area and

Munnar -

Periyar

Todupuzha -

northern and central Kerala (Narayanaswami, 1976).

and/or hornblende are the essential minerals.
of

retrograde

metamorphism of

charnockites

Muvattupuzha region

in

Quartz, feldspar, biotite

These are formed as a result

under conditions

of

upper

amphi bolite to hornblende facies (Mahadevan, 1964).

Garnet-sillimanite gneiss passes into a garnet-gneiss with the disappearance of sillimanite and increase in the amount of feldspar; with cordierite
as an essential constituent, the
(Chatterjee, 1974).

rock

becomes cordierite -

garnet gneiss

In Kerala, cordierite gneisses associated with khondalites

and charnockites are developed along Achan kovil shear zone (Jacob, 1976).
These are exposed at Konni, Thiruvalla and Kottayam.

In the Thiruvalla area,

these are seen to occur as bands in the charnockite rocks.

The rocks here

are foliated and the general trend of foliation is NW-SE with steep dips.

The

cordierite gneisses here are tightly folded about a NNW-SSE axis and there

:19:
are a numerous canoe folds in the exposures, into the noses of which the
feldspathic charnockitlc material has permeated.

The charnocklte - cordierite

- gneiss sequences is veined by pink granite and pegmatites (Mahadevan,

1964, Slnha Roy et al., 1984).
are present.
foliation.

In south Kerala two generations of cordierite

The fi rst generation cordierite is parallel to the metamorphic

The second generation cordierite occur as caronas about embayed

garnet g rai ns.

From the study of mineral association and reaction texture,

Chacko et al.

(1987) and Santhosh (1987) have suggested that cordierite

producing reaction was caused by isothermal decrease of pressure during

uplift.
670

Cordlerite bearing gneiss from Achankovil has yielded a Rb-Sr age of

8 m.y.

Santhosh and Drury, 1988).

(e) Sargur group: In Kerala, the schistose formations are represented by the

high grade schists of Sargur and low grade Schists of Dharwar, both being
southward extension into Wynad of the corresponding groups of southern
Karnataka.

The Sargurs show higher grade of metamorphism, migmatisatlon

and a more complex tectonic imprint (Nair et al., 1975) than the Dharwars.

These two groups were till

recently

known

as the Dharwar

group

designated to include all the crystalline schists comprising both metavolcanics

and metasedlments (Foote, 1886).

But later studies in Karnataka necessitated

the sub-division of this group

into: (i) Sargurs: to represent the lower

members of the Dharwar (Viswanatha and Ramakrishnan, 1976).

(ii) Dharwars:

to represent the younger members of the same.

In Wynad, the Sargur group is represented by bands of quartz-mica

schists with kyanite, quartz-sericite schists, quartz - magnetltes, quartzites
and meta-ultramafics.

Several linear bands and broadly parallel linear belts

:20:
of these high grade schists and ultramafic enclaves trending NNW-SSE extend
into Cannanore district and occur as isolated bands within the granulitic and
gneissic terrain stretching from Sultan's Battery and Manantoddy in the Wynad plateau to Taliparamba and Payyanur, and in the eastern parts of Kasargod district.

Their contact with the gneisses is generally concordant due

possibly to coaxial folding, high grade metamorphism and intense migmatisation.

(d) Dharwar group: The younger

schists,

consist

of

oligomict

Dharwar schists, overlying

conglomerates,

current

bedded

the

sargur

quartzites,

quartz-mica schists and biotite-quartzites forming an interlayered sequence.

The polymictic conglomerates recorded near Kuthuparamba occupy the basal
portions of the quartz-mica schists and unconformably overlie the older formation of charnockites.

The conglomerate near Vengad

village with

primary

sedimentary structures indicates that the rocks to the west are comparable to
the low-grade Dharwar supergroup of Karnataka (Nair et al., 1975; Nair, 1976;
Nambiar, 1985; Ravi nd ra Kumar and Narayanaswamy, 1987).

The metamorphic grade of the Dharwar schists is lower amphibolite to

greenschist facies.
orogeny,

Two directions one NNW-SSE, representing the Dharwar

and the other

NNE-SSW

probably

linked

to the

Eastern

Ghats

orogeny, are recognised in the low-grade schists.

(e) Basic and ultrabasic rocks: These rocks are reported from a number of

places

in

Kerala.

Basic

gabbro

bodies

are

reported

from

Kartikulam,

Adakkathodu, Karrang and at Ezhimala in Cannanore district (Nair et al., 1975;

Nair, Varadan and Venkataramana, 1976).

The basic intrusives in this area

include minor patches of anorthositic differentiates and diorites.

The Attapadi

shear zone is conspicuously marked by the occu rrence of a host of basic and

:21 :
ultrabasic rocks, consisting of peridotite, pyroxenite, gabbro, leucogabbro and
anorthosite (Lahiri et al., 1976; Sinha Roy and Radhakrishna et al., 1983) In
Quilon district, ultrabasic rock of dunite composition has been reported from
Punalur along a minor shear zone parallel to the Achankovil Shear (Jacob,
1976).

K-Ar whole rock age of basic dykes from the Agali-Coimbatore area has

been reported as 2030 65 m.y.

(Radhakrishna et al., 1989a).

(f) Granites, pegmatites and quartz veins: The Precambrian crystallines are

invaded

by

several

composition.

late

Proterozoic

i ntrusives

of

acidic

and

al kali ne

They include pink and grey granites at Kalpetta, Ambalavayal,

Tovarimalai, Angadimogara, Chengannur, Munnar, Achankovil, Iddukki project

area; syenites (Sholayar, Peralimala, etc granophyre (Ezhimala) and Anorthosite
(Peri nthatta).

K-Ar ages of 512

20

and 560

30

m.y.

have been reported

for Kalpetta and Ambalavayal granites respectively (Nair et al., 1985).

Numerous pegmatites and quartz vei ns traverse the Precambrian rocks

and are common in south and southwest Wynad, in parts of Trivandrum, Quilon
and

Palghat districts.

chrysoberyl.
of 460 m.y.

Some pegmatites

in Trivandrum host gem

quality

K-Ar dating of these pegmatites in south Kerala gives an age

(Soman et al., 1982).

Recently, dating of mica in pegmatites from

Palghat region has yielded age which range from 484 to 512 m.y.
a retrogressive metamorphic event (Soman et al., 1990).

suggesting

Gold bearing quartz

rocks/veins occur in the gneisses/amphibolites in south and southwest Wynad.

They cut across the foliation of the gneisses running NNW-SSE.

The reefs

which are milky white in colour occur either contiguous to the country rocks
or separated from them by a selvage of talcose schist, quartz breccia and
limonite.

The biotite gneiss and hornblende gneiss are usually the country

rock for the quartz reefs.

:22:
2.1.1.

Dolerite dykes

Dolerite dykes are generally oriented parallel to the major lineaments

trending NNW-SSE, NE-SW and ENE-WSW.
intrusives between
reported

from

Basic sills and dykes are seen as

Muvattupuzha and Cheruvalli.

Nilambur

valley,

from

parts

Basic dykes are also

of Quilon

Idamalayar dam site (Sarwarkar, 1980; Jacob, 1976).

district and

from

Dolerite and dykes are

also reported from Nedumannur, Kuttimud and Anakudi areas of Trivandrum

district (Panchanathan, 1979).
to be 75

25 m.y.

An unsheared sample of dolerite dyke is dated

(Subramanian, 1976).

dykes from south Kerala yield 59 m.y.

Recent age determinations of the

with initial Ar 4 0jAr 36 ratio close to 510

(Furnes et at 1983).

2.1.2. Tertiary formation

The tertiary sedimentary formations of Kerala unconformably overlie the

Precambrians.

The Tertiary sedimentary basin extend from Cape Comerin to

Manjeswar and is the southern most one among the chain of Tertiary basins
along the west coast of Indian Peninsula.

Extending as a narrow belt along

a major part of the Kerala coast, the on-land part of this basin contains
essentially

Neogene

and

variegated sandstone and

formation).

Quaternary

thin

beds of

series

by more compact sands and

limestone that are called

However, recent studies of the

workers supported

comprising

clays with lenticular seams of lignite

These are underlain

fragments and

sediments

by exploratory

(Warkalli

clays with

Quilon

lithology of these sediments

of

formation.

by

C.G.W.B.

bore hole data indicate that the upper

Tertiary sediments in Kerala consist of three distinct formations (Raghava Rao,

1975).

The Warkallis with a thickness of nearly 80 m.

are underlain by the

:23:
Quilon Formation, having a maximum thickness of 70 m.

These are underlain

by a thick sequence of sediments called the Vaikom beds (Raghava Rao, 1975)

2.1.3.

Quaternary formations

Subrecent formations consisting of a great thickness of sand with shell

fragments, sticky black clays, peat beds of both marine and fluvial environments occur in the low-lying areas between Quilon, Kayamkulam, Kottayam,
Ernakulam and Ponnani and also between Cannanore and Nileswar.
separated from the Tertiary
th rou g hout

Keral a.

These are

rocks by a polymict pebble bed seen almost

It consists

predominantly

of

pebbles

and

cobbles,

composed chiefly of quartz and quartzite.

2.1.4.

Laterite

Kerala is the type area for laterite and it is from Angadipuram of Kerala
that Buchanan (1807) described laterite.
weathering of

rocks

involving leaching

It is a product of intense sub-aerial

of alkalis,

bases and

silica

with

complementary enrichment of alumina, iron and some of the trace elements.

Laterite covers around 60 percentage of the exposed surface area of Kerala
and occurs as capping on the crystalline rocks and the Tertiary sediments.
It is highly porous and shows gradations in composition from ferruginous to
aluminous types.

When pure enough to be used as an ore of aluminium, the

laterite is termed as bauxite.

In Kerala, bauxite occurrences are reported

from Kasargod (Ananthapura Gudda, Narayana Gudda, Nileswar), Cannanore

(Palayangadi), Quilon and Trivandrum districts.
being those located at Nileswar.

The prominent among them

:24:
Laterites in Kerala are generally classified into two major groups in
(i) primary/high-level laterite as used for in

terms of their genetic relation.

situ weathering products (ii) secondary laterite/ detrital/ low-level laterite

formed by partial or complete consolidation of transported lateritic material.

Laterites distri buted all throug h Kerala doesn't belon g to one period,
since the lateritisation process is continuous from Cretaceous to Holocene with
intense spells of lateritisation.
s~ells

Mallikarjuna et al.

of lateritisation in Kerala,

(1981) proposes three

(i) lateritisation of the crystalli ne rocks

during pre-Oligocene times before the deposition of Tertiary formations.

(ii)

lateritisation during post-Tertiary times as evidenced, by the lateritisation of

the

top

Tertiary

sediments,

and

(iii)

during

post

Pleistocene

evidenced by lateritisation of pebble beds, sand and alluvium.

first two spells of lateritisation

have been

reported from

period

as

However, the
Cannanore and

adjoining areas (Rajendran and Narayanaswamy, 1987; Narayanaswamy, present

work), and south Kerala (Soman and Slukin, 1987).
laterites from

Kerala have confi rmed

pre and

Palaeomagnetic studies of

post Tertiary

lateritisation

periods (Schmidt et al., 1983).

2.1.5.

Recent deposits

These deposits include fringes of parallel sand bars and sandy flats
alternating with marshy lagoonal clays and beach sand deposits.

Raised sand

beaches composed of reddish sandy loam known as 'teris' which are of aeolian
origin are seen at places in Kasargod and Trivandrum.

:25:
2.2.

GEOMORPHOLOGY

Four distinct geomorphic zones could be recognised in the Kerala region,

namely 1) the highlands ranging in altitude from nearly 600 m and more, (2)
mid lands from 300 to 600 m, (3) the lowlands from 30 to 300 m and (4) the
coastal strip with lagoons (locally known as 'kayals') and sand dunes.

The

altitudinal range in the state is asymmetric with the maximum area of about
24,000 km 2 (62 percent of the total area of 39,000 km 2 ) falling within the 0-300
m altitudinal range (Sinha Roy and Mathai, 1979).

The most prominent geomorphological feature of the state, and one of

the important orographic features of the peninsular India is the Western
Ghats.

The Western Ghats fringe western coast from the Tapti estuary to

Cape Comerin.
India.

This hill range plays a critical role in the climate of south

The highest elevation is attained at the Anamudi peak (2,695 m) which

is the highest peak in Western Ghats.

Palghat area, the

Western Ghats and

extensive from south to north.

Except for the prominent break in the

the highland

terrain of Kerala are

Palghat Gap is the major break within the

Western Ghats having a width of about 30 km and extends in a E-W direction

over a distance of 80 km.

This conspicuous feature in the landscape of the

peninsular shield connects the West Coast with the peninsular region of the
east.

Another minor break is in the Ariankavu - Shencottah region.

The gap

here coincides with a major WNW-ESE lineament.

Another important geomorphic feature of the state is the Wynad plateau

which bounds the Nilgiri in the north.

This surface formation at 900 - 950 m

with a general slope towards east and north-east forms part of the most

:26:
extensive land systems of peninsular

India.

Linear hillock of magnetite

quartzite at Pandallur and Devala and granitic domes around

Tovarimalai

are

identified

as

erosion

outliers

of

the

Kalpetta and

Wynad

Surface

(Pard hasarad hi and Vaidyanad han, 1974).

Planation surfaces with polycyclic development is well

Kerala.

evidenced

in

These surfaces fit roughly in the scheme of major land forms of the

peninsular India, viz, the early Gondwana (2,580 m), Indian (180-600 m) and
Godavari (180-540 m) (King, 1950).

Vaidyanadhan (1967) identified 5 planation

su rfaces at 2,400 m, 1800 m, 900 m, 600 m an d at 360 m in areas south of 15

N latitude.

Pardhasaradhi

and

Vaidyanadhan (1974)

have

identified

two

geomorphological surfaces in the Kerala region adjoining the Nilgiri surface,

namely, the Wynad surface at 900 - 950 m and the Malabar upland surface at
about 75 m.

According to Demongeot (1975), there are only two surfaces in

the Palghat Gap: (1) up to 75 m towards the coast with a lateritic cover and
(2) the lower one, representing the present coastal
sambandam (1976)

identified five

erosion

plains.

surfaces in

central

ThirugnanaKerala

with

altitudinal ranges from 550 m at the top to 15 to 75 m at the lowest and

considered that these cyclic assemblages of landforms are due to regional
uplift of the region causing base level changes, resulting in the dissection of
earlier surfaces and rotation of new surfaces.
Murthy et al.

On a regional scale in Kerala,

(1976) recognised five surfaces between 1500 and 60 m.

Based

on field studies the first two surfaces have been reconstructed from laterite
remnants.

In

broad

conformity

with

these

surfaces,

Sinha

Roy

(1979)

identified four surfaces at 1200 - 1300 m, 150-200 m, 60-100 m and 20-50 m.

These su rfac;es have variable angle and slope towards west and thei r hi nge
zone has been suggested roughly in the coastal strip.

:27:
Recent studies

by

Narayanaswamy

and Chattopad hyaya (1991)

have

identified 5 surface in Cannanore district traceable at altitudes of 0-20 m,

20-60 m, 60-160 m, 160-220 m and >220 m.

Above 220 m the only notable

surface is at an altitudinal range of 750-900 m which represents the Wynad

plateau.

The drainage pattern of the region is in conformity with the physiographic divisions with the summit of the Western Ghats forming the watershed
between the drainage systems of the west coast and that of the Tamil Nadu
plains.

There are 41 west flowing rivers in Kerala, the majority of which are

drained by 6 order streams.

Most of the rivers follow the structural trends

of rocks (Sinha Roy, 1979).

Another striking feature in the landscape of Kerala is the occurrence

of a large number of estuaries and lagoons along the coastline.

There are 27

estuaries and some of these are elongated and parallel to coast line.

Occur-

rence of mud banks is another peculiar feature of the Kerala coast.

2.2.GEOLOGY OF THE CANNANORE DISTRICT

Cannanore district is located

in the northern part of Kerala,

longitudinal 7510' to 7556' and latitude 1140' to 1218' (Fig. 2).

rock types of this area are granulites, gneisses and
schists.

within

The major

high and low

grade

Granulites consist of pyroxene granulites and charnockite with its

variants.

The gneisses are mainly granitic within which occur enclaves of

sillimanite - kyanite bearing schists, fuchsite quartzite with occasional barite

association

as

well

as

meta -

ultramafites and

amphibolites,

which

are

,.

7!Sh5

'2"

75130

INDEX MAP
annanore

KASARAGOD

,.

'2"

i~A'{/!.,
STUDY

AREA

It. ;

\~
i

"

KARNATAKA STATE

EZMI

"

'2
0

.. ..
. '

CANNANn,. _'

4'
WAYANAD

- ...._-

ZOKm

F... .,.

,F

Fault
District bOundary
State boundary

FIg.2 Geological map of Cannanore District (modified after Rao, 1973; 1,1976;
Nair et al . , 1980;Nair and Vidyadharan, 1982 ).

\.

:28:
equivalents of the Sargur's of southern Karnataka, and are locally designated
as Manantoddy schist belt (Nair et al., 1975).

The low grade schists noted to

the west of the region are referred as Vengad group.

basal conglomerates and low

This group consists of

grade schists are seen in

the southwestern

portion of the area and are equivalent of the Dharwar group of rocks.

gabbro body at Adakkatodu trending in a general east - southeast direction

is exposed parallel to a major fault designated as Bavali lineament (Nair et al.,
1975).
the

Massive anorthosite occurrences at Perinthatta and Kadannapalli, and

Ezhimala gabbro -

lineament.
of the area.

granophyre complex

exposed

along

this

A major syenite body at Peralimala is located in the central part

These plutons have intruded the schist belt indicating a post-

kinematic alkaline and calc-alkaline magmatism.

cut across almost all the rock types.
zone.

are also

A number of dolerite dykes

Tertiary sediments fringe the coastal

The enti re rock types of this area are lateritised and covers an exten-

sive area.

Generalised geological succession of the rock types of Cannanore district

is given below: (Table. 2).

:29:

(Table. 2).
Generalised geological succession of the rock types of Cannanore district

,...._._..._--_._-_.....-........._.......- _.__.........._........._._---_......
..

_-.;..

Formation/Group

__...._.._-_....__._-_...__........__........_......__.......................__._-_.......__...........................__..........__..... ;

Lithology

I
i

i-.. .------.. . . . -... ----_. . . . . . . _. . .__. . . . . . . . . . r. -----..-......----..........------.._.........._.....__...........__.__.........._-_.....-._...... i

I Quaternary
I

i Sar"'d,

to recent

sedlments

i
!

slit, mud

i
!

i
i
! Laterlte,

,. _ _ _ _._. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.._________ ... _ _ _ _ _.L_ _._.__.. _______ ..._._........ __............................__ ..................... _..._._.. _ .....__ ... _ .................... i

l Warkalll group

(Tertiary)

clays, sand, grit, and lignite

i beds

l
I

i
j

L.

______ . ._._..._......__.____... i.._.._........_....._. __._......__.____...__ . .___...... __ ..._ ..._ ......__ ......__... i

: Intruslves

I Dolerlte

!
!

i
! Alkali Syenlte

!Gabbro-granophyre

i Anorthosite

ii

i
i
!

I
.

11

l___._________,_ _ _ _ I .._____.___..___.__......__....._ ......._ ....-.-----1i

~

i Vengad

Group (equivalents

!of

IQuartz-mica

schlsts,

Dharwar Super Group)

L__

I
I

! Mlgmatltes, conglomerates
!
_L___..____._....__. . . ._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _.. . .. . . . . . . _. . . . ._. . . . . . . . . . . ._. . . _._.1

I
"'''''''''''''Unconformlty'''''''''''''''
!
i:. _-_.__._-_._._-_.... _._-_.._ ... _._-,. __. _ - -. . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _. . . . ._. . . _. . . ._._.__. . . . . . . . . . . . . _. .__. . . . . . ij

I Rocks
I

of Manantoddy schist

! belt (equivalent of Sargurs)

I Granite-gneiss

(migmatite

!Quartz-mica-kyanlte-schlst

I Magnetite-quartzlte/silllmanlte
i

! Quartzite, Meta-ultramafics/amphlbolltes

_ _ _ .._i..I ..__ .. _____.. __..__..____.....__.___..__.... __...__..____...... _ .. ii

!

""''''''''''u nconformity""''''''''''

j---------_._-------:---------_.__._-_.__._..._. _. _. . _.__. ._. . . _.\l

IGranulites
i
i

and gnelsses

:30:
Since the area is generally covered by laterite/soil, contacts are not
visible and hence the observations made on weathered rocks and soil/laterite
profiles were also utilised to delineate the various lithological units.

2.3.1.

Granulites and related gneisses

These include charnockitic gneiss and hornblende gneiss and are exposed towards the eastern portion of the area (Fig. 2).

Exposures are seen

around Alcheri, Kitcheri and north of Pariyaram.

Megascopically, charnockite is medium to coarse grained, melanocratic to

leucocratic with large feldspar, and

quartz grains.

exhibits hypidiomorphic to xenomorphic texture.

pyroxene with traces of augite.
plagioclase.

Plagioclase

it

Hypersthene is the dominant

Felsic minerals include quartz, K-feldspar and

composition

ranges

K-feldspar include orthoclase and microcline.

growths are common.

In thin sections,

from

albite

to

oligoclase.

Coarse grained perthitic inter-

Myrmikitic - inter-growths are also seen.

Alteration of

pyroxene is seen along the cleavage planes and fractures to hornblende and
to chlorite at places.

Zircon and magnetite occur as accessories.

The hornblende gneisses extending from Kuthuparamba to Periya and

further south-east of the study area or of uniform nature and are devoid of
layering.

Hornblende gneiss is medium to coarse grained, and is mesocratic

to melanocratic, containing hornblende, feldspars and minor amounts of quartz.

The rock shows granulitic texture at places.
texture is common.

Hornblende rich

xenoblastic

The original high calcic feldspars seem to be recrystal-

lised into high sodic feldspars, epidote and little calcite.

traversed by numerous quartz veins.

The gneisses are

:31 :
The gneisses exposed to the east of Tellicherry and around Mattanur are
migmatitic.

These are generally hornblende - biotite gneisses with patches of

linear bands of amphibolites and

hypersthene gneisses within them.

Good

exposures are noticed all along the Pazhassi canal passing through Mattanur,
Peravur

and

Palayanad.

The

rock

is

medium

grained,

mesocratic

melanocratic and consists of hornblende, biotite, feldspars and Quartz.

and feldspar are seen in equal amounts.

altered

with

serrated

margins.

Plagioclase

and

constitute nearly 20-30 modal percentage of the rock.

twinned.

Quartz

Parallel arrangement of biotite

alternating with Quartzose felsic layers define the gneissocity.

highly

to

Biotite is

potash

feldspar

Plagioclase is well

Sericitisation and kaolinisation are common in feldspars.

Zircon and

magnetite are the accessory minerals.

Rocks

of

the

high-grade

schists,

known

as

Wynad

Sargurs

(Manantoddy schist belt) are exposed towards south central parts of the area
with a WNW-ESE trend.

Quartz -

mica -

kyanite

schists, magnetite and

fuchsite bearing Quartzite, and sillimanite gneiss form dominant rock types of
this group.
Mattanoor.

Mica schists are exposed around Kuthuparamba, Kottiyur and

Quartzites form minor bands within schists and gneisses.

ultramafites and amphibolites occur as numerous bands within

gneisses and schists to the north and south of Peralimala.

Meta-

hornblende

Exposures are

seen around Nedungom and Aicheri near Sreekantapuram of Taliparamba taluk.

The lithology of this part of the schist belt comprises mafic - ultramafic rocks
represented mainly by pyroxene granulites, metaperidotites, and rarely
serpentinites, and tremolite invaded

by

granites, resulting

actinolite -

talc schists.

These

by

rocks are

in the migmatitic gneiss development with

numerous enclaves of mafic-ultramafic rocks and schists (Nambiar, 1982).

:32:
Fuchsite bearing quartzite is an
supracrustal rocks in the study area.

important unit of the

high grade

The rock is fine grained and leucocrat-

ic quartz, feldspars and fuchsite mica are the major mineral assemblages.

Thin section studies show quartz grains with sutured grain boundaries
which are recrystallised and are of medium size.

Small grains exhibit triple

junctions and polygonal outlines and at place they show deformation bands.
Fuchsite mica constitute 10-20 modal percentage of the rock is pale green to
pale brown under transmitted light and shows feeble pleochroism.
in a linear fashion.

It occurs

Muscovite mica, barite and zircon with rare sphene form

the accessory mineral assemblage, chlorite also occur in minor quantity.

The pyroxenite is melanocratic, medium to coarse grained and xenoblastic

rock, consisting
hornblende.

predominantly of

The pyroxenes

sine-Iabradorite composition.
served.

pyroxene, epidote,

are fractured.

feldspar with

minor

The plagioclase is of ande-

Alteration of pyroxene to hornblende is ob-

Biotite, magnetite and ilmenite form the accessories.

The metaultramafite is melanocratic, coarse grained rock, at times fibrous

with interlocking texture and altered.

It consists of talc, actinolite, tremolite,

chlorite and iron ores.

Bands

of

amphibolites

quartz-mica-kyanite schists.

are

found

occurring

interlayered

with

Generally they also occur as enclaves within

granulites and migmatites.

The rock is melanocratic, medium to coarse grained and xenoblastic.

consists predominantly of hornblende and plagioclase feldspar.

It

Quartz and

:33:
zoisite are seen in thin section.

Hornblende is well cleaved, dark green in

colour with light yellow to dark green pleochroism.

along their margins.
twinning.

Minor alteration is noted

Plagioclase is the dominant feldspar mineral with good

Occasional clinopyroxene is diopsidic with pale yellow to yellowish

green pleochroism.

Quartz is intergranular ranging in proportion from 5 to

10 modal percentage of the total mineral abundance.

2.3.2.

Vengad Group

Rocks of the Manantoddy schist belt are overlain unconformably

by

Vengad group, consisting of conglomerate at the base followed by quartz mica -

schists interlayered

with micaceous quartzite.

The contact of the

Vengad group rocks with the oider rocks is tectonic as evidenced

by the

presence of crushed conglomerate near Kuthuparamba (Nai r et al., 1980).

The Vengad conglomerates divides the supracrustals into two distinct

litho-tectonic cycles, separated by a major break in sedimentation, and gains
its significance in deciphering the stratigraphic succession (Nair, 1980).

The

conglomerate bed which occupies the base of the Vengad group occurs as
patches extending over ten kilometres in a general NW-SE direction till it is
truncated in the south east (Nair, 1976).
to the east.

It is found to overlie the gneisses

The best exposures are observed along the Anjarakandi river

section south of Vengad.

The foliation in the matrix trends N 50 W - N 70 W

with steep westward dip of about 65.

Graded bedding is recorded with the

diminishing of pebbles towards west (Nair, 1980).

The conglomerate is inter-

bedded with and overlain to the west by quartz-sericite schists.

Granulites

and hornblende biotite gneisses form the basement to the conglomerate.

Two

phases of deformation are recorded in the conglomerate and overlaying schists

:34:
(Nambiar, 1985).

Petrography of the conglomerate shows that the pebbles

consists of vein quartz, quartzite, quartz-mica schist and granite.

pebbles are the

dominant type

(more than 75

Pebbles are well smoothened and oval

Quartzite

percentage of the total).

in shape (Fig. 3) The presence of

pebbles of quartz-mica schist ('" 15 %) and

granite C' 5 %) indicates the

polymictic character.

Deformation following deposition is evident from the

alignment,

elongation

stretching,

of

quartz

pebbles and

crenulation

and

mylonitisation of the matrix.

Quartz - mica schist pebbles are petrographically distinct from quartzite

in having abundant sericite ( .... 15-20 %).

Both types contain rounded zircons,

altered biotite, epidote and carbonates as accessories.

Granitoid pebbles show plagioclase and microcline feldspars in addition

to

quartz

microcline

and

mica.

Myrmekitic

are common.

Quartz

intergrowths

grains

recrystallisation during deformation.

between

are equigranular

plagioclase
consequent

and
on

Sericite is abundant swerving around

quartz and feldspar grains.

The matrix of the conglomerate is composed dominantly of muscovite and

quartz.

At places it grades on to arkosic composition.

An elongated fabric

of quartz and muscovite is prominent (Fig.4) often giving

alternate layers of quartz-mica rich portions.

rise to parallel

Aggregation of quartz and

quartz - feldspar minerals, probably representing micropebbles of quartzite

and granite are also seen defining knife shape boundaries with the matrix
(Fig.5).

The pebble to matrix ratio varies from 70:30 to 20:80 (Ravindra Kumar

and Narayanaswamy, 1987).

Fig. 3 Photomicrograph of well smoothened and oval shaped pebbles in

conglomerate: Note the schistocity defined b y r ibbon Quartz and mica
flakes , crossed nicol x 25.

Fig.4

Photomicrograph of tounge-shaped
conglomerate, crossed nicel x 25.

and

elongated

quartz

in

Fi g.5 Photomicrograph of a micro Quartzite pebble in matrix: Note the

polygonal outl ine of Quartz i n the pebble and sharp contact betwee n
pebble and matrix. Crossed nicol x 25.

:35:
Geochemistry of the quartzite pebbles show low abundance of alumina,
iron and magnesium The plot falls in the field of sublithic arenite.

The

composition of the quartzite pebbles is comparable to that of quartzites from

the basement rocks, ie quartzite from Manantoddy Schist Belt (Ravindra Kumar
and Narayanaswamy, 1987).

The quartz-mica schist pebbles are less silicic and have higher alumina,
iron, magnesium and alkalies than
arenite to subarkose composition.

quartzite pebbles and suggest a lithic

The granitoid pebbles have Na 2 0/K 2 0 ratio

less than 0.5 suggesting granitic composition.

The matrix composition of Vengad conglomerate suggests a mixture of

composition of various pebbles and plots between the composition of quartzite,
quartz-mica schist and granite pebbles, and indicates arkosic nature.

In the

absence high mafic contents, a dominant sialic source of the conglomerate is

suggested (Ravindra Kumar and Narayanaswamy, 1987).

Quartz-mica -schist

2.3.3.

It is noticed as thin linear bands within the granulites as well

migmatites.
are found

as

All the rock types of the older metamorphic complex of this area
i nterlayered

with this schist and

have sharp contact at many

places.
The

rock

is

melanocratic

muscovite are the major minerals.

alignment of

quartz

and

with

fine

grained

nature.

Quartz

and

Planar features are well represented by the

sericite

as fine

needles along

with

muscovite.

Feldspars (microciine, perthite and plagioclase), chlorite, amphibole, ilmenite,

zircon, and leucoxene are found as accessories. Quartz shows recrystallisation

:36:
features.

Quartz, feldspar and amphiboles occur also as aggregates and as

lenticular streaks at places.

Several

intrusive

bodies

of anorthosite,

gabbro-granophyre,

alkali

syenite and granite are seen within the linear Wynad schist belt in Cannanore
district.

Regular alignment of these igneous plutons along the Bavali linea-

ment is suggested as being due to differentiation and emplacement from a

single parent magma (Ravindra Kumar, 1986).

2.3.4.

Anorthosite

Vidhaydharan

et al.

(1977)

shaped, massif anorthosite emplaced

reported

the occurrence of elliptical-

in the pyroxene granulite-charnockite

rocks, around Perinthatta, northwest of Taliparamba in Cannanore district.

The

body

has an

aerial

extent

of more

than

50

sq. km.

The

contact

relationship with the country rock is not clear and appears to be sharp.

The

anorthosite is non-layered and is highly deformed with very coarse grained

plagioclase laths.

The alignment of the plagioclase laths are crude and has

a general E-W direction.

Regional dips in the surrounding rocks are observed

towards the anorthosite body suggesting that the anorthosite was emplaced
into a synform structure (Vidyadharan et al., 1977).
covered largely by laterites (Narayanaswamy, 1986).

The anorthosite body is

However, good exposures

are seen around Kovumal, Kuruveli, Alakkad, Kankol and at Peralam.

The rock is extremely coarse grained, composed mainly of grey plagioclase with pyroxene and magnetite as minor constituents.

Plagioclase mega-

crysts of about 10 to 12 cm in length are observed and some of them show

play of colours.

Apatite is ubiquitous and forms an important accessory

:37:
Brown

mineral.

biotite,

zircon also occur occasionally.

Horn blende and

chlorite occur as alteration products of pyroxenes.

Plagioclase feldspar has bimodal distribution as megacrystals and as

ground mass.

Majority of the plagioclase crystals are untwined.

Wherever

twinning is present, twin lamellae show intra-granular termination and bending.

Twinning is more common in megacrystals compared to ground mass.

Plagioclase of labradorite variety shows play of colours in reflected light and

is restricted towards west of the body.

Plagioclase at many places occurs as

microperthite indicating that the potash feldspar component is also significant.

Microperthite is common in border zones, whereas antiperthite is seen in the
central part of the anorthite body.

pyroxenes constitute a minor amount in the anorthosite which include

both clino
enclose

(Augite) and

crystals

of

orthopyroxene

apatite

and

(enstatite).

opaques

along

Invariably
cleavages

pyroxenes

and

cracks.

Pyroxenes show alterations to hornblende, biotite and chlorite.

Biotite occurs as reaction rims around opaques in addition to secondary

biotite which occurs as an alteration pr.oduct.

The chemical characteristics of anorthosites are comparable to massif

anorthosites.

The chemistry also indicates calc-al kali ne composition of the

anorthosites.

The low K2 0 content, cumulate plagioclase and the mafics in

anorthosite favour

a deep

environment of origin,

favouring

the

general

concept that anorthosites are mantle derivatives (Ravi nd ra Kumar, 1986).

:38:
2.3.5.

Gabbro bodies

In the study area occur at Ezhimala and at Adakkatodu.

the gabbro is associated with granophyre and granite.

At Ezhimala,

The gabbro is exposed

at the foot of the hill on the south eastern side and in the middle of the
eastern flank of the granophyre body.

The rock is coarse grained at the

southern side in contact with the granophyre.

the eastern side of the body.

Grain size decreases towards

At Adakkatodu, a metagabbro body is seen as

intrusive into the basement gneisses and schistose rocks.

The contact rela-

tionshi p is not clear.

The rock is typical-sub-ophic to ophitic in texture and

consists of

plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene as major constituents.

Plagioclase (60 %), clinopyroxene (20-30 %),

hornblende (5-10 %) and

biotite ('" 2 %) constitute the modal mineral assemblage of the gabbro.

The

anorthite content in plagioclase ranges between 55-75 (Iabradorite composition).

The anorthite content in the zoned grains decrease from core to the rim ie.
about 80-85 percent to 60-65 percent, thus it is normal zoning with bytownite
core with labradorite rim.

The twinning is as per Albite and Manebach law.

The pyroxenes which constitute the mafic content are mostly cl.inopyroxenes with few grains of orthopyroxenes.
diopsi dic augite in composition.

The clinopyroxenes are augite and

Hypersthene and enstatite form the orthopy-

roxene with well developed euhedral nature.

almost at 90.

Two sets of cleavages intersect

The pyroxenes show alteration along cleavage planes and frac-

tures to hornblende and chlorite.

Biotite is also seen in some cases.

The

alteration is more pronounced towards the southern portion of the body.

:39:
Occasionally, primary hornblende is seen interlocked with pyroxene.

Horn-

blende also occurs as interstitial to plagioclase laths with blebs of anhedral

magnetite.

Accessory minerals noticed are magnetite, apatite, and quartz, minor

amounts of sphene, epidote and calcite are also noticed.
inclusions in quartz as well as separate grains.
with well developed crystal faces.

Magnetite occurs as

Apatite is needle to prismatic

Quartz is seen in minor amounts.

Geochemical studies of the gabbro -show a dominant calc-alkaline to

slightly tholeitic nature (Ravindra Kumar, 1986).

2.3.6.

A conspicuous igneous body of granophyre

It occurs around Mount Dilli at Ezhimala (Varadan and Venkataramana,

1976).

Generally known as Ezhimala complex near Payyanur in Cannanore dis-

trict, this body covers an area of 6 by 3 km and the whole body is oriented
in a N15W - S15E direction.

The granophyre is associated with gabbro and

granite is commonly known as Ezhimala gabbro granophyre complex (Varadan

and Venkataramana, 1976).

The granophyre shows typical granophyric texture (Fig. 6) with intergrowth of quartz and feldspar.

Quartz and potash feldspar form the ground

mass with phenocrysts of potash feldspar and a few zoned plagioclase feldspars.

Pyroxenes are the main ferro-magnesian mineral with magnetites, apa-

tite, epidote, fluorite, sphene and zircon as accessories.

Fi g.6 Photomicrograph showing granophyre texture. Crossed nicol x 25.

:40:
Quartz is found mostly as intergrowths with potash feldspars and occasionally as phenocrysts.
mon.

Quarts is clear, inclusions of magnetite are uncom-

The shape varies from small vermicular to large anhedral grains.

Feldspars are dominated by orthoclase with minor amounts of plagioclase.

K-feldspars show

kaoli nisation,

sericitisation and

plagioclase feldspars are comparatively clear.

chloritisation.

However

Phenocrysts of potash feldspar

is found in minor amounts and in few places these form core around which the
intergrowth of orthoclase and quartz are seen.

The plagioclase is albite to oligoclase in composition and shows twinning

(according to Albite law).

The main mafic constituent of the granophyre is clinopyroxene (augite

and

diopside)

hypersthene).

with

minor

amounts

of

orthopyroxene

(enstatite

and

The alteration of these pyroxenes to amphiboles (occasionally

to biotite) and to chlorite can be seen in a few grains along the boundaries,
cleavages and cracks.

Based on geochemical (5i0 2 varying between 61.96 % and 76.62%) and

mineralogical (relative proportions of K-feldspar and plagioclase) consideration,
5inha Roy and Ravindra Kumar (1986) identified the different rock types of
Ezhimala complex in the felsic end of the suite and considered it to comprise
a petrologic range of gabbro - tonalite - trondhjemite - granite.

The unique feature of the granophyre is the presence of vugs filled

with various secondary minerals and exhibits typical granophyric texture.

:41 :
Minor outcrops of rapakivi granite are noted in the southern portion of
the granophyre body.

The granite here shows two textural types.

The major

one being a light pink granite with less mafics showing gradational relationship with the greyish coloured porphyritic variety.
grained with equigranular texture.
stituents.

The granite is medium

Quartz and feldspars form the major con-

Feldspar is mostly orthoclase

Pyroxene is the mafic mineral present.

with few

grains of

plagioclase.

The accessory minerals include magne-

'tite, calcite, apatite and sphene.

Quartz is seen as blebs of phenocrysts in pink varieties and is fresh

and clear with occasional tiny inclusions of magnetite.

Feldspars include both orthoclase (mostly) and plagioclase (few grains).

Both

the

feldspars

are clouded

due

to

kaolinisation

and

chloritisation.

Clouding is less in pink granite as compared to grey granite.

Clinopyroxene is the major ferromagnesian component with augitic and

diopsidic composition A few grains of orthopyroxene (hypersthene and enstatite) is also seen.

The pyroxenes are seen altered to hornblende, biotite and

chlorite at cleavages and cracks.

The granite-granophyre of Ezhimala has

yielded a Rb-Sr isochron age of 678 m.y.

(Nair and Vidyadharan, 1982).

Another major igneous pluton cropping out in Cannanore district is the

peralimala syenite.

This body covers an area of about 80 km 2

south-eastern part of Mattanur to Kanichar.

occurring from

It has a linear extension with a

length of 20 km and an average width of 4 km (Sukumaran, 1984; Ravindra

Kumar and Sinha Roy, 1985).

This pluton is enveloped by high grade schists.

:42:
Thin section studies of the syenite show k-feldspar as the principal
mineral constituent with minor amounts of plagioclase, aegerine augite and
quartz.

K-feldspar is significantly high (70-90% modally).

spars are dominantly microcline perthites (Fig. 7).

perthites are common (Fig. 8).

The potash feld-

Braid, string and vein

Quartz is recrystallised in highly deformed

varieties and usually occurs as interstitial to feldspar plates.

deep green in colour with greenish yellow to deep green

Hornblende is
pleochroism.

At

places feebly pleochroic aegerine augite with deep green colour is observed.
Sphene with subhedral to rounded grains having wedge shape are randomly
distributed sometimes rimming apatite.

Traces of carbonates and zircons are

also encountered.

High K2 0 content ('" 13%) is unique of this syenite.

Based on geochemi-

cal and mineralogical studies an attempt has been made to explain the origin
to be a mantle source of magma enriched in K2 0 (Ravindra Kumar and Sinha
Roy, 1985).

Later intrusives of basic (dolerite) composition have been found cutting

all the earlier formations.

Best exposure are noticed at Vengad, north of

Kuthuparamba, Kirachchi and on the banks of Anjarakandi puzha, apart form

these a few dykes occur within gabbro-granophyre complex at Ezhimala.

The

dykes occur in three district orientations (NNW-SSE, NW-SE and NW-SW).

The

rock is medium grained melanocratic.

The texture is ophitic to sub-ophitic.

Augite, plagioclase (andesine-Iabradorite) with minor hornblende, chlorite and

iron ores constitute the mineral assemblage.

The dykes have been attributed

a transitional composition between abyssal and plateau basalts (Radhakrishna

et al., 1991) based on geochemical data.

Fig.7 Photomicrograph of microcline i n Alkali Syenite showing cross hatched

twinning. Crossed nicol x 25.

Fig.S Photomicrograph of vein perth i te undergoing merichimsatla in alkali

syenite. Crossed nicol x 25.

:43:
The sedimentary formation in Cannanore district consists of clay, grits
and lignite belonging to the Warkalli group which overlie the weathered basement rocks.
along

the

Good exposures of these sedimentary formations are seen all

coast.

Interbed

lignite-clay

assemblage,

suggesting

marshy

conditions of deposition are seen near the coast about 3 km at Cannanore,

Meenkunnu and Palayangadi areas.

Interbedded loose, friable sandstone and clay sequence representative

of deposition along river mouth is noted along road cuttings in

Perumba,

Veil u r an d fu rther north.

At places like Valapatanam and Andur pebbles of vein quartz lying on

weathered schistose rocks are overlain by ferruginous grit and laterites.

In

Koram and Cheemeni areas sub rounded pebbles of quartz and gneisses are
seen lying below the variegated clay-sand stone sequence.

2.3.7.

Quaternary to Recent Sediments

Lime shell and black clay occurrences are exposed in low !ying paddy
fields which represent the extinct lagoons, are seen stretching between Payyanur to Nileswar.

90

120

Y.B.P)

has shown that the period of deposition of peat was prior to shell

beds

Y.B.P & 4370

100

Radiocarbon dates of lime shells from Payyanur (4490

Y.B.P) and peat sample from Tellicherry (7230

(Rajendran et al., 1989).

The upper portion of all the rock types described from Cannanore district are lateritised.

Detailed descriptions of laterites developed over these

rock types are given in chapter - 3.

Soil and alluvium area seen over laterite

:44:
capping.

Beach sands are seen along the coast and the alluvial sands in river

beds.

2.4.

STRUCTURE AND TECTONIC FEATURES

Planar and linear structures of different generations are observed in

the study area, Primary planar structures like bedding.

(S1) are observed in

the formation of the Vengad Group, revealed by non-pebbly horizons.

Strike

of S1

planar

structure is

N65W

S65E

with

steep

dips.

Secondary

structures li ke foliation (S2 ) are preserved in all rock types of the area.

Around Tellicherry - Kuthuparamba, the mica schists and gneisses show

trends mainly in a NNW-SSE direction.

East of Kuthuparamba, the granulites

have a general E-W stri ke of foliation.

In the north-eastern part of the area

and beyond, migmatites show broad E-W, trend lines, showing local swings to
NNE-SSW and NNW-SSE directions.

Small-scale isoclinal folds (F 1) defined

nisable structures of the area.

by S1 are the earliest recog-

Such folds are observed in Palayad in the

canal cutting and along the Anjarakandi river at Maruvambayi etc.

East of Kuthuparamba the hypersthene gneisses and the schists have

been found folded along an E-W to ENE-WSW major antiform (Nair et al.,
1975)structure (F 2) with steep easterly plunge.
synformal structure is observed.

North of Kuthuparamba, a

The Peralimala granite pluton is elongated

parallel to the axial trace of this fold.

The E-W fold

axis seems to have

suffered some refolding around NE-SW axes, as seen by swerves of the stri ke

:45:
directions.
towards

The latter are asymmetrical, tight folds with moderate plunges

NE

and

are the

F3

folds of

the

area

Another

set

of

NW-SE

asymmetrical open folds (F 4) with low moderate plunges towards SE are also
observed in the area

Brittle
observed

deformation

structures

of the

north-east of Kuthuparamba,

area

where

include fault

the

conglomerates

fractures
and

the

schists of the Vengad formation have been brought of against the pyroxene
granulite and hornblende - biotite gneisses, having foliation trends at right
angles to that of the schists.

The contact is also marked by a breccia zone.

Further north around Iritty, the abrupt disappearance of the amphibolites of

the High Grade Schists along the river course has been attributed to faulting.
The western continuation of the shear zone of the Bavali lineament in this
area is marked

by development of slickensides as exposed in the quarry

section at Kunot (Nai r, 1980).

LANDSAT images of 12,500 scale (Band 5, 7 and false colour composites)

were studied by visual interpretation techniques.

The lineaments identified

using the above technique was transferred to topographic maps using aCari
Zeiss sketchmaster and cultural features were filtered out as far as possible.
The lineament map (Raghavan and Narayanaswamy, 1987) of the area is given
in Figure 9.
The

Limited field checks were carried out to verify the lineaments.

lineaments

observed

fractures/shears of
vegetation.

in

varying

the

area

dimensions,

are
dykes,

mainly

due

differential

to

incised

erosion

and

The highland region in Cannanore exhibit lineament pattern more

clearly and towards the lowland regions the lineament density decreases due
to various obscuring factors which include extensive soil and laterite cover,
vegetation and cultivated land.

Rose diagrams (Fig. 10) show that NNW-SSE.

7'~

76 0'

0'
Ktft 10

o ,

10

1 ~l(m

-.N

12

\2

3OKaaaragod

12

12

CANNANORE

Fig.9 Lineament map of Cannanore district and adjoining areas.

Sector 11

L /.
Totol or.a

Orolno08 IInaorlty

Fig.10 Rose diagrams of lineaments of the Cannanore region.

( N'X,. = nU~ b~r' pl!n:cnt: ' L~C;;-fcngth perCent)

:46:
NW-SE, ENE-WSW and NE-SW linear features are predominant.

The lineament

density and intersection density maps (Fig. 11) show two prominent anomalies
in the area NE and SE of Ezhimala.

Distribution of lineaments in different

azimuth classes are shown in Fi gu re 12.

2.5.

GEOMORPHOLOGIC SETTING OF THE STUDY AREA

The study area is marked

by

unique features ranging from coastal

beach of very low relief in the west to the high hills with conspicuous relief
in the east.

Located between the sea and the Western Ghats, the area has

been subjected to different exogenous processes leading to the present day

geomorphic configuration.
to a great extent.

Lateritisation has influenced the landform evolution

The following morphogenetic processes could be identified

in this area.

Marine
Fl uvio-Mari ne/Estuari ne
Fluvial and Denudational weathering

Different geomorphic units have been demarcated under each of these

process and described in chapter 5.
also evident.
these process.

Influence of some other processes are

Table. 3 given below shows geomorphic units under each of

]
;

..

"0
C

A
N

)j

Fig.12 Distri butlon of lineaments in different azimuth classes.

:47:
TABLE 3

... .. . .....~rP.t.!:i~

Process

.!:I!!.t~.!!L ....................................

...... ... .. ... ...... .....................J:1~5n4"5 t.s.

Characteristics

?41:l .4.IJ5.1;.!!I. .......................... .... ... .

Narrow, accretional
beach including some
aeolian deposits

Marine

:.9..c;).if,IlI~.if,.1 ....c:;.15.f.f .. J9.J1 .. ~.. Eros i ona 1, 1ate r 1tic

Coastal plain later1tic (C _ 1 )

3

Coastal plain

Erosional, probably
the lowest
plantation surface

Depositional,
includes mud/tidal
flats and paleo
beaches
................................................................................................. .........-............................._................................................................................................................................
.
Coastal plain alluvium (C _ )
3 2

Partially isolated
brackish marsh
.
Fluvio-tidal
channel and
swamps

Aluviomarine/estuarine

Regularly inundated

:,... _..............................
(B 2...............................
)
,.......................................

Tidal channel (B 3 )
also known as back
Braided bars
water islands
within tidal
channel
:.............._........._............................................... .............. ...........................,.............................. ......................-.........................................................
':"' ........................
~

Fluvial

Flood plain
including lowest
terrace

Regularly flooded
area during monsoon

Terraces

Depositional
terraces at higher
level than the flood
...............................p~.ain

Alluvial plains

Normally away from

the main river
course

Gent 1 Y roll i ng

Low relie6, slope

<5

Undulated

Low to medium
relief, slope <10 0

Denudational
hills and slopes

Isolated hills and

slopes

Structurally
controlled, steep
sided

Lateritic mesa

Lateritic mesa

Almost flat tabl~

like with slope 5

Denudated hills
and mountain

Ridges, highly
undulated terrain

Flat, elongated
slope <50, Western
Ghat hills, scarp
slopes
............................

Flood plain and

terraces

Flat to roll ing

plain

Denudational
weathering

Spatial distribution of these units highlights that considerable area of

Cannanore district is subjected to denudational processes.
i.e., fluvial units are marked in patches.
does not show continuous flood plain.

Depositional units

Even a major river like Valapatanam

The river valleys that almost follow the

:48:
lineaments

cutting

bottomed.

This

across the
indicates

the

laterite are

narrow,

dominance

of scarp

steep

sided

retreat

but

in

flat

landform

development.

Five planation surfaces demarcated (oldest to recent are P, to Ps

P3

surface (60 - 160 m) is characterised by the presence of laterite mesa (plate

1) and covers a major part of the area.

The P, surface is distinguished by

the surface denudational process and is mostly stripped of the laterite cover
in the upper slope and some laterite remnants are observed in the shoulder
slope.

The P2 surface, also with laterite cover, mostly occurs as bounding

slope to the P, surface and gradually merges with the P 3 surface.

surface can be equated to the unit of denudational hills and slope.

The P2

P4 surface

occu rs as flood plain valley bottom, and terraces incised on to the P3 su rface
along the rivers.

Ps surface is generally the aggradational plain consisting

of coastal deposits in the western part and alluvial and colluvial deposits in
the eastern valley bottoms and flood plains.

Along the coast the Ps surface

exhibits hard laterite crust cover which marine terrace is exposed in some
areas. The foregoing discussion on geomorphology indicates that lateritisation
had wide ranging impact on landform evolution of the area.

Chapter 3

LATERITES

OF

THE

DISTRICT

CANNANORE

Laterites of the study area are characterised by their development over

a wide variety of lithologies ranging from granulite/gneiss, through schists
of the

Sargur/Dharwar

groups

and

rocks of

the

Tertiary

sedimentary

formations, to intrusive phases like anorthosite, gabbro - granophyre, alkali

- syenite etc.

Further, the laterite formation is confined to an altitude below

300 m in the eastern part of the region, while towards the coast, they are
observed even below 1 m.

Well preserved laterite mesas covering most of the

area are seen between 60 to 160 m interval.Along the coast hard laterite cover
is exposed as marine terraces.

The distribution of laterite in the Cannanore

district is shown in Figure 13.

3.1. TERMINOLOGY

Laterites are generally classified into two major groups in terms of their
genetic relation i.e. (i) primary/high level laterite is the term used for in-situ
weathering products (ii) secondary/detrital/low-Ievel laterite for that formed
by partial or complete consolidation of transported

lateritic material.

As

mentioned above, the concept of high-level and low-level laterite in terms of

genetic classification is not tenable because low- level laterites are not al ways
detrital or secondary in nature (Karunakaran and Sinha Roy, 1971) which has
more relevance to Kerala region as the in-situ laterites including those of
Buchanan's type area occur in relatively low level.

Each zone of the laterite profile has its own distinctive character which
is

highlighted

chemistry.

by

varying

morphologic

characteristics,

mineralogy

and

It is difficult to give a purely morphological, physical or chemical

definition of laterite as this term covers a variety of aspects of tropical

11

Loterlte

7:/"
,

P oddy fleld / Flood plain _ Alluv ... m

FOf9St loom

~ Coas tal a lluvi um

~ Durlaust

F-=-=l Fluvld tidol dlomel

I"
1

"r.tll,- .~1

H~.q Beach

'NDEX

,~~ "":I=J ' ....

~"~,,*,m
r
~
'. , \

":~ I IO

70"1' 5

,,;-.;

~\

--

, /11

'> . . ~)

<.t.

J.

,,

"

j O Km

'r

"

I '

,_

" ,40

---

,....
1

"

.,......

,,-

'5

,2

iI

1I

.51

_._:~._.-.

'"
f

~' -

,,

WAYANAD

;;;;- rr ___

tt".;c: ,.!:.

,.

,--''
'"",)

-,

KOZHIKOD.

SI'o'OPU. am

onor ..

::e:z:;::s
~.:.
.....
.... r;:.......
':";....

KARNATAI(A STATE

i~,. .

"I~~ur~'

.. ", ' ":'

F1 9 . 13 Map show i ng distribution 01 l ate r lte In Cllonnanore d is t rict.

70I ,'0

' >r=-= .J
. - , "i'

I' I)...} S r.kon<l~Ufam

OC'il

.1-

. ~

k.'

'-

KMlf

"
~::~;:~"~~~~.~'~",

7 6 13 ;;-

LAKSHADWEEP SEA

45 -- -- District boundar y

1' - r-C- River

'2

II ,I Z
10

Ir

:50:
weathering.

One of the major difficulties in terminology is that different

materials are often described by a single term (Mcfarlane, 1976), hence it is

important to define laterite.

Karunakaran and Sinha Roy (1979), Sinha Roy

(1981) and Soman (1982) have dealt this aspect in detail and the terms lateritic
gravel, vermicular laterite profile mottled zone, blocky laterite and pallid zone
representing the various zones of a laterite in a descending sequence is
followed in south Kerala.

However, all these units are not noticed

in the

present study area and exact demarcations of these zones are also difficult.
Hence in the present study a much more simpler usage of the names were
used (Oilier, 1965; Melton, 1965; Nai r and Thomas Mathai, 1981; Narayanaswamy
and Ghosh, 1985 and Narayanaswamy, 1986).

Different units of the laterite

profile as used in the present study in a descending sequence are defined

below:-

1. Humus zone comprises top soil, rich in organic material.

2. Pebbly zone consists of the detrital component of the laterite profile

and

is made of ferruginous pellets and laterite gravels of various shapes that

are either loosely or closely packed in clayey matrix.

anyone of the units of the residual

This zone may overlie

laterite profile,

which signifies the

erosional contact between the detrital an d resi dual components.

3. Vermicular laterite represents the top part of the residual laterite

component termed after Hanlon (1945).

It contains tubular cavities of various

shapes and sizes that are usually filled by kaolinitic clay (Fig. 14).

The

thickness of this zone is highly variable.

4.

Pallid

zone comprises

kaolinitic

clay

pockets

or

bands.

The

Fig.14 Vermiform laterite showing tubular cavities filled with Kaolinitic clay
(a) black and white photograph ( b) celoljr photograph. Crossed nicel
x 25.

Flg.15

Field photograph showing relict structures in weathered parent

rock.

:52:
Laterites owe their colour to iron oxides in various states of hydration
and hence the estimation of colour gives a rough idea of composition (Fig. 15
shows different shades of laterites).

3.3. SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The specific gravity of laterites from the study area varies between 1.72
and 2.41.

The variation is consistent with the chemical

composition.

The

specific-gravity of oxidised forms are higher than that of hydrated forms.

Comparison of apparent
leaching of materials.

density is

useful

in

estimating the

intensity

of

Old duricrusts are denser than recent duricrusts.

It

is also found that looser the structure of the laterite, lower is the density.

3.4. LA TERITE PROFILE DESCRIPTIONS

Laterite profiles developed over different lithological units (charnockite,

gneisses, fuchsite-quartzite,
gabbro, granophyre, alkali
studied

and

the

various

ultramafites,

quartz-mica schists,

anorthosite,

syenite, and sedimentary formation) have been

units

were

demarcated

from

30

representative

locations and the these profiles are shown in Figs. 16A, 9, and C.

3.4.1. Laterite profiles over charnockites

Since charnockites form the major rock type in the study area, in situ
development of laterites were exami ned at several places for mi neralogical and
for geochemical studies, and results from four such profiles are presented

:53:
here.

In general, the profiles vary from 3.8 to 9.9 m in thickness (Fig.16 A,

profiles 1 to 4).

A generalised picture of the profiles indicates a humus zone

(0.3 - 0.9 m) underlain by a 0.4 m thick pebbly zone (in one section only)
which

contains ferruginous

pellets

in

clay

matrix.

It

is

underlain

by

vermicular laterite (1.5 - 3 m), which is the top portion of the profile with
tubular cavities of various shapes and sizes that are usually filled
kaolinitic clay.

with

A hard ferruginous crust is seen above this zone at two

places (profile No. 2 and 3, Fig. 16).

The cross sections of the vermicules

consist of alternating layers of gibbsite and hematite grown around released

silica.

It is followed by a thin layer of lithomarge (0.2- 0.5 m thick).

Further

below completely weathered, partly weathered and fresh parent rocks occur.
The boundaries between different zones are gradational.

All the units are not

found in all the profiles (eg. profile No.1 and 4) have humus zones which is
missing

in

profile

nos.

and

3,

where

hard

duricrust

is

exposed.

Lithomarge clay zone appears to be a conspicuous unit in laterite profiles over

charnockite.

Sampling for analysis was restricted to certain zones.

3.4.2. Laterite profiles over gneiss

Laterite profiles developed in situ over gneisses have a laterite cover

of 2.7 m.

Details of the weathering units are shown in Figure 16A (profiles

5 and 6).

In general the profiles developed over gneisses are seen devoid of

humus zone and hard duricrust, at the top, instead the laterite column (2.1
to 2.7 m) is noticed.

This zone is underlain

by a thin veneer (0.3 m) of

lithomarge, which is noticed in one profile only (Fig. 16A profile 6). This is
followed by completel y weathered (0.6 to 1.2 m) and partly weathered rocks
(0.9 to 0.2 m).

Fresh rock is noticed in all the profiles.

in situ profiles have

structural continuity of the bed rock from one zone to another.

:54:
3.4.3. Laterite profiles over fuchsite quartzite

The hi 11

Tumbeni is composed of fuchsite quartzite.

quartzite body has dimensions of 6 x 1 m.

The fuchsite

The entire hill is lateritised.

Sketch of the profile studied is given in figure 16A, profile No 7.

The in situ

profile consists of a pebbly zone of 0.3 m thickness, underlain by vermiform

laterite (1.5 m).

Fuchsite mica is visible and distributed sporadically in this

zone, below which a thin layer of lithomarge (0.3 m) is present.

This is

followed by completely weathered (0.45 m) and partly weathered zones (0.6 m).
Fresh fuchsite quartzite rock is exposed upto a depth of 4.5 m.

3.4.4. Laterite profiles over ultramafites

Ultramafic

rocks

occur

around

Sreekandapuram.

varieties are talc-tremolite schist and

pyroxenites.

The

major

rock

Five profiles exposed

around Sreekandapuram, were studied in detail, out of which sampling was

done at three locations, (profile Nos. 8,9 and 10 - two over schists and one
over pyroxenite).

The profile thickness ranges from 3 to 6 m and shows

textu ral conti nuity from bed rock to laterite.

The

profile

has a thin

layer of

humus

zone

(0.2

to 0.3

m)

with

ferruginous pebbles/lateritic gravels in clayey matrix in one of the profiles.

This zone is underlai n by vermiform laterite.
ranges from 3 to 6 m.

The thickness of this zone

Tubular cavities of various shapes are filled

kaolinite, and also show alternate layers of gibbsite and limonite.

by

This zone

is underlain by a layer of lithomarge of 0.45 m thickness (in one profile only

No. 10) Completely weathered, partly weathered and fresh parent rock units
are exposed towards the bottom.

The sketches of the studied profiles are

:55:
given in figure 16A, profile 8 to 10.

3.4.5. Laterite profiles over quartz-mica-schist

Quartz mica schist occurs as linear bands within the granulites as well
as migmatites.

Two fully developed

laterite profiles were selected for the

study (Fig. 168, profile Nos 11 and

12) which have continuity of textural

features suggesting the in situ nature.

of 0.2

is followed by vermiform laterite

The profile consists of a pebbly zone

of 1.5 to 3 m.

This is followed by

completely weathered (0.15 to 0.8 m) and partly weathered zones (0.15 to 0.5
m).

Fresh rock is exposed upto to a depth of 0.8 to 1.5 m.

3.4.6. Laterite profiles over anorthosite

A thick
Perinthatta.

capping

of laterite

is seen

developed over anorthosite at

Four profiles were selected for the present study.

All units of

the synoptic profile are present in the laterite developed over this rock unit.
The profiles indicate a humus zone (0.5 m) at the top, followed by a lateritic
gravel bed consisting of ferruginous pellets in clay matrix (1.5 m).

It is

underlain by hard duricrust (4.5 m) at one place (profile No. 13), followed by
vermiform laterite (4.5 m) showing tubular cavities of various shapes. A thin
layer of lithomarge (0.5 m thick) is also observed in most of the profiles,
occurring below the vermiform laterite zones.

Further below weathered (2.5

m) and fresh rocks occur (Narayanaswamy, 1986).

profiles over anorthosite

with

sample

Sketches of the laterite

locations are

given

(profiles 13 to 16) and figure 17.

3.4.7. Laterite profiles over gabbro-granophyre rock units

in

fi gu re

168

"
<3'

....1:

101

Bed rock

2
3

[7':1
Purl cruet

~ P.weathered

t't'I

Pebbly zone

~ C.weathered

456

Profile numbers

hornblende-blotlte-gnelss, 7: over fuchslte

ultramafltQs.

10

EO;,;! Humus zone

[ ~J lIthomarge

quartzite, 8-10: over

Flg.16A Sketches of laterlte profiles developed over different rock units:

profile Nos. 1 to 4 : over charnocklte, 5 & 6: over

~ . Vermiform

1::. ;3

~l ~

"t

~~

01

<Cl

"' !I

'.

"e.

20 '-

15 .-

10 ..

. .,-

''-<""'"",0.,1'.-'

o,"~.:,
-"- ' '.~

'>'-0.
::1>-.,

,: ~~ I.;-

12

...-'

.--~ ,
._
,0 '

,. -

,~ -

?-:::'
.----:::::~
-"
<..::::

, .~~~:

@~~.

'-i:-",,<~._

~~

.-'

17

--.-.-

--

Durl crusl

I~ Pebbly zone

r :"CI
L:~

Cs]

-.-'',...--::::--.--.--:::::

18

~ P. wealhered ~ C . wealhered

':-::;--:;
::0--::

,..-....
:::::::::..

.--::;..

,.-.---,-..

':~~:,
::::-:.::'

-.

---.
---- -,-..-- -:::.-:

' . :. !

13

Profile numbers
14
15
16

20

Humus ZOne

Lllhomarlle

19

Fi g. 168 Sket c hes o f l at e r ite p rofil es 11 an d 12 : over qu artz- mi ca-sc hist,

13 to 16 : over anorthos ite, 17 to 20 : ove r
gabbro.

~ Vermiform

[ a Bed Rock

':: -'::-~

. :s.'.

'%.)<
>~=<

. ~.

11

~,~,

"X ,

21

[-"'Cl
..

(% 1

23

II

to 26

27

;::::....,

,.-'

28

[:: :]

Durl crusl

~ C.wealhered

ove r granoph y re , 27 an d

~ Humus zone

~ " P .wealherCl~
~ Vermiform
.

Pebbly zone

Lllhomarge ,,

Bed rock

22

Flg. 16C Sketc hes of lat erlte p rofiles 21

28 : over AI k all sy en l te

10 (.

i.r

"".
5 _. [,:::::;.'

o '-

Profile numbers
24
25
26

Cl

ul

n-

0-

"

"2

z'"

>-

I"
w

<n

40 '-

:lO .-

20 "-

10 .-

later lte profiles

Vermlform-l

rZi]

of

Bed rock

Fa

~ Sand 8\one

~ P.wealhered

E~:~ I Vermlform-2

~ C.wealhered

Fl g .1 6D Sk e t c hes
f o rmati ons.

30

. .

29

'.

and

2'3

30

A11 .B.clay&llgnlle

llU
CC:' :I

o v er

sedimentary

Ve, mllor m-2

C.Pebble<MalrIK

8:::J

~I Sed. clay

[;::21 Vermiform-I

~I China clay

..',

- -'

....
-

"

Fig.17 Field photograph showing i nter relationship between various un i ts

of the laterite p r ofile over anorthosite. R
parent rock, PW
partly
weathered CW :: completely weathered and V :: v ermiform later ite.

:56:
Generalised picture of the residual profiles developed over this rock
units at Ezhimala with thickness of the compositional units are given in figure
16B (profile no 17 to 20: gabbro) and 16C (profile 21 to 26: granophyre).

The

generalised picture shows a humus layer (0.5 - 1 m thick), followed by hard

ferruginous crust (2.5 m) in the profile over gabbro, while it is absent in
laterite profiles developed over granophyre.

This zone is underlain by a

thick cover of vermicular laterite (4.75 m), exhibiting typical vermiform texture
with tubes of various shapes filled by kaolinitic material.
a thin layer of lithomarge seen in most of the profiles.
completel y weathered, partl y

Further below is
Further below,

weathered and fresh parent rocks are seen.

Boundaries between various zones of the laterite profiles are gradual (Fig. 18,
gabbro) and Fig. 19 (granophyre).

3.4.8. Laterite profiles over alkali syenite

Laterite profiles developed over alkali syenite body at Peralimala are

almost devoid of humus layer.

However the pebbly zone (0.2 to 0.3 m) with

ferruginous pellets in clay matrix is noticed.

This is underlain by a 1.2 m

thick vermiform laterite exhibiting tubular cavities filled with kaolinite. A thin
layer of lithomarge (0.6 m) is seen further below.

Completely

partly weathered and fresh rocks occur towards the bottom.

weathered,

Sketches of the

laterite profiles are given in figure 16C (profile 27 and 28).

3.4.9. Laterite profiles over sedimentary formations

Laterite profile over sedimentaries are well exposed in the study area
at (a) Palayangadi and (b) Tellicherry.

The profiles consist of two components

(i) in situ (residual) and (ii) transported (secondary) laterites.

1"

-.

. , \ #'

",,--"#;}. ." .
Fi g. 18 Field photograph showing i nterrelationship between vari ous units of
the later ite profi le over gabbro.
R::: parent rock, PW ::: partly
weathered CW ::: completely weathered and V ::: vermiform laterite.

- ... .,-

.,
~

---

. .

- ."
",
. -,...
"; . , .... .

- ~. -~ "- .,,- ......... y.

Fi g.19 Field photograph showing i n te rrel atio nsh i p between v ar ious units of
the laterite profile over granoph y re. R
parent rock, PW
partl y
weathered CW = compl ete ly weathered and V = v ermiform l ater ite.

:57:
a) Laterite profile at Palayangadi : Sketch of the studied profile at
Palayangadi is given in Figure 16D (profile 29).

The sedimentary sequence

has a thickness of 38 m out of which the top 7.25 m is composed of laterite.

The upper most part of the lateritised

portion

cemented pebbles of ferruginous material.

zone (6.65 m).
is soft.

(about 0.6 m) consists of

This is followed by a thick laterite

The upper part of this zone is hard whereas the lower portion

This is followed below by a sequence of alternating lignite and ball

clay layers of 0.5 - 2 m each with a cumulative thickness of 19.5 m.

A 3 m

china clay layer of sedimentary origin is found further below, the top of
which shows symptoms of lateritisation.
(8.25 m).

This zone is followed by primary clay

Figure 20 shows a synoptic view of the profile.

The basement rock

is not exposed at the profile site.

b) Laterite Profile at Tellicherry: The profile at Tellicherry cliff section

is unique as the development of in situ laterite over biotite gneiss-migmatite
and on the overlying sedimentary rocks are very well preserved.

The profile

exposes the bed rock upto 1.8 m above sea level, over which 1.2 m thick
partly weathered and 0.6 m thick completely weathered rocks are exposed.
Further up, a 0.9 m thick laterite column

is seen.

This laterite layer is

overlai n by a 2.4 m thick sandstone bed and an upper laterite bed of 5.4 m
thick.

The sandstone bed shows graded bedding and

ripple marks.

The

sketch of the profile is given in figure 16D (profile 30).

3.5. LATERITISA nON CYCLES IN CANNANORE DISTRICT

Occurrence of in situ laterites, developed over the Precambrians and

over the overlying Tertiary sediments suggests that the laterites occurring

r ..
,

Fig.20 Field photograph showing the laterite profile at Palayangadi.

:58:
throughout the district belong to two periods of formation.
be distinguished mineralogically and geochemically also (as
in chapter 4).

The two types can

will be discussed

Based on these observations two lateritisation cycles have been

reported from the area (Mallikarjuna et al., 1981 Rajendran and Narayanaswamy, 1987).

This is also consistent with the observations that two cycles of

lateritisation occurred in south Kerala (Raghava Rao, 1975, Soman and Slukin,
1985). Observation at the Palayangadi clay section also substantiate this view.
Age wise, the cycles may be attributed to pre-Warkalli and post-Warkalli times.

Chapter 4

MINERALOGY

AND

GEOCHEMISTRY

4.1. MINERALOGY

Mi neralogical composition of the laterites and associated clays of the

study area was established through the combination of a number of determinative techniques such
Differential Thermal

as

petrographical

investigations,

X-ray

diffraction,

Analysis, Scanning Electron Microscopy and Infra Red

Spectroscopy.

X-ray analyses using powder diffraction method was carried out on a

Phillips

PW

1730 X-ray

generator.

The

samples

were analysed

with

the

following instrument settings: The 420 mesh fraction of the laterite samples
were scanned at 5 to 65 (28) with Cu Ka target and Ni filter operated at 40
KW and 20 mA with chart a speed of 2/minute.

As revealed by petrographical observations, all the silicate minerals have

been transformed to a mixture of goethite, hematite and kaolinite in laterite
samples developed over charnockite. Alteration begi ns alon g cleavage planes,
grain boundary and cracks. It has been further observed that pyroxenes have
been altered to goethite while feldspars gave rise to kaolinite. Quartz is
cracked, eroded and disintegrated. Alteration of pyroxenes precedes that of
feldspars (Fig.21). Monazite and

zircon are the accessory minerals.

diffractograms

presence

substantiate

the

gibbsite, vermiculite and monazite (Fig.

of

goethite,

kaolinite.

X-ray
quartz,

22A).

Petrographic observations of laterite developed over gneiss also reveal

that all the silicate minerals have been transformed to a mixture of Fe and AI
oxides and hydroxides. Hornblende and biotite have been altered to goethite
and hematite while feldspars have given rise to kaolinite. Quartz fragments,

:60:

corroded and cracked are seen within Fe-AI oxide/hydroxide mass, and the
cracks have been filled with Fe-material. Alteration of pyroxenes precedes that
of feldspar, hornblende, and biotite.

X-ray diffractograms indicate presence of kaolinite, quartz, gibbsite,

goethite, and vermiculite (Fig.

228).

Laterite over fuchsite quartzite is characterised by the formation of

opaque minerals from fuchsite and other mafic minerals. Quartz is cracked, and
corroded. Alteration of mafics precedes that of feldspar and fuchsite mica.
Presence of kaolinite, quartz, gibbsite, goethite, vermiculite, barium muscovite
and barite is indicated by XRD(Fig.

22C).

Thin section examination of laterite developed over ultramafic rocks

reveal that pyroxene, tremolite, and actinolite are altered to goethite, hematite
and

kaolinite.

X-ray

diffractograms (Fig.

kaoli nite, quartz gi b bsite,

220) indicate the presence of

goethite, vermiculite, garnierite, mag hemite and

illite. Alteration of pyroxenes is earlier than that of actinolite and tremolite.

Quartz is the most resistant mineral in the rock.

In laterites developed over quartz-mica schists, silicate minerals have

been transformed to Fe and AI oxides/hydroxides. Hornblende is altered to
goethite while feldspar has given

rise to kaolinite. Quartz is cracked

and

corroded and the cracks are filled with Fe-material. Desilication of kaolinite
is also noticed.

X-ray diffractograms indicate the presence of kaolinite, quartz, gibbsite,

goethite, and zircon (Fig. 22E)Q

fH~ .2 1 PhotOO'lI crogr aph s howing after8tion of pyr'OICenes preced in g tt-at of

fel dspar ir-. charnocklte. Cr'C'ssed niool x 25.

(11) Over

6.""

~o

:-1~

r1

"-

1\" .. t' ..

...

..

I I

__ ..,....-

Cl,

'1e

I<,

...

4>

((

l~

~o

"

I<~

I(

..,

'0

,.\-,

,0

'"

I~~

~@

10

10"

.~~.--

,10

\,"""t''/~ l

CD

~,t>

tl

"

'" ...

k~G~ ____ )~

6,

'0-.,

ic

le.
- l'
~~J~--1
""t

"l

~"\
~
IIC'

.~

t ",,\,_Ib'
otJ~"rl/
*< " l "- A"""",L'~
....!'
~O..
\QJ
~~
...............
~
~
~
~
.~
I

----

'i I

"",,).

.~~j
" c" "

t-. "

~ ': ~~ ~ "})~ 't (J:;.......;.'!'tu..f\.., -Nl~,,-vv_~" ~~

1:.'1"''''''' V\.--" ...."" ...)"!\.. --....,~,
--- 'f.'..~l~~
rv..,..",.,.

fN.:>

'I

~~
~
,.

'u'

67" - _ _ _ _

Gc,

'"

~L..

""~""""""
""
;"
~'
r~
I

'2

: A..,
~, J.."V>~~~
"""-~~
. ! . .!...,'"
~, ~ ~~""....
'A......."~I''''''-''''''''''':~;~''~~~~~
-~.
~,~_.3

J..

"..'

ed over differe nt litho Ulllt~,-, _ _ _ _

-,. - . , !:,lg:?2, X-'t'ay dlffrac \ogram s of laterlte develop
'--. - (e) over quiidz- mlcA'~chlst 0) over gAhbro
fltes
ul\rama
over
(d)
chAr'no cklte (b) over gneIss (c) over fuchslt e Quartzi te
(9) over graiiop h}d'e {h) over 8lRiill j;'yimfte .

F - Fuch site mica ,

A~--J~~-!!1
,",,"~~~~
~_"
'-'
_""
_"~
I:'
r
.
",,,, ~
. '

K - Kao linit e, Q - Quar tz,

Gi - Gibb sitQ, Go - Goet hite
B - Bari te,
Jerm iculi te,
V
Bariu m musc ovite ,
b~
Mh - Magh emite .

INDEX

r~;-~+LL:U-~ . ~ C0c;)

r~

: 61:

In anorthosite profiles, all the silicate minerals have been transformed

to a mixture of Fe and AI oxides and hydroxides during weathering. Pyroxene
has been altered to goethite. Feldspars have been transformed to kaolinite,
while brown biotite has also given rise to goethite. Quartz is corroded, and
cracked. Alteration of feldspar precedes that of biotite and pyroxene (augite)
. Further, desilication of kaolinite to gibbsite is also observed (Fig.22) AI
oxides-hydroxides predominate over Fe oxides-hydroxides. Presence of quartz,
kaolinite, gibbsite, goethite and vermiculite are also indicated in XRD.

In laterite developed over gabbro, as revealed by petrological observations, all the silicate minerals have been transformed to a mixture of Fe and
AI oxides and hydroxides. Alteration of pyroxenes to goethite, feldspars to
kaolinite and disintegration of quartz through cracking and corrosion have
given

rise to the laterite. Alteration of pyroxene is earlier

than that of

feldspar (Fig.23). X-ray diffractograms substantiate the presence of kaolinite,

quartz, gibbsite, goethite, and vermiculite (Fig.21

F). Goethite concentration

is found to be more in this rock type than in granophyre which is also

consistent with the geochemistry data.

Transformation to laterite over granophyre is characterised

by the

presence of a mixture of goethite and hematite formed on transformation of

pyroxenes, and of kaolinite after feldspars. Quartz is found to be cracked,
corroded and disintegrated. Alteration of pyroxenes precedes that of feldspar
(Fig.24)

X-ray diffractograms substantiate the presence of kaolinite,

goethite, gibbsite and vermiculite (Fig.21 G).

quartz,

Fi g.2X Photo mi crogra ph sho wing desil icatlon of Kaolin

ite(k ) to gibbs ite(G).
... Cross ed n ieol x 25.

Fi g.23A Photo micro graph show in g pyrox ene altera tion

i n gabbr o. I n this
rock also altera tion of
pyrox ene proceed s that of plagfo clase.
Cr ossed nicol x 25.

Fig.24 Photomicrograph showing alterat ion of p y roxene which also preceds

alterat ion of feldspar i n granoph y re. Note: feldspar grains ( F) are
less altered than pyroxenes(P ). Cr ossed nicol x 25.

: 62:
Petrographical observation of

laterite developed

over alkali

syenite

indicates that all the silicate minerals have been transformed to a mixture of
Fe and AI oxides and hydroxides. It has ben noticed that kaolinite is pseudomorphous

after

feldspars.

Aegerine

is altered

to

goethite.

Alteration

of

fel dspars p recedes that of aegeri ne.

X-ray diffractogram substantiate the presence of kaolinite,

gibbsite,

goethite etc. (Fig.21 H).

4.1.1. Profiles over Tertiary sediments

Laterite

profile

over

Tertiary

sediments

is

characterised

by

the

occu rrence of bauxitic patches towards the upper and lower portions of the
profile. Further the underlying bed rocks have been modified to good quality
china clays, during the pre-Tertiary weathering episode.

Detailed

mineralogical

analyses of the

entire

profile

over

Tertiary

sequence and the underlying kaolinised bed rock (at Palayangadi) have been
attempted

and

the

results together

with

geochemical

characteristics

are

summarised below:

The primary clay at the base of the Tertiaries as exemplified by DT A

(Fig.25) and XRD (Fig.26) data, consists of kaolinite with DTA endothermic and
exothermic peaks at 530 0 C and 790 0 C and with its characteristics XRD peaks
at 7.09 A and 3.56 A respectively . IR spectroscopy also substantiates the
finding. Manifestation of an endothermic depression just before the exothermic
peak

in DTA curve is attributed to the well crystalline nature of the kaolinite

(Grim, 1968) which is also substantiated by SEM (Fig.27).

".\

..

1'1

I 1
I I

I I

I ..

I I

.~ft.~

I~;-

PHOFILE

COPI,
SUHP,

Cl,'

Fig.

iv

AI,O,

'_':"~'L-_~_.

THENDS

I
I

I1 c ..

.~

'r

DTA

~:r
.

..

-J.- . ..

",0

POHOSITY

....

.It

......

,.

~'

~,

~,

IH SPECTHA

Cumulalive geoch(~mical charaeleristics uf the lalel'ite

profile over Tertiary sediments, Palayangadi, togelher
wi th pUl'usi ty, DTA and (It data.
Number's from 1 tu 7
indicales the sample numbers, lo<!ations of which are
shown in the prufile spectra.

GEOCHEMICAL

lIITio

25

,-..

7e

Fig.26 X-ray diffractogram of laterite profile over Tertiary sediments at

Palayangadi : primary clay (1), secondary clay(2), laterite(3~, ball
clay(4), laterite ~,(bauxitic patch;
(5), laterite (6), aluminous

laterite/bauxite(7e~C

Fig.27 SEM photomicrograph of primary clay showing well crystalli r1Ca::fri-e.

Scale shown on photograph.

:63:

The overlying sedimentary kaolin also consists of kaolinite as indicated

by XRD, DTA and IR (Figs.25(2),26(2). Relatively poorer crystalline nature of
this kaolinite is exemplified by the XRD and DTA peaks and SEM (Fig.28).

Further up in the profile a part of the china clay with red-stains and
vermiform texture shows evidences of leaching. XRD (Fig.26(3)) and IR (Fig.
25(3)) data indicate the presence of kaolinite with traces of gibbsite and
quartz. This is also substantiated by
ordered

nature

of

the

clay

is

DTA data (Fig. 25(3), 26(3)). Poorly

indicated

by

the

peak

characteristics.

Geochemical data on the clays from this patch further support the presence
of gibbsite, with AI 20 3 values touching 40.74 wt% ( Table-4)

Ball clay from the Tertiary sequence

consists of disordered

kaolinite

(Fig.25 sample-4) which is also supported by SEM data (Fig.29).

The overlying laterite horizon mostly consist of gibbsite and contains

two patches of bauxite (Fig.25 sample areas 5 and 7). Gibbsite is the major
mineral with XRD (Fig.26) peak at 4.81 A and the characteristic IR (Fig.25)
doublet peaks at 3395-3380 cm- 1 suggesting its well crystalline nature (Fig.25,
sample 5 and 7). DTA curve with endothermic peak at around 300 C substantiate the presence of gibbsite (Fig.25 samples 5 and 7). This is also consistent
with the geochemical

data (Table-4).

However, the sample

6 in the

same

horizon, indicates a total less alumina content, though the mineralogy remain
the same. The other promi nent mi neral is goethite. In the uppermost portion
(Fig.26, sample-7) goethite, quartz,

traces of gibbsite and hematite

major minerals. Zircon and sillimanite are the accessory minerals.

are the

Fig.28 SEM photomicrograph of secondary clay showing poor crystalline

Kaolinite . Scale shown on photograph.

Fig.29 SEM photomicrograph of ball clay showing the disordered nature

kaolinite. Scale shown on photograph.

Table 4

Chemical composition (wt %)

Palayangadi, north Kerala.

IK-l

IK-3

IK-2
red

Si02
Ti02
A1203
Fe203
Fe(Pyri tic)
/'!nO
i'IqO

CaO
Na20
K20
H2OH20+
CO2

P205.
S(Pyrl!tic)
503
C(org)

56.41
0.41
32.2
0.57
nil
Trace
0.09
0.04
0.05
0.38
0.47
9.85
0.01
0.1
nil
nil
0.13

41.92
1.74
37.84
1.71
0.18
0.01
0.14
0.02
0.04
0.23
2.01
12.55

o.....
"'T"

0
0.21
0.75
0.46

27.94
2.71
29.54
27.16
nil
0.02
0.03
0.03

O.OS
0.07
1.45
11.42
0
Trace
nil
nil
nil

of kaolins

IK-4
\1Ihi te

IK-5
brolrlll

33.02 3b.9S
4.03 .
1 "'T
0.74
....t ",
1.75
40.74 35.9 46.28
5.67 1.22 20.61
nil
2.37 nil
0.02 0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00 0.24
0.04 0.17
0.02
O.OS 0.04 0.03
0.2 0.09
0.1
4.8
0.92
1.1
15.53 12.64 24.62
0.02 0.01
0.12
Trace nil
0.31
nil
2.71 nil
o.n nil
nil
nil
0.31 nil

associated

and

IK-7

IK-6
Yellow
15.53
3.55
46.28
12.17
nil
0.02
0.06
0.04
0.05
0.23
0.5
20.54
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil

black
4.16
1.6

3b.94
37.bb
nil
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.02
1.16
18.28
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil

laterites,

16.07
0.83
17.24
%.54
nil
2.3
0.16

O.OS
0.08
0.36
1.21
10.44
0.01
1.24
nil
nil
nil

broNn
5,.22

1.9
45.01
22.96
nil
0.1
0.03
0.03
0.06
0.01
1.06
23.08
G.Ol
O.bS
nil
nil
nil

IK-l = ~ite kaolin, IK-2 = Gray kaolin, IK-3 = Lateritised, IK-4 = Gray kaolin, IK-5 = Bauxite,
Black with ~angeneferous celent, IK-6 = Laterite, IK-7 = Laterite.

: 64:

4.2 GEOCHEMISTRY OF LATE RITE PROFILES

Laterite and
variety of

parent

oxidising and

bauxite are the residual

rocks

by

products derived from a wide

intense chemical

leaching conditions.

weathering

under strongly

Minerals in the rocks when exposed to

atmosphere, becomes vulnerable to reaction

by

water, oxygen and carbon

dioxide. Water penetrates through pores, cleavages and other micro openings
in the minerals and

dissolves the more soluble constituents.

The residue

becomes progressively enriched in the less soluble constituents as well as in

oxygen and hydroxyl groups as the process intensifies. During weathering
process, various groups of anions and cations are deposited

in a similar

environment depending on their like properties (also see Fig. ; Cartledge,

1928; Goldsmidt, 1937, 1938). The behaviour of elements during weathering has
been discussed by several workers (Goldsmidt, 1937; Krauskoff, 1967 etc). The
chemical changes that take place at different stages in the decomposition of
the parent rock during weathering can be traced by comparing the chemical
composition of the weathered product with that of the fresh rock. The relative
enrichment of an element during this process is accomplished either by the
formation of a stable secondary prod uct or by loss of less stable elements.
Thus during the process of lateritisation a progressive change in the ratio of
silica and sesquioxide is significant. Hence, the ratio of SiO z ' Fe Z0 3 and Al z0 3
is taken as base to define the laterite (Schellmann, 1981).

In this chapter geochemical trends of weathering profiles developed over

different parent rock types from Cannanore district are discussed with the
prime object of

discerning

the

geochemical

course

and

consequence

of

weathering process in various lithologies. Due to reasons of clustering in some

of the geochemical diagrams,certain trace elements have not been

plotted,

: 65:

though they have been included

analysed representing

in the Tables. In total 123 samples were

30 profiles. Details of analytical procedure are given

in appendix-I!.

4.2.1. Profiles over charnockite

The

laterite

profiles

developed

over

charnockite

show

gradational

contacts between the different units (Fig.16 A, profile 1 to 4). Major and trace
elemental compositions are presented in Tables 5 and 6 respectively. Plots in
the ternary diagram (Si0 2 - Fe 20 3

AI 20 3

characterise the rock as moderate

to strongly lateritised (Fig.30). AI 20 3 values in the laterite zone range from

27.03 to 33.14 wt% and Fe 20 3 from 21.77 to 31.42 wt%. Variation diag rams of the
major and trace elements are shown in

(Figs.31 A to 31

D). They show

general depletion of 8i0 2 ' FeO, MgO, K20, Na 20 and CaO and complimentary
enrichment of AI 20 3

'

Fe 20 3 and Ti0 2 . Slight increase of K20 values towards

the upper portion of the profile may be attributed to incongruent dissolution

of feldspars during weathering. Depletion of Si0 2 ' FeO, MgO, and Na20 is
g rad ual towards the upper portion of the profiles. The trace elements show
a general rapid enrichment of V, Ga, Ni and CO in the lower parts of the
profile, followed by gradual increase in the upper portions. Zn, Ba and CO
show general depletion trend. The concentration patterns of Cr and Ni may be
controlled by the abundance of kaolinite in the profile units, as kaolinite can
accommodate considerable

amounts of Cr,

and

Laughlin, 1959) . Ba follows the trend of K,

Ni

through adsorption

(Mc

which is consistent with the

geochemical affinity of the two elements (Goldsmidt, 1954).

Geochemical budget calculations reveal that nearly 65% of Si0 2 ' 84% of
Na20, 90% of K20 ,78% of FeO and 89% of MgO are lost in the conversion of

Table 5: HaJor elellent cOIlCOSltion of laterite crofiles. R: Bed rock: P~: Partly weathered; C~: Completely weatherea; ~.
~1 & ~2: ~erJl1fOrll laterlte: C, Cl & C2: Ourl crust CC: China Clay, - Sl,S2;5edilentary clay' lSST: Sandstone.
OescrlDtlOn of Profiles:- H:Charnockite: H:Gneiss: l:Fuchsite Quartzite 8 to 10: Ultrmfites: 11-12: Schist;
13-16: Anorthosltes: 11-10: Gabbro: 11-26: Granophyre; 11-18: Alkali syenite: 19-30: Sedimentary fornations
nd: Not deterlined. LOr: loss on ignition, HOr: Hoisture
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Profile Samp le
Number Omcn. Si02
R
P~
C~
~

R
P~
~

PW
C~
~

PW
C~

P~

V
R

PW
"

R
p~

R
P~

PW
10
PW
C~

11

R
P~

12
P~

13

R
P~

Cl
C2
14

45.88
41.56
35.61
31. 82
53.08
45.16
11.06
15.95
60.01
48.91
25.49
14.06
65.48
50.84
19.11
12.34
15.30
51.34
36.60
61.23
43.82
38.83
66.94
61. 18
22.64
53.60
32.50
30.05
49.01
31.58
13.39
53.58
31.60
36.20
31. 00
54.18
49.36
34.43
61.25
53.12
41.45
54.12
35.08
21.15
9.38
13.13
55.16

Fe103

A1203

FeO

CaO

HgO

Na10

K20

Ti02

P205

LOr

HOr

14.43
9.98
11.91
21. n
9.56
8.19
18.49
30.05
13.08
1.50
5.18
21.21
1.16
2.41
10.18
31.42
2.09
4.05
10.56

14.18
23.98
28.05
17.03
16.31
18.88
19.01
30.09
11.88
18.12
43.31
32.53
13.42
12.41
34.16
33.14
14.96
19.88
31. 10
15.04
22.99
1i.03
16.81
;O. i 1
16.18
5.73
18.35
22.36

-nd1.33
0.25
0.29
-na0.81
0.43
0.25
-nd1.55
0.43
0.36
-na1.80
0.50
0.15
1.21
0.68
0.11
3.14
1.65
1. 08
0.29
0.14
0.13
1.60
Ul
Q.29
5.11
3.84
0.04
1.31
3.20
1. 08
0.18
3.13
3.47
0.25
1.30
4.60
0.22
1.11
0.36
0.29
0.40
0.36
1.63

9.81
2.24
1.51
O. 'lO
5.16
2.69
0.90
0.90
5.50
4.14
0.34
0.45
3.82
2.58
0.18
0.34
0.26
1.41
0.90
0.41
3.36
~ .34
1. 11
0.40
0.35
2.06
2.01
0.45
11.20
1.02
0.90
1. 34
1.79
1.34
0.90
1. 12
1.01
1. 11
0.13
1.02
0.90
12.30
2.69
0.45
0.34
0.45
11.11

5.31
1. 45
1. 13
0.65
0.91
0.48
0.16
0.16
3.10
0.13
0.16
0.24
1.90
1.05
0.32
0.14
0.01
1.64
0.48
0.02
1.44
0.64
0.31
0.30
0.26
25.03
10.60
0.32
11.51
4.32
0.48
26.08
14.00
14.08
0.96
3.14
16.28
0.48
0.44
5.00
0.16
0.50
0.64
0.16
0.08
0.16
0.83

3.60
1.41
0.08
0.88
6.19
9.82
1. 16
-nd1.30
0.40
0.23
0.53
4.10
2.16
0.29
0.30
5.18
3.31
0.18
3.11
0.90
0.33
0.35
0.39
0.28
1.40
1.10
0.94
1.91
1.54
1.31
0.19
1.04
0.91
0.51
1.11
0.98
0.95
4.21
1. 06
0.46
4.80
1. 30
0.19
0.46
0.21
5.30

0.10
0.96
0.07
0.12
3.84
2.34
0.14
0.12
0.91
0.13
0.03
0.01
1.30
0.34
0.01
0.14
0.12
1.94
0.32
0.01
0.46
0.26
1.35
0.35
0.16
0.30
0.22
O. :5
0.14
0.10
0.04
0.05
0.19
0.01
0.08
0.23
0.01
0.36
0.05
0.28
0.13
0.14
0.11
0.10
0.18
0.15
0.18

2.14
0.90
0.64
0.84
2.14
0.98
1.12
1.90
0.61
0.92
0.19
0.81
0.52
0.51
1. 05
1.58
0.32
0.29
0.68
1.25
1.23
1.33
0.24
0.84
1.22
0.06
0.10
0.53
0.83
1.31
0.91
0.06
0.15
0.06
0.34
0.65
0.13
0.81
0.01
0.59
1.91
0.56
0.36
1. 18
1.11
1.62
0.33

0.30
0.31
0.36
0.42
0.88
1.43
0.48
0.84
-na0.11
0.08
0.54
-nd0.01
0.11
0.32
-nd-nd-na-nd0.38
0.21
-nd-nd-na-na-nd-na0.05
0.25
0.92
0.15
-nd-

0.45
10.21
12.84
12.33
0.08
3.80
12.59
15.54

0.41
4.86
6.34
2.86

1.14
8.07
11.78

o. :2
18.20
46.13
U9
8.38
28.11
11.61
25.10
54.25
12.19
12.45
lU2
11.41
7.29
13.15
19.18
5.45
4093
21.43
1. 08
2.41
1.59
23.53
21.47
O. IS

0,12
iO.20
12.24
1.53
1g. 31
15.20
29.14
11.35
1.14
26.04
14.51
11.84
21.35
11.23
32.03
39.26
39,76
39.26
21.22

-no-nd0.22
0.33
0.30
-nd0.14
0.24
-na0.06
0.15
0.49
0.36
-na-

5.52
13.03
18.38
8.08
16.09
18.16
0.42
U9
14.48
1. 01
9.94
11.60
0.13
5.01
10.36

1.87
12.60
10.58
0.98
4.50
11.41
1.96.
8.88
2.61
1i. 10
9.51
5.16
12.81
4.18
9.08
10.11
-nd11.56
18.04
11.11
10.62
-nd-

4.91
1. 16
1.59
0.24
2.61
0.55
4,55
6.72
5.48
1. 56
1.19
4.05
0.38
0.27
0.06
2.03
0.61
0.36
0.50
4.77
0.32
1.15
3.58
0.33
0.12
0.18
3.12
0.22
0.18
2.88
0.24
0.24
-nd10.84
4.42
1.82
1.10
-na-

P-oc- ~~;

?~

VI
C
15

R
p~

V
C
16

R
PW

17

R
p~

C~

VI
V2
Cl
C2
18

R
p~

C~

VI
V2
19

R
p~

C~

20
p~

C~

V
21

R
p~

V
22

R
p~

23

R
p~

24

R
p~

25

R
p~

C~

26
PW
V
27

PW
CW
VI
V2
28

PW
V

31. 02
25.19
27. ! 3
55.88
30.05
26.11
14.04
54.68
36.41
25.57
46. 16
33.39
18.Q7
33.18
33.28
26.15
18.27
7.26
46.85
24.59
23.49
23.23
21.04
48.92
45.66
30.68
27.82
50.49
33.15
43.51
22.07
10.55
59.41
25.33
71. 11
64.17
29.11
12.26
58.70
15.19
68.08
60.03
34.04
71.47
60.83
48.04
34.44
65.57
55.90
27. 19
59.21
57.33
45.05
44.14
33.16
61.42
60.64
35.83

12.06
21. 16
17. 07
0.83
23.51
28.77
28.39
0.91
8.87
21.03
6.31
8.01
14.24
15.19
13.57
21.51
37.37
41. 16
0.70
17.88
18.65
25.26
23.91
7.94
8.11
14.70
16.57
8.33
22.03
11.83
23.25
4.08
5.51
32.20
3.91
4.11
23.15
3.92
4.81
42.58
3.i2
6.64
19.58
3.50
5.66
8.35
23.63
4.01
5.65
27.56
1.45
0.46
2.27
6.44
31.28
1.17
0.40
16.66

31. 10
30.06
35.01
21.56
16.85
23.98
33. ;8
21.84
3U8
36.71
16.28
23.54
32.65
27.05
28.59
28.08
25.04
27.05
16.80
25.00
32.51
28.58
36.69
4.06
17.83
25.00
29.69
12.24
20.93
20.40
29,93
11.24
19.31
19.88
11.97
11.33
27.05
11.24
20.39
21.41
14052
lU4
28.55
12.22
16041
3.08
2.45
13.34
20.86
30.12
13.97
23.46
28.04
28.04
17.85
13.46
22.39
26.52

0.57
0.43
0.22
1.39
4.63
0.29
0.07
1.71
2.10
0.32
5.03
3.56
1.80
0.68
0.29
0.40
0.14
0.40
5.53
1.98
1. 01
0.47
0.32
0.15
3.05
1.44
0.43
8.01
2.36
1.98
1.98
2.19
0.79
2.12
2.07
0.34
0.22

2,35
0.58
0.14
1.60
1.51
0.22
2.30
0.32
0.36
0.22
3.12
2.01
0.22
1.26
0.02
0.25
0.02
0.11
1.14
0.14
0.07

1. 12
1. 12
0.67
11.93
2.69
0.90
0.90
11.40
1.98
0.45
13.46
6.51
2.24
1.35
1.12
1. 12
0.90
0.90
11.44
2.24
1. 12
0.90
0.90
13.46
12.56
2.47
1.12
6.95
2.57
2.24
1.57
2.10
0.18
0.56
1.89
1. 01
0.67
1.44
1.68
0.56
2.10
0.11
0.56
0.45
0.90
0.67
0.12
4.12
2.40
0.67
3.39
2.02
1. 12
0.90
1. 12
2.82
1.57
0.90

0.26
0.20
0.16
0.42
1.i7
0.48
0.40
0.82
O. ;S
0.31
5.97
3. 06
2.26
1. 13
0.65
0.48
0.48
0.65
7.25
2.58
0.81
0.64
0.48
3.55
3.71
2.10
0.64
3.39
1.29
0.97
0.48
0.41
1. 03
0.32
0.38
0.32
0.30
1.65
0.72
0.16
1.60
0.40
0.24
0.52
0.48
0.32
0.32
1.64
0.39
0.32
1. 13
0.48
0.48
0.48
0.80
0.40
0.~8

0.32

3.18
1. 84
1.85
5.40
1.21
1. 07
0.18
5.30
1. 15
0.63
2.79
1.35
1.07
0.81
0.88
1. 04
1. 16
1.33
2.64
1. 14
0.67
1.24
1. 11
2.68
2.50
1.90
1.21
3.87
2.10
1.74
1.55
4.79
3.14
0.50
4.28
1.46
0.85
3.10
2.03
0.65
4.30
3.24
0.16
4059
1.34
0.20
0.87
3.54
1.32
1. 11
3.28
4.83
1.69
1. 12
1. 04
5.14
3.01
0.90

1.97
0.25
0.37
0.24
0.28
0.28
0.11
0.25
0.41
0.21
0.07
0.05
0.05
0.12
0.26
0.36
0.03
0.03
0.10
0.45
0.47
0.39
0.21
0.06
0.18
0.12
0.19
0.84
0.23
0,95
0.23
2.70
Q. T8

1. 12
3.01
3.17
0.42
3. ~ 2
3.37
0.16
2.45
2.42
0.27
2.12
1.81
0.12
0.37
1.74
2.41
0.26
13.89
6.56
6.60
3.47
3.20
12.68
9.69
2.18

0.65
0.88
0.76
0.36
2.66
1.45
2.03
0.42
0.81
1. 31
1.34
0.97
1. 12
0.96
1. 14
1.55
1.48
1.71
1.50
1.26
1.61
1.94
1. 89
1.26
1.07
1.35
1.50
2.36
0.95
1.66
2.35
0.62
O. T8
2.69
0.71
0.99
1.87
0.15
1.04
2.00
1. 06
1.32
1.41
0.17
0.94
1. 12
1. 11
0.91
1.32
1.69
0.30
0.16
0.19
0.41
0.38
0.14
0.14
0.91

0.33
0.44
0.31
-nd1.34
1.17
0.18
-nd0.20
0.44
0.15
0.21
0.36
0.37
0.21
0.48
1.06
1.28
0.26
0.25
0.42
0.40
0.36
0.16
0.26
0.31
0.26
1.26
0.33
0.64
0.40
0.32
0.07
0.84
0.18
0.66
0.44
0.26
0.14
0.73
0.28
0.16
0.23
0.29
0.13
0.19
0.48
0.34
0.58
0.40
-nd0.08
0.04
0.08
0.50
-nd0.04
0.19

14.66
12.18
12.72
1. 00
7.68
10.18
16.88
1. 00
10.18
13.88
0.73
9.66
17 61
12.37
13.14
13.84
12.33
15.59
0.11
13.64
13.47
14.46
10.03
0.23
2.77
12.11
13.06
1.17
9.71
8.36
11.00
0.38
5.93
11. 15
0.48
4.44
11.01
0.10
4.13
12.68
0.08
3.23
11.50
0.11
8.99
14.16
11.62
0.48
4.31
13.50
0.71
2.71
7. 11
9.55
8.03
0.42
0.45
10.95

2.96
6.02
3.40
1. 00
6.90
4.66
3.07
1.00
5.10
3.10
0.36 .
8.87
8.33
6.60
6.32
4.65
1.42
2.60
0.15
8.43
5.65
3.02
2.21
0.17
1.53
6.98
6.97
0.75
3.32
4.17

4037
0.22
U4
4.04
0.21
2.47
4.17
0.18
1.93
2.95
0.12
1.94
2.96
0.22
2. iO
1.50
4.30
0.36
2.42
3.64
1.00
1. 43
3.49
4.94
1.86
1.00
0.10
3.65

29

CC
91

'32-

v
BC

Cl
C2
30

R
PW

Vl

SST
V2

46.91
50.29
39.56
26.91
39.24
7. 76
4.46
56.29
56.25
42.89
44.34
30.64

1. 08
6.67
7.63
12.68
2.54
19.23
33.89
5.49
6.41
13.89
9.40
24.66

35.69
27.61
32.63
37. 73
32.12
44.35
3U7
18.35
20.90
26.03
26.53
26.51
.

0.11
0.47
0.40
0.22
1. 15
0.14
0.40
1.51
0./6
0.10
0.14
0.14

0.45
0.45
0.45
0.40
0.57
0.34
0.34
5.61
1. 57
0.90
0.67
0.62

0.16
0.24
0.32
0.16
0.16
0.24
0.16
1.93
1. 13
0.32
0.32
0.32

0.16
0.04
0.08
0.14
0.10
0.19
0.27
4,46
1.41
0.75
0.77
0.64

-------- - - - - - - - - - -

p:.b~

6:

0.25
0.14
0.15
0.11
0.07
0.08
0.05
0.62
0.39
0.10
0.03
0.09

0.48
1.60
2.49
3.51
1.25
2.91
2.80
0.58
0.74
0.86
0.95
0.95

- - - - - - --~

c;.v ~~,,-.!:cze 6~_L

0.01
0.11
0.08
0.22
0.07
0.31
0.48
0.22
0.24
0.22
0.12
0.44

13.38
11.05
13.31
16.39
16.25
23.01
19.80
2.67
8.50
12.28
15.88
12.57

1.28
1.39
2.90
1. 07
5.98
1. 08
1. 86
1. 04
1.36
1.13
0.44
0.31

AI 2 0 3

~3 27
2" 34

32

15

19

__ ,c'

~i',....4

2ft
22
20

-18

-21 ,1f 4. 11
."
.31 16 .

"

14

:>

29 33

, "---> :2

23

30

25

Fe203
tur ity of late rite s
na ry dia gra m sho win g ma
Fig .30 Si0 2-A I20 3-F e20 3 ter
nn, 198 1).
lith ou nit s (af ter Sch elle ma
dev elo ped ove r dif fer en t

Str on g La ter iti sa tio n

---I'

Mo der ate La ter iti sa tio n

WeAk La tel 'it isa tio n

Ka ol ini su. .ho n

D-

I
l-

I-

a:

l/l

~r

\./

\\

3\ A

MAJOR EL EMElJT S

.. '--2'""0--30-~"br-J. ~---

'

1.\

// J\

,.

10

%~';-D~

~
2~ ~---'-'"'-.
i
'ELEJENTS
MAJOR

'l

!~
'\~

~(l0

//

/~ _

3~

~)

....,

\.l

.....

i0

//

(rr,,,)

("".('

6.1

4.6

2.1

06

6.11

""

r.

20

:'1('

,.

1 ')

316

~o

~\

MAJOR ELEMEnTS

X........

\ ,/'ft

fL
10

--"'''' -

<;0

.'4 ____ "'_

'=---2
t 1 .9~
'~E'LEM'EnrS

MAJOR

;::(

1.2

\' \

['0

l\.~

~~

..

~'.::.

...

K2

N0 2

AI 2 0 3

Fe2 0 3

_.It- " .....-

Tl 0 2

Fe

-0--0-- Mg
---0--0- CoO

~--

.-.-e-

------cJ-<l-

..._ _ _" Si 0'2

lor)('

-..,"..---.; __

?:'tOo-- ~()C'

.~

. -:.,'We-II...J

)'---~ /1

ELEI.lUlT5

"C'

. \-00--,'D ".

\\
1~

TRI\CE

7(l

..

I J

I,

r' ..
lJi
..-~,

.'

,,-_.- . -~ ~ .

'-<].'"-T])...

_---.-_, j ____ ~_--...-i.

lY'

':>

- ... _,.~

-'f - -

'\.,,~.....
---4~~
....... .
~---- ..... '0,-_
'(~
"I.~~
4.6j~_O-....,.,
"'.~~
t 1*
2.1

0.6

1(,

_A>-

~"....

..e."

.....
~-~~

Fig.31 Major and trace element variation diagrams of laterite profiles over
charnockite(31A to 310).

5 I

46

90

~O
'"
90
2(10
!-On
TRACE HE (ylENTS (p PM)

"\
~~.
... ~~~.

l.

~:'L

5.1

4.6

30

. .~J

";~~~~t)
:1

-~--:;-

1(,

IAt I

3 4

5 I

4 '

~8~t
6.1

46

2.1

06

-- ~

CU

G0

8a

--.:(!)....

Z 11

_-+--0..0..- V

-+--+-----+-

-U--i,~-

Ni
. ___ ...-.- _ C 0
--B--0--

~ __ ~-

INDEX
__ - - - Cr

CL

W
0:

(/)

76

5.5

4.4

7.6

5.5

44

~
20

30

"'D-

:; 0

3\ c..

MAJOR ELEMENTS

60

70

7'1
(/_--~

3')0

2.3

I!

.!,

10

<1.'

30

40

50

3\D

MAJOR ELEMENTS

60

70

----,

~~-~~~
.6. 7

;rc; 90 100 2110 't:l o

MAJOR ELEMENTS

x/,

_ .3 .4 .5

50 f,() 70

~-....~
~::::---~-o ."':>

TRACE ELEMENTS (PPM)~

;>.0 4()

./

/!

~.?,",

1l
2'
~
2:, (~.~_~,,~~

13

<1.1

I.

10 20

?1

~~_~

I.~-_~./

1.31 J

4.1

2.9.

'\ ~'~----~~,~ /

"
L ..

2.9 .

0,

'3
2.3

: 66:

parent rock to laterite, whereas the concentrati.:m ratio of AI 20 3 and Fe 20 3 in

the weathering crust is 2.2 and 2.48 respectively. The solubility series for
charnockite is found to be Mg> K> Ca> Na> Fe> Si for most of the profiles.

4.2.2. ProfileS

Q\le.-(

hornblende-biotite gneiss

The studied profiles have 9.6 to 9.1 m thickness. The profiles show
gradual contacts and the sketches are shown in Fig.16 A, profile 5 and 6).
Ternary diagram of Si0 2 - Fe 20 3 - AI 20 3 was used to characterise the maturity
of the laterites. This indicates that the rock is weakly lateritised (Fig.3D). The
variation diagrams of major and trace elements (Fig.32 A & B) show depletion
of Si0 2 '

FeO, MgO, CaO, Na 20 and

K20

during lateritisation

process with

complimentary enrichment of AI 20 3 , Fe203 and Ti0 2 . Trace elements V, Ga, Cr

and Ni show enrichment, whereas Ba, Zn and Cu show depletion. As in other
profiles, the lower part is marked by sudden depletion of Si0 2 ,Na 20, CaO, MgO
and FeO. Gradual depletion trends are discernible in the upper portion of the
profiles. Chemical budget of the fresh rock to laterite conversion shows.92.63.%
Si0 2 ' 84.94.% Na 20, 81.1 % FeO are lost. The concentration ratio of AI 20 3 and
Fe 20 3 is 1.94 and 3.34 respectively.

4.2.3. Fuchsite quartzite

Fuchsite

quartzite

forms

an

important

unit

of

the

high

grade

supracrustals of Manantoddy schist belt in Cannanore district and is noticed

around Sreekandapuram. At Thumbeni, where the entire hill is composed of
this rock type showing in situ laterite development, it is found in association

Table 6: Trace elellent cOIlDositlon IPplI) of later1te profiles. R: Bea rock; PW: Partly weathered; C~:JOIIDietely weatherea;v
Vl & V2: Ymifm laterite: C. Cl & C2: Ouri crust CC: China Clay,' il.S2:M-wv ciJr,l 5ST: Sandstone. Bc.f3.<All elc.
Description of Profiles:- H:Charnockite; H:Gneiss; 7:Fuchsite Quartzite 8 to 10: Ultrallafites; 11-12: Schist;
13-16: Anorthosltes; 17-10: Gabbro; 21-26: Granophyre: 27-28: Alkali syenite; 29-30: SediRentary forllations

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Profi le Sallp le
~uMber Descp
R

PW
CW
V
R
PW

Cr

Cu

Ni

Co

nd
206
156
206
60
140

nd
112
83
53
35
32
40
25
45
48
14
77
24
40
89
38
11
28
89
72
58
62
13
59
208
13
24
67
56
92
268
12
18
16
26

nd
187
187
198
80
96
102
149
90
114
120
254
88
80

112
80
82
78
68
70
91
120
27
30
68
84
27
42
86
110
200
44
56
51
88
80
69
120
206
271
101
102
82
128
179
115
129
105
85

178

R
PW
CW

PW
CW

PW
V
R

PW

PW
V
R
PW

457

616
73
1315
2116
3248
3632
451

PW
CW
V

1100
929

V
R

PW
V

10

480
154
38
50
163
220
127
156
218
6
29
42
175
230
327
147
420

476

178

218
57
37
82
151
229
284
64
106
236
639
1830
740
310
321
446
520
836
1458
440

Ba

m
312
332
42
854
522
44

14
32
210
12
60
107
14
28
20
nd
160
82
106
118
92
3026
94
704
nd
122
144
8
16
78
nd
22
54
92

Ga

Pb

In

24
26
48
56
54
78
88
740
30
68
118
116
nd
56
118
100
24
30
88
122
118
126
50
40
94
56
66
94
nd
no
nd
13
20
48
58

220
200
240
280
70
80
260
740
310
nd
nd
nd
165
180
230
340
60
160
240
200
320
340
180
320
400
60
120
240
300
520
560
11
76
80
120

44

101
90
93
46
105
114
86
34
98
77
26
79
162
70
73
48
38
52
66
18
14
14
12
110
125
90
55
41
132
131
154
69
nd
102
97

20
42
36
18
24
16
14
3
114
14
116
7
60
74
134
82
102
106
34
44

42
118
56
108
172
68
40
22
26
42
48
112
92
52

11

PW
V
12

PW
13

PW
V
Cl
C2
14

PW
VI
C
15

PW
V
C
16

PW
V
17

PW
CW
V
Vl
V2

Cl
C2
18

?W
CW
Vl
V2
19

PW
CW
V

20

PW
CW

V
11

PW
'I

586
1988
591
67
491
365
78
12
87
398
145
85
20
130
76
160
64
293
420
116
241
394
371
233
269
148
197
233
177
411
310
199
202
205
239
396
184
210
310
160
366
46
56
48
22
33

19
47
101
14
22
46
19
32
43
17
17
25
41
39
69
273
47
78
11
29
26
22
83
93
85
77
83
21
20
27
154
91
92
82
30
96
97
84
22
138
57
44

33
76
19

371
2124
303
130
446
134
42
68
142
120
138
35
46
60
50
37
77
60
44

55
131
110
207
156
194
56
203
129
73
183
230
218
210
158
130
211
166
216
202
158
255
100
135
. 45
36
120

55
124
68
260
68
82
11
80
68
74
88
9
86
93
83
11
135
114
127
15
76
127
nd
111
124
98
95
99
120
127
nd
nd
nd
nd
no
nd
no
nd
no
nd
nd
nd
nd
6
26
102

34
no
38
nd
40
14

190
226
78
56
30
28
240
72
66
29
100
50
20
64
83
44
40
78
94
166
172
42
12
18
36
208
90
50
44
44
124
58
48
186
260
176
72
36
564
58

30
14
40
20
26
38
no
nd
no
nd
nd
no
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
no
1
nd
no
nd
nd
no
nd
no
no
nd
no
no
nd
nd
no
nd
no
no
no
no
nd
nd
no
no
no
nd
nd
nd

120
120
360
60
120
140
47
91
104
100
106
60
81
260
160
26
300
440
33
82
280
410
no
nd
no
no
nd
no
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
no
no
no
no
nd
no
no
nd
no
nd
nd

20
20
36
214
24
40
2
162
40
54
1
1
28
34

32
5
11
18
32
12
24
31
52
38
14
32
16
28
20
26
62
42
44
54
54
58
38
44
40
74
72
34
60
17
60
48

61
191
61
42
82
56
97
104
40
49
90
90
66
71
63
172
175
55
no
59
81
37
69
79
68
72
69
53
35
31
78
124
78
60
55
71
107
73
54
158
no
150
121
134
nd
79

i ab le . (conta .. ,

Profile Samoi
NUIDer Oesco
22

PW
V
13

PW
V

24

PW
?
.,

~3

17
43
10
16
48
20
28
25
13
15
18

22
80
52
186
100
00
36
100
82
5
15
go
80
38
94
26
118
138
08
146
14
123
!95
110
132
224
174
282

25
80
180
70
94
45
33
37
88
175
45
54
333
49
832
461
515
556
832
1387
230
193
207
239
359

PW
V

29

~1

C~

PW
CW
V1
V2

18

:1
80
00
160
l5
756
171
18
118
178

PW
27

Cu

?W
V

26

er

CC
SI
52
V
BC
Cl
C2

30
PW

Vl
SST

V2

32
25
11
34
58
21
16
21
36
49
32
74
114
104
28
38
27

Nl

~8

142

3i
5
48
43

102
89
01
113
88
162

i1

"

79

Co

Ba

38
140
300
33
396
38
25
390
48
384
282
34
29
85
190
60
nd
nd
548
240
322
no
584
204
34
40
50
42
42
30
28
198
231
52
40
46

10
!4
4
30
60
13
16
38
48
57
79
90
78
84
109
30
626
70
304
88
18
62
i5
14
14
28
40
18
112
18
50
16
54
51
50

Ga
no
nCl
nd
no
nCl
na
na
no
na
ne
nd
nd
na
nd
ne
na
nd
120
~d

46
no
nd
48
66
100
94
70
108
104
142
148
16
100
220
12
340

Pb

nd
nd
nd
no
na
na
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
no
no
nd
80
46
160
31

m
83
120
480
nd
nd
nd
no
nd
nd
nd
100
140
200
14

280

21
132
44

26
138
142
11
120
86
56
22
46
26
21
16
40
18
14
54
no
1
20
44
60
174
74
142
154
72
154
72
22
101
45
16
43

In
128
13
58
17
57
na
195
24
180
120
63
99
11
40
71
93
nd
no
27
nd
no
na
120
33
113
85
58
86
115

n
,1a
101
45
na
14
43

nl
w

I-l

tJ;:E

<fl
ld
0:

'300

MAJOR

:::0

/
4050

'"

ELEMENTS

30

400 ' ..

70

~,

60

ElEMENTS (P PM)

MAJOR ELEMENT S

T RACE

200

~I

GI

6.1

3.3

I _

6.1 '

4.1

6.1

4.1

<

20

30

40

30

40

.50

MAJOR ELEMENTS

20

i! t 2
4
MA JOR ELEMENTS

,5

50
100

~
1*

60

TRACE EL EMENTS ( PPM

:1.6

10

70

fO

j/>J/>7~'.YI

eo

3;)0

Fig.32 Major and trace element variation diagrams of laterite profiles over
hornblende-biotite-gneiss (32A & 328).

6.1

3.3

1.1

6.1

3.3

1.1

6.1

3.3

: 67:
with barite. The sketch of the studied profile is given in Fig.16, profile 7).

The major and trace elemental composition from the various zones of the
profile is given in Table 5 and 6 respectively. Plots in the ternary diagram
Si0 2 - AI 20 3 - Fe 20 3 (Schellmann, 1981) indicate it to be moderately lateritised
(Fig.30).

The variation

diagrams of major

and

trace

element composition

(Fig.33) show depletion of SiC?2 ' FeO, MgO, CaO, K20, and Na20 with enrichment
of AI 20 3 , Fe203 and Ti0 2 during the lateritisation process, (i.e from bed rock
to vermicular laterite). Trace elements V, Cr, Ni and Co are seen enriched
along with sesquioxides and Ti0 2 ' whereas Ba, Zn and Cu are depleted. This
trend is in conformity with the theoretical trends as suggested by Hardy and
Folletsmith (1931). Two stages during the genesis of laterite over fuchsite
quartzite can be discerned from the variation diagrams. In the first stage,
there is a rapid depletion of Si0 2 ' MgO, CaO, K20 and Na 20 and trace elements
Ba, Zn and Cu, with corresponding enrichment of AI 20 3 ' Fe 20 3 and Ti0 2 and
trace elements V, Cr, Ni and Co. In the second stage depletion is gradual with
corresponding enrichment of sesquioxides. Chemical budget of the fresh rock
to laterite conversion reveals that nearly 2/3 of Si0 2,69% of CaO, 19% of MgO.
20% of Na 20 and 81% of K20 are lost during weathering. The concentration
ratios of AI 20 3 ' Fe 20 3 and Ti0 2 are 0.99%, 64.2% and 5.08 respectively.

The solubility series in fuchsite quartzite is found to be K> Ca> Si> Fe>
Na> Mg.

4.2.4. Profiles over ultramafic rocks

This rock occurs as thin

bands within the schistose layers. Of the

studied profiles two are from talc - tremolite - actinolite schists and one from

1.1

3.1_

6.3
10

3000

(f)

.et:
lW

Ll

:::E
Z

3.1
I
I-

a..
w

Cl

6.3
2

OJ

1.1 -

I /

3.1

10

20

30

4()

50

60

70

MAJOR ELEMENTS

Fig.33 Major and trace element variation diagrams of laterite profile over
fuchsite quartzite.

:68:
pyroxenites. They vary in thickness from 6.6 to 7.8 m. with a relatively thick
laterite column (5.7 m). Sketches of the profiles are presented in Fig.16 A,
profile 8 to 10).

Tables 5 and 6 contai n the major and trace element composition of the
studied

profiles.

These

are

moderately

lateritised

(Fig.30),

as

per

the

classification of Schellmann (1981). The variation diagrams of the major and

trace element data (Fi g. 34 A to C) are comparable with those from other
profiles of the study area. However, these laterites have higher concentration
of nickel (maximum 740 ppm). Chemical budget calculation of fresh rock to
laterite conversion reveals that nearly 45% of Si0 2 ' 75% of CaO, 97% of MgO,
81% of FeO, 61% of K20 and
lateritisation. Concentration

21% of Na 20 are lost during the process of

ratios of AI 20 3 is 2.63 and

Fe 20 3 is 3.34. The

mobility series of elements are in the order of Mg> Fe> Ca> K> Si> Na.

4.2.5. Profiles over quartz-mica-schist

This rock type is found as thin linear bands within granulites as well
as migmatites . The profile thickness of in situ laterite varies from 3.1 to 3.8
m with laterite thickness of 1.2 to 3 m. The different compositional units of
the profile are presented in Fig.16 B, profile 11 and 12). Major and trace
element compositions are given in Table 5 and 6 respectively. The plots in the
ternary diagram of Si02-Fe203-AI203 fall in the field of weakly lateritised zone
(Fig.17). The variation diagrams of major and trace elements (Figs.35 A & 35
B) show depletion of Si0 2 ' MgO, K20, Na 20, and en richment of AI 20 3 ' Fe 20 3
and Ti0 2 . Trace elements V, Ga, Cu,

Cr and Ni get enriched whereas Ba and

Zn show a depleting trend during the process of lateritisation. The variation

diagrams show two stages in the genesis of laterite over schists. The first

n.

UJ

I--

OC

7.5

65

29

7.5

~o

'

,()(i

500

J!"\"V

'>,

'..

10

20

30

40

50

60

on

2~

,600

:30
300

0.2
0.3

0 ~

72

20

30
40

MAJOR ELEMENT S

'0

~o

MAJOR ELEMEN TS

......"'""

331 /.'(""

01

57~Lf.<::~ ~

72

LJ.

1000

IS

2000 3000 <:1000

:3

~--r-r~,
10

..........

~OO

#
/
~~ ____ -L~
-,-----,"-----,--,
50
100
200

TRACE ELEMENT S (PPM)

,
20

'rf~""

IQ

;r,~ \J \

3'3L~(2V, ~2i ~

575.

7 2

::5L .f

Flg.34 Major and trace elemen t variatI on dIagram s of

laterlte profile s over
ultram afltes (34A to 34C).

MAJOR ELEMENT S

1
\
~,.,~

M AJOR ELEMENT S

~I

O.

li0,A3n00 '0

.
6.5

2 9

7.5 1 ,
'0 / 25

65

29

O-

~
J:
t-

t-

a:

UJ

k~
~

,'....

~(o~~--~~b-----'
TRACE Et El'.1ENTS
40
5u(P~M)

70

"

eo

MAJOR ELE

t,

.3

3040

c.

MAJoR EL EMENTS

,020

50

GO

ENTS

'

I()

: L__~'----

\.....

I4Z./ ,,/

I'S'L d~\

61

20

'""

-1.

'h

90

.....

,fk.'"

+/.

_ __
/
-~

':(~\~-~"'']-'?:\

6.1

45

4'; ?'

1.6

:69:
stage shows a rapid depletion of Si0 2 ' CaO, MgO and K20 with slight increase
in Na 20 and FeO. Chemical bud get of the fresh rock to laterite conversion
reveals that nearly 37.67% of Si0 2 ' 75% of MgO and 91% of FeO are depleted.
AI 0

and Fe 20 3 show concentration ratios of 1.49 and 3.28 respectively. The

solubility series for quartz - mica - schist is found to be Fe> Mg> Na> Si.

4.2.6. Profiles over anorthosite

The laterite developed over

the massif anorthosite body at Perinthatta

has been lateritised. Profiles vary in thickness varying from 10.1 to 17 m.

Different compositional units of the profiles are shown in Fig.16 S, profile 13
to 16). Major and trace elemental composition of these profiles are presented
in Tables 5 and 6. AI 20 3 content in the laterite zones ranges from 26.71 to
39.26 wt.%, with a silica value of 54.68% to 55.88% wt%.

Variation diag rams of the major and trace elements compositions of the
profiles (Figs.36, profiles 36 A to D) show three stages during the formation
of laterite. The first stage is marked by a rapid depletion of Si0 2 ' FeO, CaO,
MgO and Na 20, and the second stage by a gradual depletion of Si0 2 ' FeO,
CaO, and Na20. In the third stage, depletion of Si0 2 and enrichment of AI 20 3
are gradual, and the AI 20 3 values attains significant level close to bauxite
content. Trace elements V, Co and Ni show general enrichment whereas Sa and
Zn show depletion during the lateritisation process. Geochemical calculations
reveal that nearly 58.06% of Si0 2 ' 94.83% of CaO, 53.92% of MgO and 70.5% of
Na20 are lost during weathering. AI 20 3 and Fe 20 3 shows concentration ratio of
1.68 and 25.11 respectively. Solubility series of anorthosite during weathering
is found to be Ca > Fe > Na > Si > K > Mg.

(If)

'\ 7.

3 8

!'

2j

4fl

'

<-

i
i

"

:300

400

50

.t
4

4<"

:I

10

,
----~. . ~
' ---0--...

200

. ,

~~

''''K-

100

IHS (pPMl

,6,,7_..!I ~, ~, __ L~ 3

,I,

/e_

;:0

1000

2000

.,
--'~",,--',
---,
.
II-Q,'lIJ~m___.
/~J>
J
~n~:';f
/
,I
50

iIOoo
3

IZ
5

4.

::,1
.

J
":I

6\
1

.,

i
aJ

3b

50

' i

10

?';-,

it

ELEME NTS

~b
!:;
EU::I~:'::I\-:S

35

70

so

\.

:;

70

80

~---~

60

~
'e.

(PPM)

<=1""' 2I 4'
I f--.i
. 3
4

TRACE .ELEME WIS

5.31 ~.

45

'

45

,w

-~

'': L

~~

Fig.35 Major and trace eleme nt variat ion diagra ms of

lateri te profil es over
quart z-mic a-sch lst (35A and 359).

"x /"

V'

Js
ELEIH

2\i
30
TRACE

7- '-,-~

10

0 1 2 3 A .5

J:
I-

~:=

w
I-

ri

38

00

....:L
90

1000

'"

.....

:r

l.

..

I~I ' "

I.~ fj

" \-

).~

0.'

I~'I

",.~

' .,

,.~

t-

\11

IX

02

'0

!IQ

10

10

V.

10 20

I
100 200

4
ppm

DO

_____ .

\
400

S,

,.\ f

Idl

,.\

'l

. t.,

10'

S .,

r.

'('

80

70 80

"\

10

Mo

la,

20 )0

' 0 10

.I ...... nts "".

40

V.

09

s<~ >

IQC

lOC'

10

to

~-,-,

400

1\

(Gu~*d ....)

ppm

90

'\,

'..

'--~~

l'ocI I m_ntl

4{,

\~"

~.

20 H'

~ \

"

01 0 2 0 3 0' 0 ' 0 6 0 I 0 '

10

Fig.36 Major and trace element variation diagrams of laterite profiles over
anorthosite (36A to 36D).

80

1.m.n'l

80

"'mlnll "".

)0 40

";--

0] 0-40'

Malor

10 10

01

-'(-

~I
40

1, at

,
] 0

~r~
~y
/

10 lO

... ,L....,.. ..

"I,

..
,

"r

1\

~~

"

w
0

'\

V\-\

t\
10,

"I-

.e
~ ..
~

<

...;

~o

.:

..." -

'"

;;

:::I

l'"'

.0

'"
<tl

...

"

...

::I

\"
"
\

\.

"
i
Q.
Q.

"
<

..
0

":
~

~
4

'

1)

"I-

..
o

,..

<;~"L~w

~
~

"-11

.
~

H.L.d:tO

.. .1.

".,.

/
~

-:~

::I

: 70:
4.2.7. Profiles over gabbro

This rock forms a prominent unit of the Ezhimala gabbro - granophyre

complex. The studied profiles vary in thickness from 7.1 to 10 m (Fi g.16 B,
profiles 17 to 20). Major and trace element data of the studied profiles are
presented in Tables 5 and 6 respectively. Based on maturity index, the laterite
can be termed as moderate to strongly
given

in

Figs.37

A to

characterised by rapid

D.

The

first

weathered. Variation

stage

depletion of SiO z '

of

weathering

diagrams are
in

FeO, CaO, MgO, and

gabbro

is

NazO with

complimentary enrichment of Alz03 and Fe203 . The trace elements V, Ni and

Cr

show

relative

enrichment,

whereas

Ba and

Zn

are

depleted.

Gradual

depletion trends of SiO z ' FeO, MgO, CaO, and Na20 are observed in the second
stage of weathering

with the trace

elements V, Ni, and

Cr

also showing

relative enrichment compared to the trends in granophyre. Chemical budget

calculation during the process of conversion of bed rock to laterite show a
loss of 49.65% of SiO z ' 88.23% of CaO,

89.15% of MgO and 77% of Na 20. Alz03

and Fe 20 3 concentration ratios are 3.22 and 3.7 respectively. Solubility series
for gabbro is found to be Ca> Fe> Na> Si> K> Mg>.

4.2.8. Profiles over granophyre

This rock

also forms

a conspicuous

unit of the

Ezhimala

gabbro-

granophyre complex. The laterite profiles vary in thickness from 7.1 to 8.2 m.
Different compositional units have been measured and are shown in Fi g.16 C,
profiles 21 to 26. In the ternary diagram of Schellmann (1981) they plot in the
fields of moderate to strong weathering (Fig.30).

The major and trace element data for the profiles are given in Tables

--z 7 A

f.

10 2OlDAO !5080TOIO 90100 200

500400

Trace elements(PPm)
0.4

LB
3.1
4

Trace elements ( PPm)

~.4

&.3

1.7

7.4

3.9

5
10

I~

6.1

Major elements

0.4

- ''ro

I.B

10

3.1

ft.

Major elements

1.7

5.4

3.9

6.3

7.4

S.I

~.~.

/)
/

B
o

to

20

lO

40

Major elements "/0

to

20

~o

.. 0

~o

Major elements 0/0

Fig.37 Major and trace element variation diagrams over laterite profiles
over gabbro (37 A to 370).

CCoY\~d ... .)

..-,+ c

..i:.;
lA

42
4A

62~~~~~~~__~~~~
102030

~O&oeo'701lO"IOO

Trace

lOO

lOO 400 SCO

elements (PPm)
10 ZD 30..,

~eo7'O

eo

!lOIOO:!fX)!OO",OOMlQ

&00

Trace elements CP Pm)

I[)

Major element %

1.6

<4.2
4-.

10

20

:50

40

10

50

Major elements

to

Major etemants'Yo

%0

so

.0

'0 10

Major -elements %

: 71 :
5 and 6 respectively. The variation diagrams of the major and trace element
composition

(Figs.38

to

F)

show

two

stages

during

the

process

of

weathering. The first stage is marked by a rapid depletion of Na 2 0 and MgO

with

gradual but steady enrichment of Fe 2 0 3 and

a relatively

rapid

Ti0 2

enrichment along with trace elements Cr, Ni and Co in the lower part of the
profile. Ba and Zn show general depletion. Silica depletion

is slower in the

second stage. AI 2 0 3 behaviour is more or less steady in both the stages.

Chemical budget calculation reveals that nearly 60.26% of Si0 2

'

71.5% of

CaO, 56.2% of MgO, 82.45% of Na 2 0, 82.67% of K2 0 and 73.39 of FeO are lost
during the conversion of the bed rock to laterite, AI 2 0 3 concentration ratio of
1.94 and Fe 20 3 concentration of 7.24 are noticed in the weathering crust. Since
this profile is close to the gabbro body, the higher Fe 2 0 3 concentration ratio
may be attributed due to lateral movement from the gabbro also. The solubility
series of the major elements in granophyre is K

>

Na

>

Fe

>

Ca

>

Si

>

Mg.

4.2.9. Profiles over al kali-syenite

The investigated

profiles have thickness of 5.5 m. Sketches of the

profiles are given in Fig.16 C, profiles 27 and 28).

The major and trace element compositions are given in Tables 5 and 6
respectively. Si0 2

Fe 2 0 3

AI 2 0 3 ternary

diagram plots indicate weak to

moderate lateritisation (Fig.30). Variation diagrams of major and trace elements

(Figs.39 A & B) indicate gradual depletion of Si0 2

'

and

Ti0 2

gradual

enrichment

of AI 2 0 3

'

Fe 2 0 3

and

CaO, MgO, Na 2 0 and K2 0,

in

the

profiles.

No

discernible pattern in enrichment/depletion of trace elements are seen in the

diagrams.

'0

20

>-

>0

1 - - -100
,
!JO

""',

40
,0
tlO

11

70

.0

0/0

I
300
400

4-

'0

'0

.,'

"'>..,

j
2'00

-- --.........

Mojor IIlemllnt s o/c.

,0

element !; (P Pm

&~

40

Mojor element s

0 .

Troce

'0

A:

.00

02

10
30
40
100
200

o.a

50

"'0

'0

Mojor element s

to

0/..

eo

'0/0

70

.0

JcL~.
10

0,1

Mojor element s

0."

lOO

400

~--C:i'-<"/-rl-""-'"

'0

-2
L

Troce elemen ts (PPml

2'()

1'<;-~

........

0-

]~

5. 8 \

42

~}

._~"t:,

Fig.38 Major and trace eleme nt variat ion diagra ms

of laterl te profil es over
Qrano ohyre (38A to 38F).

10

e.d ! ,I

1.5

2.1

6.1','

4.5

2.1

'1.5

2.1

:1<l

( Co...,-td .. , .,

to

ZO

10

40

!to

100

200

lOO

Trace

...

elements(PPm)

Trace 8IemenfS(PPm)
,r

4]

_.,--.,..._....-_.-:.~

s AI. . .

02.

02

3.2]

:~.

0....

10

f. ~' !

20

la

Major

40

,0

eo

81ffmants%

70

0.6

_:......,.._-=---.

0.8

Mcijor elements %

a..s 0.1
2
Major elements 0/..

'.,(
1 /I I,', \

iff ~
( J

8.,11

0.4

80

6.4

.
10

\
20

30

40

10

60

Major elements %

7(\

""

00

\
\

.,

~ ~

!,

en
o

" Cl>
c:
o
~

Cl>

. [:i S;j
I -

en

01

N "'

en
N

.,en

Cl

I-

W
0:
I-

(f)

k:

20

aJ
q()

50

.5

'-")11

200

30

40

50

60

-.---,----.-r--+I r.- - - -

rs (PPIM

'00

,.-.

MAJOR ELEMENTS

.3

~..

TRACE ELEMEN

30

. - - - -

/
1
~~-

MAJOR ELEMENTS

r;

--..-

10

~.-

.-

.
~-r40./r/--;
~J
.-

300

'+

'000

:--,.

.. .." 15

10

:'00

4 .5

2.7

O.B

I I

4.51

2.7'

OB 1

4-.5

10

10

'i

.1

-~
.5

MAJOR ELEMENTS

r..

'\

'-\
3'

30

40

50

MAJOR ELEMENTS

20

60

70

-ti

. \

10

1000

I5

'""-

500

. ~ .'"
l',

300

"-

/"-/

.-----.,--,----.--f-----f---

.<'.

',/,
L

,'h;50

40

200
(PPM)
T RACE ELEME NTS100

20 30

.~~~y
:\:L~~/
/r

Fig.39 Major and trace element variation diagrams of laterite profiles over
alkali-syenite (39A and 39B).

4. 05' ,

2.7

2.05

0.7

0.2

4.05 I

2 7

2.05

0.7

'0

0.2

40

2.7

2 ..05-

or

:72:
Geochemical calculation reveals that nearly 42.83 % of Si0 2

'

81.88% of

CaO, 24.6% of MgO, 75.39% of Na 2 0, 88.25% of K2 0 and 92.56% of FeO are lost
during

the

conversion

of

bed

rock

to

laterite.

AI 2 0 3

and

Fe 2 0 3

show

concentration ratios of 1.63 and 11.09 respectively. The solubility series of

elements

during the process of weathering is found to be Fe> K> Ca> Na> Si>

Mg.

4.2.10. Profiles over sedimentary formation

The

profiles

developed

over

the

sedimentary

formation

assume

significance as the processes leading to the formation of china clays in Kerala

are intimately associated with lateritisation process. One of the studied profiles
has thick beds of china clays of residual and secondary origins. Further,
these profiles also enable to identify various cycles of lateritisation in the
region. The sketches of the profiles are given in Fig.16 D , profiles 29 & 30).
Thickness of these profiles vary from

12.3 m. at Tellicherry to 38 m. at

Palayangadi.

Major and trace element compositions of these profiles are given

in

Tables 5 and 6 respectively. The primary laterite developed over biotite gneiss
at Tellicherry, at the base of the sedimentaries is weakly lateritised as per
the classification of Schellmann (1981), whereas the primary laterite developed
over the basement rock at Palayangadi and the second cycle in situ laterite
developed

over sandstone

lateritised. The second

at

Tellicherry

show

that they

are

cycle in situ laterite developed over

moderately
sedimentary

formation at Palayangadi shows strong lateritisation trend (Fig. 17A).

: 73:
Variation diagrams of major and trace

element compositions of the

laterite profiles over Tertiaries (Fig.40 A & B) show that the laterite at the
top and the bottom is marked by rapid depletion of Si0 2 ' K20, Na20 and FeO
with complimentary enrichment of AI 20 3 , Fe203 and Ti0 2 . Data on middle
portions of the profile do not indicate any trend comparable to that observed
in laterite profiles developed over basement rocks of the study area. Trace
elements show

enrichment

in

the

laterite over

gneiss

and

sandstone at

Tellicherry. At Palayangadi no distinct trend of trace element behaviour is

discerni ble, except

Geochemical

for Cr.

features

of

the

profile

(at

Palayangadi)

have

been

summarised in figure 25 (also see Table) indicating the enrichment values of

AI 20 3 towards the laterite horizon. The leached portion close to the base of the
sedimentary column also shows alumina enrichment. Fe 20 3 progressively gets
enriched towards the upper portion. Silica depletion is more towards the lower
horizons. As can be seen from Table-4, separate analyses of the brown/red
and white/yellowish portions of the laterite samples yield slightly different
AI 20 3 values in

the bauxite patches,

while in the

hard crust, the

black

coloured samples are richer in Fe203 than the brown varieties indicating that
even colour can be an effective compositional criterion in the area.

4.2.11. Element distribution contour maps

Geochemical data on major elements (Si0 2 ' AI 20 3 ' Fe 20 3 ' CaO, MgO,
Na 20, K20, Ti0 2 and LOI) obtained from the present study were also utilised
to prepare element distribution contour maps for the area. Fig.41 A to 41 C
relate to element distri bution
weathering zone (partly

in the

weathered and

bed

rock,

Fi g.42 A to 42 I

completely weathered

in

the

zones in the

L+oA

50100

a::lO

3Xl

400

500

600

700

800

900 1000 200C

TRACE- ELEMENTS

2.5

en
w

0::
fW
~

~
I

5.5
23.3
25.1
26.5

f-

a.
w

27.0

Cl

29.5

((t~'

~
~

/~

"
.I

.2

.3

.4

.5

MAJOR ELEMENTS
2.5
5.5
23.3
25.1
26.5
27.0
29.5
10

20

30

40

50

60

MAJOR ELEMENTS

Fig.40 Major and trace element variation diagrams of laterite profiles over
sedimentary formation (40A and 40B).

(Co)-t}-d .... )

I
f-

CL
W

:74:
synoptic profile), and

Fig.43 A to 43 I

in the laterite. These maps show

substantial variation and may be used for guiding future investigations on

geochemical sOil/mineral survey.

4.3. CONCLUSIONS

1. The results from the studied

laterite profiles (Table 5

and 6) when

compared with those from the parent rock clearly indicate that Al z0 3 ' Fe Z0 3
and TiO z are enriched with varying intensities.

2. Concentration ratios of Fe Z0 3 in various lithological units range from

2.48 in charnockite to 11.45 in the sedimentary formations. The ratios are still
higher in anorthosite (21.11). In fuchsite quartzite rock type the ratio attains
the value of 64.2, possibly indicating that the weathering of this rock generally

leads to

iron-rich

laterites due

to the

weathering crust, a phenomenon observed

Western

Ghats.

Further

the

iron-poor

insolubility

of

in the schistose

rock

types

show

iron

in

the

rocks of the
higher

Fe Z0 3

enrichment ratios than the iron-rich varieties.

3. Alumina in the studied laterites occurs as hydrated oxide mostly as

kaolins

as

result

of

desilication

of

the

alumino-silicates

and

their

transformation. Other oxides like SiO z ' MgO, NazO and KzO etc are removed
substantially from the parent rock.

Concentration ratios of Alz03 range from 0.99 in fuchsite - quartzite to

3.22

in

gabbro,

which

is

slightly

lower

than

that

of

FeZ03

In

the

1+)

R C'-'"

A-

.'

1+1

Fig.41 Major element distribution contour maps of Cannanore dis- trict

based on bed rock data (41 A : Si0 2 , B : Fe 203 C : A1 2 0 3 , 0 : MgO, E
~-~

....

~.-

1"\

r:.

VJ")

lJ~il\~

T InT.

.'----~
rl

.,

--

1-

--

'_::- :'1'

"--\

5.0

4-11

Fig.42 Major element distribution contour maps of Cannanore district based

on weathered rock data (42 A : Si0 2, B : Fe 203 C : A1 20 3, D : MgO,
E : CaO, F: Na20 G : K20, H : Ti02, I : LOI.

,------ I

---

..

.
....

/~

.- f

-:'"

/ , , - - -... ---"'~"

)
')

'"--.
.......

--

- ...

i
'.

......~--/

~""

, ...

...

/--,,~-./

V-J ( Cl

\
'- , - - - - - -

.... , -........

_/

,//~
!

\
'.

o
/'-"~

q~)
.,-----

:75:
sedimentaries the ratio is 1.34 occasionally leading to the formation of bauxite
pockets, as observed in the Palayangadi profile. Lower alumina enrichment in
the upper parts of the profiles, as different from the Fe 2 0 3 trends, is partly
explained

by

the

prevailing

potentially mobile (Loughnan,

lower

pH values

1960) and

(acidic),

facilitating

rendering

alumina

its migration to lower

levels and precipitation there. Occurrence of "bauxitic clay" pockets in the

lower portion of the laterite over sedimentaries in the Palayangadi profile, as
well as in the weathered portion of the china clays of the same profile can be
explained by this mechanism. In anorthosite, AI 20 3 enrichment is 1.68 and
lateritisation could lead to the development of nearly bauxitic patches with
AI 2 0 3 content of 39.76 wt% and 9.38 wt% of Si0 2

4. Comparison of the enrichment and depletion of the major constituents

during lateritisation leads to the following generalisations (i) The more the
content of the mODile elements in the parent rock (Si, Mg, Ca, K & Na), the
greater is the depletion during weathering and the concentration ratio of the
less mobile element Fe is greater if their content is less in the parent rock
suggesting

that

the

concentration

mechanism

also

included

absolute

enrichment. However, in the prevailing acidic environments, AI 2 0 3 enrichment

leading to the forl1ation of bauxite in the weathering crust is possible if the
bed rock has a h.gh alumina content.

5. From the present studies, it is noticed that lateritisation is mostly a

two stage process in the study area involving (1) the breaking down of
alumino - silicate minerals to kaolin and rapid removal of alkalies and bases
with corresponding enrichment of iron and alumina, and (2) gradual depletion
and enrichment of

these elements towards the upper part of the profiles.

Iron enrichment is rather faster in the second stage in Fe-poor parent rocks.

Fig.43 Major element distribution contour maps of Cannanore district based

on laterite data (43 A : SiO z' B : Fe Z03 C
: Al z0 3 , D : MgO, E :
CaO, F : NazO G : KzO, H : TiOz, I : LOI.

:-lot.e:

------

,...-

~~\

,f' '

,I

,.'

I "
,I

,I
."

... :'

.'

'/\

<::_.\-:'----:-)
." 'I // (
,t
...

.......
.....

I .)

'.' ,I / ....
....

I I /

'./,0'

;'
/

'.
'I

H-

/,i

(~;i
.......

...

.....

... --~

"'-..

,,-

_'"
I

n.7

----..

"

.-.
-------

o,;r ... _______

------~- .....

{1.5

:76:
It is also noted that the bauxitic mineral, gibbsite is formed due to desilication

of kaolinite as revealed from the profiles over anorthosite at Perinthatta and

sedimentary formation at Palayangadi. Clays in the laterite act as absorbents
for most of the trace elements. A third stage is also decipherable in profiles
over anorthosite and sedimentary rocks.

4.4. RARE EARTH ELEMENT GEOCHEMISTRY OF LATERITES

Rare earth elements (REE) have similar chemical

properties and

are

considered to be resistant to fractionation in supracrustal environments. This,

coupled with their low solubilities, has resulted in REE distributions being
used

as

'fingerprint'

to

help

identify

the

parental

materials

of

supracrustally altered rocks and sediments (Nesbitt, 1979). In this study, an

attempt has been made to investigate the REE distribution patterns of the
important units of the weathering profile (namely the vermiform laterite zone
and the parent rock) over different parent rocks with the prime object of
characterising the laterites based on their parent rock affinity.

4.4.1. Samples and methods

Samples

from

profiles

covering

charnockite,

alkali

syenite

and

granophyre were chosen for the studies. 0.5 of the finely powdered sample
was digested in HF/H 2 S0 4 (3 drops) and evaporated off the HF completely. The
residue was further digested using 1:1 HCI and made upto 100 ml.

50 ml of this solution

was taken

up for chromatographic separation

using DOWEX[R] 50 AGWX-8 ion exchange resin preequilibrated with 1N HCI.

: 77:
The column is eluted using 2N and 8N HCI acid. the 8N elutent was taken up
for REE determination using ARL 3410 ICP with mini torch Nebiliser (Type K)
with

RF

frequency

27.12

Mzh

RF

power

650

watt.

at

the

Regional

Sophisticated Instrumentation Centre (RSIC), lIT, Madras. Results are given in

Table-7 .

.tt. 4 . ;2.

'.

RdV\U-"

a) Chondrite normalised REE distribution patterns of charnockite and the

overlying laterite are shown in Fig.44. The

fractionation trends of REE in

charnockite are more or less in ag reement with the trends observed for
charnockite from Kerala and Tamil Nadu (Chakraborthy et al., 1983; Chacko et

al., 1992), showing

flat

to slight

LREE

enrichment

with

a characteristic

negative Eu anomaly. REE pattern in laterite show resemblance to parent rock

pattern and general REE depletion during weathering. However, Eu is higher
in laterite (0.8 ppm) compared with (0.2 ppm) value in the parent charnockite.

b)

Laterite

profile over

alkali

syenite also

yields sympathetic

REE

distribution pattern (Fig.45). The parent syenite depicts LREE enrichment and
HREE

depletion

patterns

which

are characteristic

of syenite

in

general

(Kron berg et al., 1987). Laterite REE val ue shows general depletion, possi bly
due to dissolution of the REE host minerals during weathering.

c) REE patterns of profile over granophyre are characterised by broad

LREE depletion and HREE enrichment and display a positive Ce and negative
Eu anomalies (Fig.46). In laterite REE shows general depletion except in Ce
values.

~.

~.

~yc\.no;
-pIlYYL.

$H":t<.

lll~'

cJ..~"1"'V"'O .:
- <:..Jt,..\-<

.. -

...

...

2.4

5.2

0.0

10.8

12.6

42.8

171.6

143.0

0.0

0.0

171.6

34.4

...

171. 8

315.0

Ce

110.3

60.4

La

l'Y""I~sample
6'4t .... '110.

i"

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

135.0

48.2

154.4

Pr

.....

,.

0.0

5.6

13.0

3.8

22.4

29.8

59.6

132.5

84.0

Nd

...

i ...

Table 7

0.0

18.4

25.2

Sm

0.8

5.6

0.2

Eu

.....

.~

14.4

Gd

5.4

5.3

11.6

Tb
20.6

Oy

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.6

0.0

1.6

0.0

5.9

0.0

Ho

REE abundances in laterite profiles.

5.6

98.8

32.2

40.2

169.4

98.6

58.2

Er

i. ..

Tm
i ...

5.0

7.5

10.0

2.6

12.6

60.2

32.6

64.0

; ...

40.2:

10.0

0.0

25.0

15.0

10.0

34.8

7.5

15.0

(1'1
I,. "

"'1

.......

C}/'

-0,_,

(~'I

(J

-"'--

... .....

......

. _-,'

:-

'.--,'

(=

(~'I

I~=

("-'
I

.!!.-

+_.1

10

1(10

10()()

f
....

...../

.~.......,~,
.....,..

...
\

"

"~

11 "

"

\ l

I';OS:

,i.

,/ /
" ..
" /

:~ ."
" ...,/
"

.I'.'
.,'1

1\ ...... ,

',.1"

'. J

"".1

....
I
....... 11
'. 1

I
I
I

11

' f "~

--01'

~ _ _----------------i:.

~-- .--~----.-

t'J d

~::::; rYI

Eu Cd Tb

Lu
= bed rock , L =

'..('1-.
L)

r---.....----r-----r--i----r--.....--r--r--.-r--r--'

I""

, '-..'110."f

'"''''

Fig.44 REE plots of laterite and parent charnocklte (R

laterite ).

Lo Ce

--,

v"{

of '

................. ~....' ............,....

11

-l

...

-,]

!
!

"0

a>

.0

\
\
i

I
/

11

!
/

a:::

----a>

/
/

\
\

+-'

s:::
a>

>,
(/)

\ !
i /

t'

.I ./ i --------------------''It

+-'

L-

s:::
a>

I
!

,/'

//

"0

s:::

eo

:/

.I

eo

Cl

a>

.,....,
'-'
--

--

-------_.~--

/ --------------~

a>

+-'

eo

(/)

J.------

+-'.

..d

Cl

0,-...

-~/

-.:=--

+-'
L-

<D

C)

----------------------I

wL-

a:::

L.L

()

a>
+-'

w--

2eo

0::::

--Y.
U

U 100

--.C

6-

Q)
-+--'

Flg.46

Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb

REE plots of laterlte and parent granophyre (R

laterlte ).

La Ce

bed rock , L

Yb Lu

:78:
4.4.2. CONCLUSION

Based on the available REE data the following conclusions can be arrived
at:

1) In all the three profiles investigated the

parent rocks and the

overlying laterite show sympathetic trends, resembling the known trends of

the respecti ve parent rocks.

2) Laterite shows general

depletion trends except in Eu value over

charnockite and Ce value over granophyre. This is in agreement with the

finding of Burkov and Podporina (in Nesbitt, 1979), in which they obtained
lower concentrations of REE in
Similar findings

have

been

residual materials developed over granite.

reported

by

Nesbitt

(1979)

also on

residual

materials over granodiorite. Similar to their findings, the studied profiles also
display

higher

concentrations

of

REE

in

the

weathering

front

(partly

weathered parent rock) than the parent rock (see Table no 7, not shown in

Fi gu re).

3) Mobilisation of REE probably results from pH changes as suggested

by Nesbitt (1979).

4) It is therefore possible to use this technique for the elucidation of

the bed

rock

character

However, more detailed

weathering is required.

under

laterite,

investigation as

wherever they

are

not

to the behaviour of REE

exposed.
during

:79:
4.5. HYDROGEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN THE STUDY AREA

Water chemistry data and their evaluation are useful in determining the
rate of leaching and the total amount of elements lost from the profiles due
to water-rock

interaction. As a part

of the present investigation, water

samples from a number of wells in the weathering profiles of the study area
were collected and analysed. Since dissolved species in natural waters vary
in different seasons due to water-rock interaction/aquifer-mineral interaction
characteristics, samples were collected in two seasons. Results of the samples
collected from 17 wells and 1 spring from the study area (for locations and
rocks types see Table-8) are discussed here.

4.5.'. Samples and methods

Water samples were collected during December, 1981/January, 1982 when

the water table was between 3.0 and 14.1 m, duri ng November, 1982 w hen the
water table was between 4.5 and 19.6 m and duri ng Jul y, 1983 (water table 1.8
- 12.4 m).

The samples

were collected

in

polythene

bottles

in

two

sets.

The

polythene bottles were flushed with the well-water before sampling. pH was
measured directly in the field using portable water quality analyser. Of the
two sets, one set of samples was acidified to determine the cations. The other
set was kept as such for determining TDS, C0 3

'

HC0 3

'

S04 ' P0 4, and CI- .

From the acid treated samples, Si, AI, Ti, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, and K were
determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer Model
4000). C03=, CI- , S04- , were determined by titration and TDS by loss on

lr

I~

\1

21

~,5

:;".

:-,

17

I~

15

I~

12

I;;'

1.. l..

In

11

Il.

"

~.5

6.5

f..6

7.f.

6.6

~.'1

7.3

6.'

f..7

6.'

5.3f.

'3.5

f..75

f..7

'5.61!

5.39

5.9

!5,2~

5.'"

S.77

~.7

6.27

!5.f.7

'5.9~

5.~'

~.,

5.~f.

11

~.I

----------

ph

1101 1~2 1103

SOHph 11o.

\\

"

'i

~.II~.

p-.o~,

IIC03

".90

6.1

3.~6

f..1

3.f.6

3.6f.

7,'2

7.32

"L~8

2.1~

0.'5~

1!.5~

11.61

19.10

5\'2~

'.1

~."9

1991 1~02

'.1

f.

f.

11)

"

11)

10

2~

"

11)

HI

19

10

f.

10

11

30

16

12

11

10

III

10

16

1191 h02 1~03

Cl

.6~

.21

.53

.3~

.30

11.39

I ?91

1.!57

1.37

.f.9

.16

1.12

.21

.7

.'l

.60

.05

1.2"

h02

1.23

.36

.,

.13

.I~

.15

.31

.57

.92

.31

.37

.16

.05

.11

.57

.20

1~03

~.I\

2.15

1.90

1.15

2.5'

.~O

1101

2.'2

~.!50

~.o,

3.~2

12.01

2 .. '~

~.17

~.'6

. ~.76

I 3.~7
J

~.3~

1~92

II~

.1l1

(1.22

2.52

3.56

2.22

2.03

3.62

1~.1

1.1

,.r?

2.0,

~.31

S.9?

1.(3

1."'6

1.0;0;

I. 11

1.31

.52

1.6

1.6

2.~~

nf

~.1l1

3.21

3.21

3.21

1.6

I.~

1.6

1.6

1.0

1.2

1.2

~.1

2.1

:!.~

J.~

2.1

11."

.9

1.2

.9

1.2

f.

11tll 1102 1'0'

2.961.2 1

1.27

f..I!'"

I~I!'

r:.

.'1

.2

.2'5

.12

.~~

n.1J1l

.. ~7

0.?2

5.1~

.~(

.1l1

1.51

1.~'5

"'. J:H

.~7

.I?

.. ~r

II.n

.21

~-

...

L::'

1.7

I.;'

.11

2.,

(..'"

."n

.c:1

.;-,

I.n

1.22

2."n

1?1l1 1?,,2 IQn'

"~

.nl

.12

.7'

.I~

..

n.rp

1~01 1902 1903

fI

.31

1.7'

.112

.II~

.110

.30

.37

.2~

.31

.2~

.29

.37

1.7.31

.31

.I~

.37

.!5~

.11

.I~

.12

.37

.~;'

... ,

.9~

.71

.62

II.~~

~.~

5.~

1.7

\.6

2.6

2.2

2.1

1.1

1.3

.7

1.5

.~

5.1

15.;'

n'

.6

5.62.1

7.'9

.~

3.7

3.3

~.2

~.6

1~.6

3.7

3.1

nr

.6

1.1

nr

.1

nr

nr

nr

.2

1.7

.1

.1

.3

.2

nr

nr

2.57

nr

.00

.1

.~~

.110

.O~

.13

.06

.09

.12

.10

.~2

.00

nd

nd

nd

no:!

nd

.1

.1

nr

nf

.1

nf

.2

.1

.1

nr

nr

1901 1~02

-------------------------------------------------------------2
nd
.2
1.5
- -7.15

1~01 1~02 1903

------------------------------------------ --------- ------51

Al

11~1 1'02 1~03

r.

- _.... ----

Ttftcd element compos ition (ppm) of ground wllter from

IlIterltlc
tetrllln, Cllnnlln ore dIstrIct .

t'"1"o,f,

lL

No.

Prof ile No.

Prof ile No.
Prof ile No.
Prof ile No.
Prof ile No.
Prof ile No.
Prof ileN o.

Char nock ite

Gnei ss
Ulta mafi te
Quar tz-m ica schi st
11 & 12
Anor thosi te
13
Gabb ro
17
..
Gran
ophy re
2\ to 23
AQ.\:;..O\
.t ~y(l:f\ibl.
'2.1~ 2-<0
1 to 4
5 &6
8 &9

---------.------.---._-----------------------------------------------------------Wate r samp les from Late rite prof iles

(Pro file No. as per table 5; loca tions given in Index 1)

~.90

~.32

3.66

3.05

~.OO

7.32

'LI

1.90

'1.76

2'5.62

~.OO

~.OO

3.66

f..1

~.27

10.~"

1103

Tllble

:80:
weight.

4$ ..",Results and discussion

The chemical composition of water samples collected during different

seasons from laterite profiles developed over 7

ro("~

types are given in Table.

Results do not show any marked variat:0n in their water chemistry depending
on the bed rock or on the geomorphic units. However, water samples collected
from the vermiform

~0ne

of ultramafic rocks, gabbro, mica schist, granophyre

and charnockite have subtle differences in chemical composition. The analyses

of

water

samples

collected

during

December,

1981/

January,

1982

and

June/July, 1983 have pH values ranging from 5.02 to 6.75, while the samples
collected during November, 1982 have pH values ranging from 6.6 to 7.6.

The acidity of water is expected because of the absence of bases in the

upper horizons of laterite. The respi ration of microbes, decay of plant material
(reaction

1) and activity of roots (reaction 2) which

will

all

release CO 2

increasing the partial pressure of CO 2 , all make the water acidic. Hydrolysis
reaction of ferric and aluminium ions (reaction 4) will also decrease the P .

--

H2 C0 3

--(2)

H+ + HC03-

--(3)

CO 2 + H20
H2C0 3

H 2 CO 3 --( 1 )

A13+ + 3H 20

= AI(OH)3

+ 3H+

--(4)

Anionic composition of the water consists of HC03- , C1- , and P04- .

There is a total absence of N0 3, 50 4 and C0 3. The relative concentration of
HC03- is caused

by the

low

pH

range

where majority of

the

dissolved

: 81 :

carbonate species will

be in the form of H2C0 3 (Krauskoff, 1979). The low

levels of CI- and P0 4 contents are due to absorption and complex formation of
ferric and aluminium compounds with them.

Table 8 shows the concentration of cations in the water samples of

laterite profiles. There are several possible sources of these ions in the water.
They are (i) the relict A1 - silicate minerals such as K - feldspar, plagioclase
etc, which are not yet completely weathered (2) break down of newly formed
minerals such as kaolinite and hematite or goethite in the top horizons (3)
decay of plant materials and

(4) fertilizers used for agriculture.

As the

samples were collected after four months of the cessation of the monsoon and
just during the beginning of the monsoon, the contribution of elements from
the last two sources may be assumed to be negligible or nil.

The sou rce then may

be ascri bed to the mi nerals either remnant or

newly formed ones. This leads us to consider the equilibrium

relationship

between the minerals which may be used in defining the stability relationship.
Although a number of mineral phases may be utilised for such exercises, the
relationshi p, between feldspars,

kaoli nite, and

gi b bsite (Garrels and

1965) are considered here.

3KAISi 3 0 a +2H+ + 12H 20

(K- Feldspar)

2KAI 3 SiO a + 2H+ + 9H 20

(kaolinite)

= KAI 3 Si 30 1o (OH)2

+ 6H 4 Si0 4 + 2K+

(5)

(Mica)

= H4 AI 2Si 20 9 + 2K+ + 4H 4 Si0 4

(6)

ch rist

:82:
H 4 AI 2 Si 2 0 g + 5H 2 0

AI 2 0 3 + 3H 2 0 + 2H 4 Si0 4

(7)

(Gibbiste)

Likewise, for plagioclase, similar relationship can also be written

in

terms of Na+ and Ca++ . Considering these, it is clear that only dissolved
species

namely

H+

K+

and

H4 Si0 4

need

be

relationships. These diagrams are presented in

considered

to

define

the

Figures.47 A to C and the

respective log Na/H, log K/H and log H4 Si04 were plotted in the diagrams.
The plots fall mostly in the stability field of kaolinite, and rarely in the field
of gibbsite, indicating that these are the solid phase in equilibrium with the
groundwaters.

It is apparent from the plots of analytical data, that the most stable
phase in these profiles is kaolinite.

Dissolved silica in the form of H4 Si0 4 is also present in an amount

ranging from 1.4 to 5.4 ppm. In the absence of any aluminium in the water
sample, this tends to support the finding that desilication of gibbsite takes
place in the laterite horizons.

The relatively higher amount of Fe in water (Table 8) indicates that

ferric hydroxide or hematite/goethite are being actively leached by ground
water. Fe in the water samples is derived from the dissolution of the minerals
present in the lower laterite horizons in contact with acidic water in an
environment deficient in oxygen. However, the mode of the Fe in water in form
of organic metal chelate as transport of iron as free Fe2+ or Fe3+ is unlikely
in this environmental mileu.

11-

\.,

\
\,

10

II"~:
\ : Albite

II

~~

\,
\

: S;lic~
rSu

\!

.......

\\

-'.

I
I

......

K-"'rea

i
I

".

Z
".
~

41:

a>
0

7.~3H9~:1Sj%O~( OHt

1I

Ii

I
I

.--t.i

-l~

i4.

; O. . . .3

11--

[ '2
1

-5

'4

"1

-3

-2

-j

12

- I ....
,' _ _ _ _ _ __

-5

-4

loq

log

-)

CH .. Si 0.]

aSjO~

Fig- 47A. DecQmber 19\3II.1al'll~r'y '992

(I). plots of water chemistry data in the system plg-kaol- gibb
Loughnan, 1969).

(after

(jj). plots of water chemistry data In the system K-felds-kaol-9ibb-K-mica

(after Garrels and Christ, 1965)

-2

NOVEMBER 1982

\
K._

MIce

I
,,

I Silica 501
I

,"

1
I
I
I
KaOhnlt~

GibbSl,e
01

...J

\'5"

o
'!>O

0,10

-t

47B
(i).

-"

-3

Nov. 1982

plots of water chemistry data in the system plg-kaol- gibb

Loughnan, 1969).

(after

(ii). plots of water chemistry data in the system K-felds-kaol-gibb-K-mica

(after Garrels and Christ, 1965)

JULY 1983

K Felds

I
I

,I
,
,I

, Silica Sot

Gibbsile

KaOlinitllZ:

":I:

+0Z
~

6
Gibbs,l e

0'

.3

1\

G
4

q0

2 110
o I~

, B
0,

"7

I.

,I
,I

0
0 1'1

0,

)'

I
I
I

I
-I

-s

-4

-)

-2

-s

-4

-3

-2

Log aSi 02

47C

July 1983

(i). plots of water chemistry

Loughnan, 1969).

data in

the

system plg-kaol-

gibb

(after

(ii). plots of water chemistry data in the system K-felds-kaol-gibb-K-mica

(after Garrels and Christ, 1965)

:83:

4.6.CONCLUSIONS

1) The

acidity of

water in

the studied

laterite profiles

is due to

respiratory activity, decay of plant materials and hydrolysis reaction leading

to the formation of AI and Fe hydroxides.

2) The alkalinity of the water in the studied laterite profiles during

post monsoon season is due to prolonged contact with silicate minerals.

3) Cl, HC0 3 are present in low concentration in the water.

4) Considering the phase relationship, kaolinite seems to be the most

stable AI - mineral. Gibbsite in the lower horizons may be resilicated to form
kaolinite.

5) There is an indication that Fe is being leached from the profiles,

which may ultimately lead to the formation of AI rich horizon.

Chapter 5

GENESIS

AND

GEOMORPHIC

SIGNIFICANCE

Laterite and bauxite, products of intense sub-aerial weathering under

tropical conditions

are noticed throughout the world and have been found to

be derived from a variety of rocks.

involving

This process of chemical weathering

removal of large quantities of silica, alkalies, lime

with concomitant

and magnesia,

residual enrichment of alumina and iron along with certain

trace elements. takes place in a strongly oxidising and leaching environment

under conditions of

planation

Ionic potential, pH and eH

are the principal chemical factors that affect

the behaviour of the chemical constituents during lateritisation.

As shown in

Fig. 48 the alkaline and alkaline earth cations with a small ionic potential are
highly soluble, and consequently leached out.
alkaline cations.
and Ti 4 +

Fe+ 2

behaves similar to the

The elements of intermediate ionic potential such as A1 3 +

precipitate as insoluble hydroxides.

Finally, silicon with its high

charge forms soluble complex and tends to be leached out.

The aluminium content in the laterite/bauxite mainly come from the

decomposition of the feldspars.
is possible only if the P

A direct alteration of K-feldspar to gibbsite

of the leaching solution is above 4.3 and the

concentration of dissolved silica is less than 10- 4 . 6 moles/litre (Gardner, 1972).

Kaolinite is metastable under the conditions of laterite/bauxite formation and
is consequently dissolved either congruently or incongruently (Garrels and
Christ, 1965; Gardner, 1972; Kittrick, 1969; Norton, 1973).

The following are the important factors that control the composition of
the final residue resulting from the formation of bauxite/laterite as per Norton
(1973).

'La

----

Complex

C
Soluble

~
Anions

Mo

__---

\~ 0

~
~___ _

__

!l

1./1'~__

ION I C

CIIARGE

'"

'''-In

f--I------I---I--

__ -- .::::.---------= B

_________

--

.y---

Nb

Hydrolysoles

E lernent s of

'AI
----.t..M!L __ --_---------.--------

.Be ___ -

--;:::::....---

k~ -==!

,/

-.----.- ....

Sn

Mo Ti

Ilr

Ft. Y

'M'"

III

Th

' l I , Cr
Go'

'..
'Se

Mn.
Cu.

F.

tu -

CO---7

Sr

Pb: Ba

----------, Nii------

'K

_5 ... _---------_..

10

15

Fig.48 Grouping of certain elements according to their ionic radii

charges (after Mo.c.\teY\Z.ie. e~al'l \9\!)'Z)

Ir

=>

,~

,CI

and

:85:

1.

Climate, rainfall and temperature

2.

Period upto which the solutions act on the bedrock and the neoformed
minerals

3.

Topography

4.

Groundwater movement

5.

Drainage

6.

Relative rates of chemical and mechanical erosion

7.

Type and amount of vegetation

8.

The bedrock character

and

Of these factors that facilitate the chemical weathering (Norton, 1973),

bed rock character and mainly and topographical features to some extent are
different

for

the

various

laterite

cappings

in

the

Cannanore

district.

Vegetation features have not been included in the present study, and hence
the genesis of the Cannanore laterites are basically approached from the angle
of bed rock characteristics and their topographical features.

Major

element

geochemical

trends

indicate

mostly

two

stage

development of laterite profiles in the area with the exception of anorthosite

:86:

and sedimentary

rock units.

The first stage is marked by break down of

alumino-silicates and rapid depletion of certain elements (K,Na,Ca,Mg,Fe 2 +,Si et.)

with concomitant enrichment of A1 2 0 3 , Ti0 2 and Fe 2 03 followed by a gradual
depletion of the former set of elements during the second stage.

Among the trace elements V,

whereas Ba and

(see

In

Table 6)

garniearite in the XRD

The

Ni

generally show enrichment,

Zn show general depletion consistent with thei r geochemical

affinities with feldspars.

concentrated

Co and

calculated

laterites over ultramafites, nickel

which

is

also supported

by

is getting

the presence of

(Fig. 21D).

geochemical

mobilities

for

various

elements

in

charnockites and py roxenites of the ultramafites show that Mg is more mobile

than other elements, and

Na and

Ca are relatively

less mobile.

This is

supported by petrographic findings in these rocks types, where alteration of

pyroxenes

precedes

that

of

feldspars.

Alteration

of

pyroxenes

in

the

beginning of the weathering process is attributed to its-relatively less stable

structure.

In quartz-mica schists also Mg is more mobile than Na, which is

also substantiated by earlier alteration of hornblende than the feldspars or

muscovite.

The measured values of Mg in groundwater from wells in these

rock localities further substantiate these findings (also ref. Table 8).
relatively

higher mobility of Fe 2 +

iron-enrichment

ratios

varying

from

The

in these rocks types results in

2.48

in

charnockite

though

3.28

less
in

quartz-mica-schist to 3.34 in ultramafites.

Fuchsite-quartzite rock type, in contrast, is characterised by

mobility of Fe 2 +

lesser

and /'-1g compared to other elements including, K, Ca and Si

and displays very high iron-enrichment ratios (64.22).

Occurrence Fe-rich

:87:
laterites over

the schistose

rocks

in

the Western

Ghats

region

may

be

attri buted to this peculiarity in the geochemical transformation to laterite.

In anorthosite and
the elements

gabbro Ca and Fe z+

and K and Mg are less mobile.

are more mobile than rest of

This trend is consistent with

their bulk geochemistry and the measured Ca and Fe values in groundwater

from the gabbro/anorthosite terrains.
anorthosite (Fe z0 3

However, iron-enrichment is more in

enrichment ratio is 25.11 than in gabbro (3.7), possibly

suggesting an absolute enrichment of iron in anorthosite through capillary

action.

Alumina enrichment

is also

high

in

anorthosite,

leading

to the

formation of bauxite patches in the weathering profile. Desilication of kaolinite

to gibbsite (as observed in thin sections) is responsible

for the appearance

of bauxite.

Granophyre and partly alkali syenite, with the exception of Fez+, are
characterised by mobility series, comparable to those typical of normal acidic
rocks, with higher mobility for potassium and lesser

mobility for silica, and

the alteration process starts with the feldspars. Fe z0 3 enrichment ratios in

these rock types are 7.24 and 11.09 respectively.

Quartz appears to be the stablest mineral among all others. When it

occurs as large crystals in the parent rock it is retained sometimes as small
fragments in the laterite zone.

Smaller crystals are almost totally removed

due to leaching.

Based on petrographic, geochemical and water geochemistry

data the

following stability series can be attributed for the rock-forming minerals of

the study area.

:88:
Low Stabi I ity

Hypersthene

Plagioclase

/
K-Feldspar
Aegerine

Augite
Hor\bl ende

Biotite

Muscovite

-----

Quartz

(High stability)

Water geochemistry data indicate that Fe is being leached out from the
profiles, further facilitating relative

AI 2 0 3 enrichment. The higher pH values

due to prolonged water-rock interaction at lower levels in certain rock areas

is also conducive for the precipitation of alumina in the lower horizons. Phase
relations

indicate

kaolinite

and

partly

gibbsite

as

stable

phases,

and

resilication of gibbsite is suspected.

Most of the rare-earth elements are also mobilised and removed during
weathering, as reflected in the lower REE abundances in the laterite.

The relatively higher pH values measured in ground waters from the

al kali syenite, anorthosite and g ranophy re (also refer Table 8) areas shall

:89:
explain the higher iron enrichment rates in those rocks, since

Fe 2 + gets

precipitated as Fe 3 + under alkaline environment towards the upper parts of

the profiles. This may be the case with fuchsite quartzite areas also, where
the iron-enrichment ratio is maximum compared to other rock types.

Consequently, differential mobility and enrichment of various elements

in the various rock types of the study area during weathering is explained
as due to the prevailing pH conditions, influenced and brought about by
rock-chemistry and rock-water interaction.

5.1. LATE RITE GENESIS AS RELATED TO GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE REGION

Weathering has led to widespread development of extensive

laterite

surfaces/lateritic mesas in the study area, in sharp contrast to the narrow

incised valleys and inter-fluvial terraces/surfaces developed in south Kerala.

Geomorphic features ranging from coastal beaches of negligible relief in

the west to the high hills with conspicuous relief (>600m) in the east are
discerned in the area.

In broad geomorphic terms, the area can be divided

into 7 units such as(1 )coastal plain,(2) fluvio-tidal channels and swamps,(3)
flood plain and terraces, (4) flat to rolling plains, (5) denudational hills and
slopes,(6) lateritic mesas and (7) denudational hills and mountains (Fig.49).
The lateritic mesas have been separately marked from the landsat images and
aerial photographs on account of their significance in landscape development.
It is possible to mark a number of subunits or morphological features under

each unit.

Thus the coastal plain itself can be divided into beaches, cliffs,

dunes and plains with or without laterites.

INDEX
Cl Cooo;'ol Cliff

os

OB

Rld~

05 l.ol.l.d "'1,

7;'15

04 Lattrlfle: mesa

t410hty undulated ',,,oln

02 Undutated

01 Gentty ,olllno

~ 03

eeoc:h Ridou

75'30

'.

nil30

~rn

I..

2.5
,

75,45

2.5

7.5

10 K",

L..!___ '==I _..1

11
45

12

i5

12

Fio: 2

GEOMORPHOLOGY : CANNANOnE DISTRICT

---------;~ 45

Flg.49 Geomorphologlcal map of Cannanore district.

Tidal ehannel'
84 hlond .... Uhln tidal thanne'
r I flood pion loehJdln, 10..... " lenoet
f2 Other terrace,
r 3, Anuvlot plaint

C~4

C3..2Coosfol Ploin with Alluvium

C2 Coastal Beach
C3J Constat Ploin .... lth Lot.fite

12

i5

1%

7S115

:90:

Comparing geology and morphologic units, it can be observed that the

eastern and south-eastern parts are dominated by undulating terrain, hills,
and mountains comprising
schists.

granulites, gneisses, granites and high grade

All the above lithounits are lateritised and in a number of places

hard crust- mesa

like landforms have been developed. Extensive laterites

mesa -like landforms have been identified in the northern parts, underlain by
granulites, schists and sedimentaries. Geochemical features of laterites over
these rock units indicate more of iron-enrichment trends, facilitating to the
formation of hard crust. The river valleys that mostly follow the lineaments
cutting across the laterite are narrow, steep but flat bottomed.
the dominance of scarp retreat in

landform development.

This indicates
This has been

possible only due to the presence of hard laterite cap at the top and soft
clayey material
profiles.

below it, consistent with the observations in

Similar features are also

reported

in the

the studied

lateritic terrain

in

Australia (Brook and Twidale, 1984).

Studies of cross profiles and projected profiles (Fig.50) show that the
planation surfaces are traceable at the altitudes of 160 to 220m, 60m to 160m
and 20 to 60m.
of 750m to 900m.

Above 220m the onl y notable su rface is at an altitudi nal ran ge

This surface represents the Wynad plateau. Even though the

hard crust laterite su rfaces are confi ned to less than 300m altitude towards
the coast, they are observed even below 10m.
of land

Therefore the

enti re stretch

below 220 under the extensive laterite crust cannot

considered as a single planation

surface.

possibly

be

Retreat of Wynad plateau scarp is

evident from the longitudinal profiles of the rivers. Due to weathering it may
be possible that the surface expression of uplift, leading to truncation of the
extensive planation surface might have been obscured from the profiles.

:::::::-

===;:

: =_::

..c.~~

\2"

,~

22U- PI

>

,-'PII;:: '

.)

.)

'''\~

-'~:

-~

~/:--

r:-

of a

part

distric t

~ _ _ _ _ .....

of Cannan ore

..-''''''-_~':'II''I.-...-r~

Flg.50 Geomo rpholog lcal map

planatl on surface s.

-~':;~~~ ....=<oo ........ -.o:"'__ '_""''''''''' -'-'''_

60 160 1'3
160 220P2

1 ___ 2 _ 3 -" _____ -1<", r

=='-~_~ 20-6Cl, 1',. 0L____
___ J --- L __
_____ L_L
SCALE

liB";;;;;'"

INDEX

r'5"1

showin g

.-d

7!>

: 91 :

The drainage lines are largely controlled by lineament pattern except in

the coastal plain.

The distribution of existing mesas parallel to the channels

in a linear fashion can be taken as a structurally controlled feature.

Narrow

width of the basin, particularly Kuppam, in the mesa dominated areas also
indicates structural control.

In order to characterise the mesas properly, a sample area covering

Kuppam and

parts of Valapatanam

catchments has been

planation surfaces are demarcated (Fig.51) and cross

are given

in figure 52.

Five surfaces P1 to P5

younging order (oldest to recent).

selected

profiles

P1

preserved as

across a mesa

are enumerated

in the

P3 surface (60-160) is well preserved with

laterite mesas and covers major part of the area (Fig.52).

220m), being

and the

The P 1

ridges, forms the interfluves of P3

surface (>

surface.

The

surface is mostly stripped of the laterite cover in the upper slope and

some laterite remnants are observed in the shoulder slope.

The Pz

surface

also with laterite cover, mostly occurs as bounding slope to the P 1

surface

and gradually merges with the next P3

bottom, incised on the P3

surface.

P4

surface along the rivers.

surface occurs as valley

P5

surface is generally

the aggradational plain consisting of coastal deposits in the western part and
alluvial and

colluvial

deposits

in the

eastern

valley

bottom.

These two

surfaces also show laterite cover in some cases, particularly in the western
part.

Along the coast, P5

areas (Cannanore coast)

terraces (Fi g. 53).

surface exhibits hard laterite cover, which in some

is

exposed

as

laterite flats

resembling

marine

Evidences to assign specific geological ages to these

surfaces are not conclusive; however, the sequence of events leading to the
evolution of these planation surfaces can be summarised as

given below:

..

"

''--49 _22

'2 _02'

7'5_15

,.f.~lo,

,.

'LIL05"

Td
~o.I'.

100

or

75 '5

C'7

7!L

C>

:1,
75_ ~

,.,/"\..,

Fi g.50A Cross and

surfaces.

superimposed

1S_2!!

profiles

showing

. ,
7!L3!1

7~L 45

various

planatlon

~-

15_-45

~~~

=:::.. __=-= __~';;.=--

-::"<:::::.

==--=-=.

1!. _ 30

. ~_-=-~::-.

~~;~=
I

_ _ _ _ _ CROSS 8 "IIOJEClED PR()FLES

~ ~~. -~

1)0

':'.';::

,.:::.. ..

_:AS

tI

_04

Et

P3

,:".:* C-!:-:::':!:.S"'U_I~~_~ ___ .

"

__

_ .. _.

--

".

~P 3
100

coo

{75-16-49
o
,
12-15

Eo,

I.

II

. . . . . .W.

C
I
tI

"

75-18-29)

02-8-41

100""'---

200~
P3

"

.---~--------.------.

_ ... -

....

P2

-_.

RI",

P,

~.51 Cross profiles across Fig.50.

P4

12N
o
1
U
75-27-20

PI

~~~

._--

S SE

p~

FlGURE.~

._C?'S~A_.!i~.~A'U4!Ji'"!"";,1

"'----.oF

'!!'.

RI~r
~~l
'\..~

p .

PROFILE ALONG THE NORTH BAt4K OF KUPPAM

"

_____

River

75-25-36)

(12-8-41

~!,,:*:l~s::=:.___

Kuppom R

::!!".SiS =~

CROSS PROFILES ACROSS A MESA

.........w=:a~

PROFILE ALONG THE SOUTti BANK OF KUPPAM

32-5-32)

05-21-24

._ _ _ ...

NNW
.
P3
200 ~---

12-10-23)

(75-21-2'1

J~-~~ ~
I
AC-.----------===-::--------~B
o
t
0
I
11

200
I 00

~.:)$

Fig.52 An area! view of the extensive laterite surface near Chimeni area,
,
Cannanore district.

Fl g.53 Laterite flat resembling marine terrace at Cannanore

sectIon

:92:

Geomorphic event

Planation surfaces

Emergence of coastal plain, Pediment formations

and widening of valley bottoms.
Erosion predominated with initiation of new
cycle - reduction of P3
Development of P3

surface

surface

Upliftment of the region, flexuring and widespread

dissection of peneplains

Major phase of peneplanation and lateritisation

The presence of laterite

on denudational processes.

cap on the erosional surface has implications

The erosional intensity is considerably less due

to the hardness and impermeability of the hard laterite surface.

of a mesa reveals that the top surface is flat to gently
significant drainage line.

Examination

rolling

with

no

Sections across a number of mesas in the Kuppam

drainage basin have been plotted (Fig. 51) and these sections in different
directions indicate that the surfaces are encircled by steep slopes and the
intervening valleys are mostly flat.

The surfaces also show gentle inclination

towards the major valleys. Field investigation brings out that the process of
valley formation

in the mesa dominated areas conforms more to the scarp

retreat model.

Another important aspect in the laterite morphology of this area is the

formation of 'soup plates'.

These are the colluvial - alluvial basins of various

:93:
dimensions over the laterite sur -alluvial basins of various dimensions over
the laterite surfaces.

Paulose (1965) had also marked these features as part

of geological mapping programme of GSI.

McFarlane (1976) reported this type

of feature, and dealt with the possible causes of its formation.

Twidale (1987),

however, has considered it as a 'sinkhole' on laterites. These basins present

almost permanent wet land condition. is beyond the scope of the present
study.

5.2. CONCLUSION

1.

The cause and consequence of laterite genesis in Cannanore district has

been influenced

mostly

by the

bed

rock

character and

partly

by

geomorphic features.

2.

Stability

of minerals

during

weathering

of

various

rock

types

in

Cannanore district and rock-water interaction, influencing the pH values

have been attributed to the differential mobility and concentration of
elements in the weathering profiles.

3.

Extensive laterite mesa development in the study area is concentrated

mostly in the northern parts below 300m. altitude.
underlain by granulites,

schists, sedimentary

These areas are

rock etc.

Geochemical

features of laterite in these rocks units were also conducive for the
formation of hard laterite crusts.

4.

Scrap retreat and formation of flat bottomed

valleys in the laterite

mesa-areas have also been facilitated by the composition of the lower

zones of the weathering profiles.

Chapter 6

SUMMARY
AND

CONCLUSIONS

The study area is characterised by extensive development of laterites

over rocks belonging to different lithological/chemical affinities and different
age relations.

Weathering has affected the granulites and related gneisses,

schistose assemblages belonging to the Sargur (Manantoddy schist belt) and

Dharwar (Vengad Group) groups, acidic, basic, and alkaline intrusive phases
and Tertiary sedimentary formations.

The available age data indicate that the

lateritised parent rocks belong to Archean, late Proterozoic and late Tertiary
epochs.

(1)

Results of the present investigations are summarised below:

Laterite profiles studied in the area generally consist of a humus zone,

followed

by

observed.

pebbly

layer.

Further

below

vermicular

laterite

is

In some of the profiles, pallid zone, consisting of kaolinitic

clay is observed.

This is followed by completely weathered and partly

weathered zones.

Fresh parent rock is seen further below.

between the various zones are gradational.

these units are not seen.

Ir, some of the profiles all

Maximum thici<ness of the weathering profiles

in the area is 17 m over anori:hosite near Perinthatta.

the vermicular I:.terite and the overlying
occupy 8.2 r.'",.

Contacts

In this profile,

hard crust zones together

The laterites have brick red

to purplish colour with

cavities completely or partly filled with greyish white clay often passing
into ochreous.

specific gravity of the laterites in the area range from

1 .72 to 2.41.

(2)

Occurrence of in situ laterites developed over different lithologies in

the area and laterites seen over Precambrian at the base of the Tertiary
sedimentary

formations

(pre-Warkalli and
indices calculated

suggest

that

two

lateritisation

post-Warkalli) have affected the region.

for

laterites of the

Tellicherry

and

cycles
Maturity

Palayangadi

:95:
profiles (over Tertiary sediments and over the underlying Precambrians)
show that the laterite over Precambrians are relatively less mature than
that over the sedimentaries.

It may therefore be suggested that the

first spell of lateritisation lasted for a shorter duration than the second
spell.

(3)

The laterites are mostly composed of goethite, hematite, kaolinite, quartz,

gibbsite and vermiculite.

In laterites of the alumina-rich rock types,

proportion of gibbsite is more than in other varieties.

desilication of kaolinite to gibbsite is observed.

In thin sections,

In rocks of ultramafic

affinities, XRD data indicate presence of garnierite, maghemite and illite

also.

The primary clay observed at the base of the Tertiary formations

at Palayangadi consists of well-crystalline kaolinite, as indicated by XRD,

DTA, IR spectroscopy

and SEM.

The overlying sedimentary

consists of relatively poor crystalline kaolinite.

kaolin

A leached portion of

the sedimentary kaol i n consists of kaol inite with traces of gi bbsite.

(4)

Petrographic observations and calculations of mobility-series of elements

during weathering suggest that minerals/elements of various lithological
units behave differently.

pH measurements indicate varying values and

elemental abundances in different rock provenances. Consequently

is concluded

that

differential mobility

and

enrichment of

it

various

elements are due to the prevailing pH conditions brought about by

prolonged rock-water interaction.

(5)

Iron

enrichment

geochemical
quartzite.

ratios

in

different

data vary from 2.48

rock

types

calculated

in charnockite to 64.2

from

in fuchsite

Further the relatively iron-poor rock types show

higher

:96:
Fe203 enrichment ratios than the iron-rich
higher

pH

values

measured

in

ground

varieties.

water

The relatively

from

alkali

syenite,

anorthosite and granophyre localities may explain the higher enrichment

ratios in these rocks, as under alkaline conditions Fe 2+ tends to get
precipitated towards the upper portions of the laterite profiles.
mode of Fe enrichment is suggested for the fuchsite quartzite

(6)

This
also.

Concentration ratios of AI 20 3 range from 0.99 in fuchsite quartzite to

3.22 in

gabbro.

Water-geochemistry

data suggest

that Fe

is

being

leached out from the profiles, facilitating relative enrichment of alumina.

Lower alumina enrichment in the uppermost parts of the studied laterite
profiles

is

rendering

attributed
alumina

to

the

potentially

prevailing
mobile,

and

lower

pH

values

facilitating

its

(acidic),
migration

towards lower horizons. The higher pH values prevailing in the lower

horizons of some of the profiles due to prolonged water-rock interaction
facilitated precipitation of alumina there. This explains the formation of
bauxitic patches in profiles over anorthosites and in the lower portions
of the profile at Palayangadi. Consequently, alumina enrichment leading
to the formation of bauxitic patches is more feasible in relatively AI-rich
parent rocks of the study area, such as anorthosite and sedimentary
formations. Hence it is suggested that futu re research for bauxite in
Cannanore area may be concentrated on laterite profiles developed over
AI-rich rocks.

(7)

Water geochemistry data indicate that kaolinite in the stable mineral

phase in the weathering milieu of the study area. The primary kaolin
developed over Precambrians underlying the Tertiary sedimentary rocks
displays better crystallinity than that of the sedimentary formations,

:97:
pointing to its relatively superior physical properties (Grim, 1968).

8)

Trace element data indicate concentration of Ni in laterite profiles over

ultramafites, which is also substantiated by the presence of garnierite
in XRD. Laterite profiles over ultramafites of these schistose rocks may
be further investi gated for Ni concentration. The fuchsite quartzite from
the area also contains barite

(9)

Rare Earth

Element (REE) data on laterite and the parent bed

rock

indicate similarity in their patterns, and the laterite shows broad REE
depletion trends. However, in laterite developed over charnockite Eu
shows enrichment, while Ce is enriched in Laterite over granophyre. The
sympathetic REE pattern in laterite and the corresponding parent rock
may be used to elucidate the bed rock character of the laterite in areas
where the parent bed rock is not exposed.

However, in the weathering

front, unlike in laterite, REE concentration is more. This may be due to

the pH changes.

(10)

From the available geochemical data, it is evident that lateritisation in

the study area is mostly a two-stage process over charnockite, gabbro,
granophyre, ultramafites, gneisses, alkali syenite and fuchsite quartzite,
while three stages are

discerned over anorthosite and

sedimentary

formations. The first stage is marked by rapid depletion of silica, lime,

magnesia and alkalies and enrichment of Fe 2 0 3 , AI 2 0 3 and

Ti0 2 The

second stage marks a gradual depletion trend for Si0 2 , CaO, MgO, Na 2 0 3
and K2 0 with corresponding enrichment of Fe 2 0 3 , AI 2 0 3 and Ti0 2 Rapid
depletion of silica and partial leaching out of iron (as also indicated by
water

geochemistry

data)

with

residual

enrichment

of

alumina

:98:

characterise

the

third

stage,

discernible

over

anorthosite

and

sedimentary rocks. The latter also explains the occurrence of bauxitic

patches in these rock types.

(11)

Comparison of the enrichment

and

depletion

of the major chemical

constituents during weathering indicates the following also: (a) the more
the content of the mobile elements (Si, Mg, Ca, K and Na) in the parent
rock, the greater is the depletion and (b) the concentration ratio of the
less mobile element iron is greater if its content is less in the parent
rock which

suggest that the concentration mechanism also includes

absolute enrichment. This is further corroborated by water geochemistry

data.

(12)

Extensive development of laterite over various lithological units under

favourable terrain conditions has given

rise to a laterite planation

surface in the area at an altitudinal range of less than 300 m.

The

more pronounced hard laterite crust of this landform is developed in

the northern parts of the study area, underlain by granulites, schists
and sedimentary formations.

The laterite are hard, as also indicated by

thei r geochemicai featu res.

(13)

Dissection of the extensive laterite surface has given rise to the present
day mesa-like landform. Scrap retreat, facilitated by the loose nature of
the lower

horizon

of the

laterite profiles led

flat-bottomed valleys in the area.

to the

formation

of

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geology

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S.India.

VI:

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APPENDIX
INDEX TO THE STU DIED
Location

1.

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

Laterite Profile over

Olayampadi
Kukanam
Kuttumukkam
Vesala
Muttannor
Near Kelakam
Tumbeni Hill
Vayakara
Madamapam
Mapini
Nellunni
Kuyilur
Perinthatta
Vattapara
Kuruvel i
Near Vattapara
Near Ettikkulam
Ettikkulam
Palkkod
Near palakkod
Ezhimala
-do-do-do-do-doShivapuram
Peralimala
Palayangadi
Tellicherry

PROFILE LOCATIONS

Charnockite
-do-do-doGneiss
-doFuchsite Quartzite
Ultramafite
-do-doQuartz-mica-schist
-doAnorthosite
-do-do-doGabbro
-do-do-doGranophyre
-do-do-do-00-

-doAlkali Syenite
-doSedimentary Formation
-do-

Lat.

Long.

1210'55"
12011 '28"

7520'53"
75016'35"

122'55"
12056'0"

7530'32"
75030' 52"

1257'38"
12054'28

7531'12"
75043'12"

12 1 '59"
1201 ' 57"'

7529'59"
75030'38"

122' 10"
1202'0"

7531 '35"
75032'12"

1255'1"
12057'38"

7535'8"
75032'35"

1210'10"
1208'30"

7516'48"
75013'25"

129'18"
1209'50"

7512'22"
75012'50"

122'2"
1202'25"

7512'50"
75012'32"

122'4"
1201 '38"

7512'48"
75012'50

123'40"
1203'58"

7510'50"
75011'0"

122'0"
12012'25"

7511'40"
75011'50"

123'30"
1201'55"

7511'50"
75013'3"

1254'20"
12055'1"

7539'40"
75037'52"

121'58"
12044'51"

7515'59"
75028'20"

APPENDIX - II

METHODS USED FOR LABORATORY TREATMENT FOR SAMPLE PREPARATION AND

FOR THE CHEMICAL ANALYSES
Accu rate determi nation of chemical composition is essential for thei r
detailed characterisation hence care was taken to crush the samples for
mineralogical (XRD) studies and chemical analysis (Major, trace and REE
determinations), to avoid contamination a Hard Steed Pestly and mortar made
out of imported stainless steel material with super alloy tungsten and iridium
suitable for geochemistry powdering was used. Samples from each zone of the
laterite profile was taken in sufficient quantity (7-8 kg.) for geochemical and
mineralogical studies. Since laterite is hetrogenous in nature, care was taken

:112:
to select heterogeneous parts proportionately and representatively for
crushing as suggested by Schorin and Labrequ (1980). The grain size chosen
is 0.1 -- 1 cm and 1 kg. by wei ght (Fi nal quantity).

This sample was crushed

to -80 mesh, 20gms. of the sample was finally

taken after cone and
quartering from which mineralogical (XRD) of laterite, IR, SEM studies of clays
were carried out, -420 mesh, and used for major and trace elemental wet
chemical analyses follows the procedures at Sapiro (1985) Vogel( \(17'6), Fy;1:.,}, 2..Sc"c.'T\ '- \<:..

Cl tt 1.4)

MRG, Sy1, Sy2, Canadian soil, Venezuelan laterite and bauxite were used
as reference studies.

REE analyses:

APPENDIX - HA

Chemical analyses of samples from the laterite profiles.

1. By AAS
Preparation of sample solution
The method prescribed by Sapiro 1975 was followed for analyses.

(2

solution procedure) Preparation of solution - A for determination of Si02 and

A1 20 3 It is prepared by fusing 50 mg of the finely powdered sample with
NaOH in a Nickel crucible. This way decomposition was obtained very quickly
and at a comparatively low temperature.

These standard solutions and a

reference blank solution were also prepared simultaneously with solution - A.

The reference blank solutions were prepared in the same way as solution - A
except that sample powder is omitted.
Solution
B is used in the
determination of Ti0 2 total iron MnO, P20 S , MgO CaO, Na 20, K20. to prepare
this solution 50 mg of the sample is digested overnight with HF(40ml) and
H2S0 4 (5 drops) in A large cover platinum crucible on a steam bath. HF is
then removed by heating until copious fumes of the SO are given off, and
the residue dissolved in water and made to 100ml volume. Major and trace
elements compositions were determined using Perkin Elmer 4000 AAS following
the methods suggested by Shapiro (1975).
2. Wet chemical method

Decomposition of sample and determination of Si0 2

Ignite a clean

platinum

crucible of 25ml

capacity

with

well-fitting

:113:
platinum cover gasped with platinum tipped crucible tongs above the blue or
green inner zone of the non luminous flame of a merker burner for some
minutes and place the crucible and cover inside a desiccator. As soon as cool,
transfer 0.5 gm of accurately weighed sample (W) to the crucible, add 2 to
3gm of anhydrous sodium carbonate, mix well with a platinum rod and cover
the mixture with a layer of 19m anhydrous sodium carbonate.
Heat over a
Merker burner till an almost viscous liquid is obtained and cool.
Transfer the fusion cake from the cruci ble into a 300ml procelai n basi n,
add some water and add a few drops of ethyl alcohol. Cover the basin with
a watch glass and add sOml 1+1 Hcl. place the basin over a water bath and
evaporate the content until the residue is free from fumes of hydrochloric
acid. Transfer the basin and contents to an oven and bake for 1 hour - at
110C cover the basin, add cautiously to the dry cool residue 10ml of
Hydrochloric acid and 100ml hot water.
well until the salts are in solution.

Heat on steam bath for 10 minutes stir

Filter through a whatman No.42 Filter paper and collect the solution in
a 250 ml standard flask. Transfer the precipitate to the filter paper by means
of a jet of hot water and wash the paper and precipitate 10-12 times with hot
water until the filtrate free from chloride. Reserve the paper and residue (I)
and also the combined filtrate and washings (II).
Transfer the residue to a platinum crucible and incinerate. Place the
crucible with cover in a furnace and heat the crucible at 10000 C for 15 to 20
minutes.

Allow to cool in a desiceator and weigh (A).

Carefully moisten the

content with water, add some drops of 1+1 H2 S0 4

(H 2 S0 4 converts all the
contaminating bases to sulphates and prevent loss of titanium or Zirconium as
fluorides). Add 10ml Hydrofluoric acid and evaporate slowly upon a stem bath.
Carefully expel the sulphuric acid and ignite the crucible at 1000 C for 1 or
2 minutes.

Allow to cool in a desiceator and weigh without delay (B).

The weight difference (C=A-B) given the weight of silica.

Percentage of silica

= (A-B)

x 100!W

Add a little pot. pyrosulphate to the crucible and melt the residue left
behind in the crucible. Cool add a little water and dissolve the contents by
heating in a low flame. After dissolution add it to the main filtrate (I1). Make
up the solution to 250 ml.
Determi nation of total iron
Pipette out 25 ml filtrate to a 2s0ml beaker, dilute to 40ml add 10ml Con.
HCI to oxidise all iron to Fe
state.
Boil the solution and add stannous

:114:
chloride solution till the solution becomes colourless.
The solution is then
rapidly cooled to about 20C with protection from air.
Add 10ml saturated
Mercuric chloride solution to remove the excess stannous chloride.
The
solution is allowed to stand for five minutes, add 20ml 1:1 H 2 S0 4 , 5cc
orthophosphoric acid and a few drops of Barium diphenylamine indicator.
Titrate with standard 0.01 N potassium dichromate solution until the pure
green colour changes to grey-green. Then add dichromat dropwise until the
first tinge of blue-violet, which remains permanent on shaking, appears.

FeO
Take 0.2g, sample in a 250 ml conical flask and 10ml add 10ml 80% H2 S0 4
5m! HF and heat the flask for w minutes in an atmosphere of carbondioxide.
Cool the flask in ice cold water. Add 15 ml saturated Boric acid solution and
5ml orthophosphoric acid.
Add a few drops of Barium diphenylamine
sulphonate indicator and titrate with standard 0.01 N potassium dichromate
solution until the colour changes to blue violet.

Aluminium
Pipette out 25ml solution of the filtrate from the separation; of 8i0 2 to
a 250 ml beaker add a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator and add 20%
NaOH till just alkaline and 5ml more and boil for a few minutes.s Cool and
filter the solution through a whatman No. 40 filter paper and waste the
residue with hot water.
Neutralise the

Collect the filtrate and washings in a 400ml beaker.

filtrate

by

adding

1:1

Hcl

till the

solution

becomes

colourless. Add very dilute NaoH in drops to the solution to change it just
alkaline. Add 15 ml Ammonium acetate and 10ml 0.1M EDTA cover the beaker
and boil in a low flame for 30 minutes. Cool in ice add 1ml acetic acid 1 or
2 drops xylanol orange indicator and titrate with 0.1 M Zn solution until the
colour changes from Lemon-yellow to red colour.

1ml. 0.1 M EDTA

AI 2 0 3 %

= 2.697mg AI = 5.095 mg AI 2 0 3

= (B-V) x Factor x 100/W

: 115:

CaO and MgO

Pipette out 25 ml solution of the filtrate from the solution of SiO

to a

250ml beaker. Add 19m Ammonium chloride and 10 to 15ml NH3. Boil a few
minutes Filter through a whatman No.40 Filter paper and collect the filtrate
in a 100 ml Standard flask wash with hot water and collect the washing also
in the same flask. Make up the solution to 100 ml.
Pipette out 25 ml solution in to a 100ml china dish and 2ml ammonium
chloride-Ammonia buffer and 1 or 2 drops Eriochrome Black T indicator and
titrate with standard 0.Os1 M EDTA till the colour changes from wine red to
blue. The volume of EDTA (A) corresponds total Ca and Mg. Take another
25ml add 2ml 5% NaoH solution and 2 drops Murexide indicator. Titrate with
0.01 EDTA till the colour changes to violate.
The volume of
corresponds to Ca. Volume of (A-B) corresponds to Mg.
CaO

=B

MgO

EDTA

(B)

ml x Factor/W

(A-B) ml x Factor/W

Sol ution for Trace

"
ml HF.

Take 0.5 gm sample to a platinum dish add a few drops H2S0 4 and 25
Evaporate to dryness. Add 30ml 1:1 HCI and heat to boil. Transfer the

solution to a 100ml standard flask and make upto the mark. Trace elements
are determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Na20 and K20 are
determined by flame photometer using the solution for trace elements
determination.

Moistu re and LOI

Weigh a clean heated, cooled platinum crucible with lid accurately (A)
Add about 1gm sample and weighed again the weight of sample.
Place the
crucible with lid in an oven for 1 hour at 105-11Oo C. Cool in a desiceator and
weigh(C). B-C gives the loss of weight.
Moisture%

(B-C) X 100/Weight of sample

After the moisture determi nation place the cruci ble in a muffle furnace

:116:
at 1000 0 C for 30 minutes cool and weight (D).
(C-D)
LOI %

= (C-D)

Loss of weight on ignition is

x 100/weight of sample

Take O.S gm sample and 2gm potassium pyrosulphate in a test tube fuse
well and cool. Add 10ml 1:1 HN0 3 and boil in a water bath. Filter and collect
in a SOml standard flask.
Take a suitable volume of the solution add S ml
vanadate molybdate reagent and compare the colour with a standard using
spectrophotometer between 460 and 480 nm.

7301~