University of Guyana

Faculty of Natural Sciences

Department of Biology

Course code: BIO2100

Lab ​Cell Specialization
Lab Number: 3

Names: Kayseri Persaud and Gammaliel McGarrell

USI: 1034536 and 1034075 ( Respectively)

Date submitted: 24th November, 2020

TITLE:​ Cell Specialization

AIM:​ ​To examine the properties and cell specialization of five different cells. ( Kayseri Persaud)

INTRODUCTION: Kayseri

In a changing world, the environment in which we depend on for survival is bound to change
even if in the slightest way.To continue their species in this change of environment, organism
undergo a process called adaptation.This simply implies that the organism may modify their
external or internal characteristics to be better suited for the new environment.This same concept
applies for our cells.When there are changes in the body, whether it is constant, these cells are
usually modified by a stimulus usually sent by the brain.This is otherwise known as cell
specialization.Also known as cell differentiation,it is the process by which generic cells change
into specific cells meant to do certain tasks within the body. ​(Ori, 2019).​The ​cell life cycle is
composed of the interphase (growth stage) and either ​mitosis or ​meiosis (division stage). Some
cells continue to undergo cell cycle all throughout their lifespan while some terminate in a
definite time period. Basically, it is during interphase that cells specialize and it is also during
this phase that genes can be selectively activated or deactivated.​ (BioExplorer, 2017).

In large organisms or multicellular organisms such as humans, there are large amounts of cells
that are specialized to carry out a specific function. Each cell is specialized to do various tasks
within the organism. There are cells that are responsible for the transportation of energy to
different parts of the body ( blood cells transporting oxygen to the muscles or to the brain)and
cells that are responsible for the movement in the body ( muscles), just to name a few. This
highlights that each cell has a specific purpose and cooperatively contributes to the overall
functionality of a system, whether it be a tissue or an organ.When cell differentiation is triggered,
the cell can change its shape,size,its location and moreover its response to stimuli or signaling
molecules.
MATERIALS

● Microscope

● Slides:

❏ Cardiac muscle tissue

❏ Skeletal muscle tissue

❏ Smooth muscle tissue

❏ Adipose tissue

❏ Bone ground tissue

RESULTS ( Gamaliel McGarrell)

Diagram of a Cardiac Muscle Tissue

The image of a Cardiac muscle

tissue (Cardiac Muscle Medical
Images For Powerpoint, n.d.).

Intercalated Discs - are unique structural formations found between the myocardial cells of the
heart. They play vital roles in bonding cardiac muscle cells together and in transmitting signals
between cells.

Cardiomyocytes - are cells that make up the heart muscle/cardiac muscle. As the chief cell type
of the heart, cardiac cells are primarily involved in the contractile function of the heart that
enables the pumping of blood around the body.
Diagram of a Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Image of a Skeletal Muscle Tissue (Skeletal Muscle

Physiology, n.d.),

Muscle Fibers - consist of a single muscle cell. They help to control the physical forces within
the body. When grouped together, they can facilitate organized movement of your limbs and
tissues.

Fascicle - ​arrangements determine what type of movement a muscle can make. For instance,
circular muscles act as sphincters, closing orifices.

The endomysium​ is the key element that separates single muscle fibres from one another.

The epimysium ​is the dense connective tissue that surrounds the entire muscle tissue.

The perimysium ​is the connective tissue that surrounds each bundle of muscle fibers.

A Tendon​ is a fibrous connective tissue which attaches muscle to bone.

Diagram of a Smooth Muscle Tissue

Image of a Smooth Muscle Tissue (Anatomy

and Physiology, n.d.).

Autonomic Neurons-​send impulses from the central nervous system (brain and/or spinal cord)
to glands, smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.

Muscle Fibers - consist of a single muscle cell. They help to control the physical forces within
the body. When grouped together, they can facilitate organized movement of your limbs and
tissues.
Diagram of Adipose Tissue

Image of a Adipose Tissue

(Anatomy and Physiology,
2012).

Adipocytes are the major energy storage sites in the body, and they also have critical endocrine
functions.

The cytoplasm acts as a buffer and protects the genetic material of the cell and also the cellular
organelles from damage caused due to movement and collision with other cells.
Diagram of a Bone Ground Tissue

Image of a Smooth Muscle

Tissue ​(Biga et al., 2019)

The periosteum is a complex structure composed of an outer fibrous layer that lends structural
integrity and an inner cambium layer that possesses osteogenic potential.

Endosteum​ mainly aids in bone growth, repair and remodeling.

Osteoclasts are multinucleated cells that are responsible for resorption of bone, and increased
activity of these cells is associated with several common bone diseases, including
postmenopausal osteoporosis.

Osteoblasts are specialized mesenchymal cells that synthesize bone matrix and coordinate the
mineralization of the skeleton.

Bone matrix constitutes a complex and organized framework that provides mechanical support
and exerts an essential role in the bone homeostasis.

The potential functions of ​osteocytes include: to respond to mechanical strain and to send signals
of bone formation or bone resorption to the bone surface, to modify their microenvironment, and
to regulate both local and systemic mineral homeostasis.
DISCUSSION: ADAPTATION OF SPECIALIZED CELLS ​( Kayseri Persaud)

Adaptation as it relates to this discussion refers to the way a body part of an organism may
change to become better suited for carrying out its functions.These following are five specialized
cells and their adaptations.

1. Cardiac Muscle:

The Cardiac muscle, also known as myocardium, is a specialized muscle tissue which is
found in the heart.This muscle is responsible for involuntarily pumping blood around the
body.Since the heart must continuously and consistently pump blood around the body,
the cardiac muscle must be adapted to carry out this function.Hence, the cardiac muscle
contains specialized tissues known as pacemakers.As the name suggests, this tissue is
responsible for the contraction and relaxation of the cardiac muscle which would in turn
pump the blood throughout the body.In other words,these pacemakers create electric
impulses that tells the cardiac muscle to carry out the specific function.

The Cardiac Muscle houses mitochondria which is known as the powerhouse of cells as it
helps to convert oxygen and glucose into energy otherwise known as ATP(adenosine
triphosphate). As viewed under the microscope,stripes on the microscope indicate the
presence of thick filaments which contain myosin and actin proteins.The myosin proteins
are responsible for holding the actin proteins together.When the myosin filament pulls the
actin filaments towards each other, contraction of the heart occurs and visa versa for
relaxation of the heart.All the while,this process is uses the energy created by the
mitochondria.Also present are discs which act as a gap which connects Cardiac these
discs allow for the transmission of signals throughout the cardiac muscle system.This will
cause a wave of contractions throughout the heart and will allow for the consistent and
continuous heart beat.
2. Skeletal Muscle:

Skeletal muscles are contractile muscles found in animals.This muscle is responsible for
the movement of the organism's body.It is made up of muscle fibres which are
surrounded by protective membranes. The skeletal muscle appears striated when
visualized under a microscope.These stripes are known as sarcomeres, which are
complexes of proteins responsible for the contraction of the muscle.The sarcomeres are
made up of actin and myosin filaments which.Actin is assisted by two other proteins;
troponin and tropomyosin. Tropomyosin surrounds the actin filament and stops the
myosin head from attaching.The troponin locks tropomyosin in position until signals are
sent to initiate contraction.​(Biologydictionary.net Editors, 2017)

When the brain sends signals to the muscle, it is received by areas called neuromuscular
junctions.This initiates stimulation of signals down the sarcolemma of muscle cells.The
impulse releases calcium instead from a specialized organelle called the sarcoplasmic
reticulum.This initiates the process of attaching myosin and actin filaments.When the
myosin heads are attached,the ATP is made available and it is used to move one head
while the other head is attached.When this process is finished,muscle spindles which
have specialized proteins which can sense tension on the muscle.These signals are sent to
the brain and any further instructions are sent via the somatic nervous system which
controls the skeletal muscles.The skeletal muscle is responsible for almost every
movement and has adapted itself into different shapes and sizes which are found between
bones and allows for complex movements.The skeletal muscle allows for every
movement such as the crawling of a beetle to the flapping of wings,although some
animals have exoskeletons.Therefore,the skeletal muscle is adapted depending on the
animal and is defined by its striations and various connections to the
skeleton.​(Biologydictionary.net Editors, 2017)
3. Smooth Muscle:

The smooth muscle is a type of muscle tissue which is responsible for applying pressure
to vessels and organs in various systems.Just like the other muscle systems mentioned
before,the main function of the smooth muscle is help initiate contraction for
movement.It also contains the two main filaments,myosin and actin although striations or
stripes of the filaments are not visible under the microscope.This is because the actin and
myosin filaments, unlike the skeletal and cardiac muscles,have follow a "staircase"
arrangements.This implies that the myosin and actin filaments are situated at angles to
each other throughout the cell.​(Biologydictionary.net Editors, 2017)

The smooth muscle is specialized to contract for long periods of time while holding the
force.The smooth muscle has since adapted to many systems in the body.In the
circulatory system,the smooth muscle lines every vein and artery and is responsible for
controlling the flow of blood according to the stimulus sent by the brain.The muscles are
tested to be stimulated also by the presence or absence of oxygen and will hereafter
modify the veins to flow enough oxygen when it is low and visa versa.In the digestive
system,the sheets of smooth muscle allow for the process known as peristalsis which is
the contraction and relaxation if the oesophagus while swallowing occurs.It is also
adapted for contracting irises and due to its control on blood flow,could be responsible
for raising hairs on your body.In some contrast to the skeletal and cardiac muscle,the
smooth muscle is adapted for more consistent,elastic tension. ​(Biologydictionary.net
Editors, 2017)
4. Adipose Tissue:

Adipose Tissue is a specialized connective tissue,commonly known as body fat which

consists of lipid-rich cells.These cells are called adipocytes.There are two types of
adipose tissue.These cells are called adipocytes; white and brown which burn and store
energy respectively.White adipose provides a layer of insulation and the brown adipose
releases heat energy.The adipocytes which are found in the tissue store layers energy as
triglyceride droplets.These cells also function in the secretion of hormones.The location
of adipose tissue changes as the body ages.Hypodermic white adipose tissue is located
above the muscle in an area known as the panniculus adipose which are loosely arranged
elastic bands. ​(Biologydictionary.net Editors, 2020)

Brown adipose tissue is responsible for the generation of heat and the production of
adipokines.The production of heat involves large numbers of mitochondria as well as a
central protein called thermogenic. In a scenario where our bodies are cold,the central
sympathetic nervous system releases norepinephrine.This stimulates the mitochondria in
the brown adipose tissue to produce heat.After being released from the mitochondria,the
thermogenin reduces ATP production.By doing this, heat is stored up in the tissue as a
response to cold temperatures.The fat cells therefore need to be in direct contact with a
blood supply as they absorb fatty acids through the walls of blood vessels.They are
converted via lipogenesis and when they are small enough,they enter the
adipocytes.​(Biologydictionary.net Editors, 2020)
 5. Bone Ground Tissue:

Bone ground tissue is a specialized connective tissue which is hard and mineralized.It
contains cells, ground substance and fibres.They are covered by another connective tissue
called the periosteum.The bone is responsible for various functions such as support of the
body,locomotion,creation of bone marrow, protection of organs and storage of calcium
and phosphate ions.

There are three types of specialized cells that makeup the bone tissue.The first are
osteoblasts which are responsible for building or creating new bones. Another is the
Osteoclast which are cells that break down and reabsorb the bone via
phagocytes..Thirdly, there are osteocytes which are old osteoblasts which do not create
new bones but surround the new bones while they grow.​(Lattanzi, 2015)

CONCLUSION:

In conclusion,cell specialization plays an important role in the bodily processes of all

organisms.It shows how adaptation occurs as the environment changes, which is very important
for any organism for surviving in a changing world.Although small, the specialized cells
investigated in this report played vital roles in the overall functionality of basic everyday
activities and is someway responsible for carrying out the characteristics of life.
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