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Indian Sundarbans Delta

A Vision

References
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Sedimentary Geology, 155 (3-4) pp. 317-342.
Barlow, A.C.D. (2009). The Sundarbans tiger: Adaptation, population status, and conflict management. PhD thesis. University of Minnesota.

Indian Sundarbans Delta: A Vision

Anamitra Anurag Danda, Gayathri Sriskanthan
March 2011

Beaumont, L.J., Pitman, A., Perkins, S., Zimmermann, N.E. and Yoccoz N.G. (2011). Impacts of climate change on the world's most exceptional ecoregions.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(6) pp. 2306-2311.
Bhandari, G. (2005). Probable causes of failure of existing embankments at Sundarbans and its remedial measures. In: Workshop-cum-seminar on embankments of
Sundarbans and related issues: A commemorative volume. Ed. Jana, D. Sundarbans Affairs Department, Science and Technology Department, Irrigation and
Waterways Department, Government of West Bengal, pp. 62-76.
Binelli, A., Sarkar, S.K., Chatterjee, M., Riva, C., Parolini, M., Bhattacharya, B.D., Bhattacharya, A. and Satpathy, K.K. (2007). Concentration of polybrominated
diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in Sundarban mangrove wetland, north eastern part of Bay of Bengal (India). Mar Pollut Bull, 54 pp.1220-1229.

Expert contributions
Asish Ghosh, Jayanta Bandyopadhyay, Sugata Hazra

Chatterjee, S. (2004). Bird status survey of Sundarban Tiger Reserve. Naturalist, Journal of Prakriti Samsad. Vol 3 pp. 51-68.
Chaudhuri, A.B. and Choudhury, A. (1994). Mangroves of the Sundarbans, Volume 1: India. IUCN, Bangkok.
Danda, A.A. (2007). Surviving in the Sundarbans: Threats and responses. PhD thesis. University of Twente, Netherlands.

Reviewer
Gertrud Denzau

This document may be cited as:

Danda, Anamitra Anurag, Gayathri Sriskanthan,
Asish Ghosh, Jayanta Bandyopadhyay and Sugata Hazra (2011)
Indian Sundarbans Delta: A Vision (New Delhi, World Wide Fund for Nature-India)

Das, A.K. and Nandi, N.C. (1999). Fauna of the Indian Sundarbans Mangal and their role in the ecosystem. In: Sundarbans Mangal. Guha Bakshi, D.N., Sanyal, P.
and Naskar, K.R. (eds). Naya Prakash, Calcutta, India, pp. 417-427.
Department of Disaster Management (2005). West Bengal state disaster management policy and framework. Department of Disaster Management (DDM),
Government of West Bengal.
DPD (2004). West Bengal Human Development Report. Development and Planning Department (DPD), Government of West Bengal. pp. 232.
Fisheries Department (2008). Annual report 2007-2008. Fisheries Department, Government of West Bengal.
Ghosh, M., Saha, U., Roy, S. and Talukdar, B.K. (1992). Subrecent remains of great one-horned rhinoceros from southern West Bengal, India.
Current Science, 62 (8) pp. 577-580.
Gledtisch, N.P., Nords, R. and Salehyan, I. (2007). Climate Change and Conflict: The Migration Link. Coping with Crisis Working Paper Series.
International Peace Academy.
Gopinath, G., and Seralathan, P. (2005). Rapid erosion of the coast of Sagar island, West Bengal India. Environ Geol, 48 pp. 1058-1067.
Guzzella, L., Vigano, L., Sarkar, S.K., Saha, M., and Bhattacharya, A. (2005). Distribution of HCH., DDT, HCB and PAH in the sediments of coastal environments of
West Bengal, northeast part of India. Environ Int, 31pp.523-534.
Hazra, S., Ghosh, T., Das Gupta, R. and Sen, G. (2002). Sea level and associated changes in the Sundarbans. Science and Culture, 68(9-12) pp. 309-321.
Hazra, S. (2010). Temporal change detection (2001-2008) of the Sundarban. Unpublished report. WWF-India.
IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: Synthesis report. In: Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Illustrations
Arnab Roy
Maps
Abhijit Choudhury

Kathiresan, K. and Rajendran, N. (2005). Grow mangroves for protecting coral reefs. SDMRI Research Publication, 9 pp. 41-48.
Kawser Ahmed, MD., Yousuf Mehedi, MD., Rezaul Haque, MD. and Ghosh, R. K. (2003). Concentration of heavy metals in two upstream rivers sediment of the
Sundarbans mangrove forest, Bangladesh . Asian Jr. of Microbiol Biotech. Env Sc, 5(1) pp. 41-47.
Majumder, S.C. (2007). Pictorial Handbook on spiders of Sunderbans, West Bengal. Zoological Survey of India.

Processing & Printing

YES

Nandy, S. and Bandyopadhyay, S. (2008). Trend of sea level change in the Hugli Estuary, West Bengal. Souvenir and Abstracts Volume, 21st Conference of Indian
Institute of Geomorphology, Tripura University, 2008 pp. 83-84.
Naskar, K.R., Sharma, A.P. (2010). Coastal zone vegetation in India with reference to mangroves and need for their conservation. In: Sundarbans issues and
threats. Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute and West Bengal Biodiversity Board.
Olson, D. M. and Dinerstein, E. (2002). The Global 200: Priority Ecoregions for Global Conservation. Ann Mo Bot Gar, 89 pp.199-224.
Reza, A. H. M. A., Chowdhury, M.M. and Santiapillai, C. (2000). Tiger conservation in Bangladesh. Tigerpaper, 27(1).
Sanyal, P. (1999). Sundarbans-the largest mangrove diversity on the globe. In: Sundarbans Mangal. Guha Bakshi, D.N., Sanyal, P. and Naskar, K.R. (eds). Naya
Prakash, Calcutta, India, pp. 428-427.

WWF-India, 2011
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any
Form or by any means without prior permission of WWF-India.

Sanyal, P. (2005). Mangroves and the embankments. In: Workshop-cum-seminar on embankments of Sundarbans and related issues: A commemorative volume.
Ed. Jana, D. Sundarbans Affairs Department, Science and Technology Department, Irrigation and Waterways Department, Government of West Bengal, pp. 88-90.
Sarkar, S. K., Saha, M., Takada, H., Bhattacharya, A., Mishra, P., and Bhattacharya, B. (2007). Water quality management in the lower stretch of the river Ganges, east
coast of India: An approach through environmental education. Journal for Cleaner Production, 15(16) pp. 1459-1467.
Singh, O.P. (2002). Interannual variability and predictability of sea level along the Indian coast. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 72(1-2) pp. 11-28.
Singh, O.P. (2007). Long-term trends in the frequency of severe cyclones of Bay of Bengal: Observations and simulations. Mausam, 58(1) pp. 59-66.
Sinha Ray, S.P. (2010). Status of Ground Water Condition in Sundarban area, West Bengal. Commissioned report. WWF-India.
Spalding, M., Kainuma, M.,Collins, L. (2010). World Mangrove Atlas. Earthscan.
State Planning Board (2007a). Eleventh Five Year Plan for West Bengal: 2007-2008 to 2011-2012. Planning Commission, Government of India.
State Planning Board (2007b). Approach to the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2007-08 to 2011-12) for West Bengal. Planning Commission, Government of India.

Preface
The Vision Document has been created in response to a priority action
point identified at a multi-stakeholder workshop held in Kolkata, in March
2009, on Sundarbans: Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation.
The priority action point was identified because of consensus among the
participants that highly informed policy decisions are necessary to guide
action to cope with pressures of predicted changes in the Sundarbans
ecoregion. The mere fact that population is growing means that regardless
of climate change, more people will be put in harm's way. With climate
change, new adaptive solutions are needed to prevent exposing the
population to these impacts and to reduce their vulnerability.
So far, the pattern of governance in the Indian Sundarbans Delta has
struggled to keep up with the management and development challenges
posed by this complex system. In the absence of the needed new adaptive
solutions this environmentally and economically important area is rapidly
heading towards an uncertain future. In view of the grave situation facing
the Indian Sundarbans Delta, WWF, in the course of conservation work in
the region, is suggesting an alternative scenario to the business as usual
informed by the best available current knowledge and research. The aim of
this alternative scenario is to stimulate reasoned public discussion.
This is an abridged version of the base document that captured the current
available knowledge which was thoroughly reviewed and commented upon
by Graham Chapman, Nico Schulte Nordholt and Rabindra Nath
Bhattacharya.
A limited circulation of the base document among technocrats resulted in
the demand for an abridged version. To accommodate this demand, the
core group of advisors went beyond their original remit and time
commitment to help produce this document.
Academicians, technocrats and bureaucrats, too large a number to mention
individually, readily shared their knowledge and experience, as well as
literature. The Sundarban Development Board and the School of
Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University hosted consultative sessions.
A complete list will be appended to the base document. The base document
will be a useful reference material for researchers interested in the Indian
Sundarbans Delta, and will be published at a later date.
WWF-India received generous financial, technical, and human resource
support from WWF offices in the Netherlands and UK for developing this
Vision Document.

Table of contents
1. Indian Sundarbans Delta: A profile

1.1

Ecological profile

1.2

Socio-economic profile

11

2. Governance and policies

15

3. Drivers of change

27

3.1

27

Climate

3.1.1

Sea level rise

27

3.1.2

Temperature change

28

3.1.3

Changes in precipitation and cyclone activity

28

3.2

Population

29

3.3

Market

29

4. Impacts of drivers

31

4.1

Natural environment

31

4.2

Socio-economic

32

5. Indian Sundarbans Delta in 2050: A vision

35

5.1

Background

35

5.2

Delta Vision

37

5.3

Analysis

40

5.4

Public consultation

40

1. INDIAN SUNDARBANS
DELTA
A PROFILE

1.1 Ecological profile

The Indian Sundarbans Delta (ISD) is part of the delta of

the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) basin in Asia
(Fig.1). The Sundarbans, shared between India and
Bangladesh is home to one of the largest mangrove forest
in the world. The ISD spread over about 9630 km2
between 2140'04N and 2209'21N latitude, and
8801'56E and 8906'01E longitude, is the smaller and
western part of the complete Sundarbans delta (Fig.2).
This part of the GBM delta as we see it today came to be
formed between 2500 and 5000 years ago by the silt carried by the river Ganges
(Allison et al, 2003) as well as its tributaries like Mayurakshi, Damodar, Ajay, and
Kansai rivers (Fig.3). It is part of the tide dominated lower deltaic plain.

A
BRAHMAPUTRA

SOURCE: AARON WOLF

0.577 x 106 km2

N
E
P

BHUTAN

A
L

GANGES

1.08 x 106 km2

I

INDIA
N

A
MEGHNA
BANGLADESH

0.091 x 106 km2

Total Basin Area 1.75 Million km2

The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna Basin
Fig . 1: The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna system is the second largest hydrological system after
the Amazon covering 1.75 million km2 with 644 million people in Bangladesh, Bhutan,
China, India and Nepal. Its surface run off is 1,350 billion m3

Bengal Delta(s) and the Sundarbans

B A N G L A D E S H

I N D I A

I N D I A

GD

BD

IS

Sundarbans

Fig. 2: The Ganges begins its delta (GD) in northwest Bengal. This is at the apex of the red triangle (the
third side is the sea).The Brahmaputra delta (BD) is marked in brown. The two rivers have continually
shifted courses, and continue to do so. Their confluence changes and this change is reflected in the
merging of the two deltas. The Sundarbans region is shown in pink ellipse, the western portion of which
is termed as the Indian Sundarbans Delta in this document

SOURCE : GRAHAM CHAPMAN

R. Brahmaputra

R.Ganges

Holocene deposition in the lower delta plain of the GBM

SOURCE: ALLISON ET AL

Fig. 3: Map of the pathways and timing of the phases of late Holocene growth of the lower delta plain
associated with the Ganges (G1, G2, G3), Brahmaputra (B1, B2), and combined GangesBrahmaputra
rivers (GB1). ky= thousands of years before present

The Indian Sundarbans Delta is bounded by the Ichamati-Raimangal River in the east,
by the Hugli River in the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the south, and the DampierHodges1 line drawn in 1829-1830 in the north. A little over half of this area has human
settlements on 54 deltaic islands the remaining portion is under mangrove vegetation.
Soils of ISD are principally Alfisols (older alluvial soil) and Ardisols (coastal saline
soil).

SOURCE: SCHOOL OF OCEANOGRAPHIC STUDIES, JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY

YEAR 1969 6569.799 Sq. Km.

YEAR 2009 6359.552 Sq. Km.

Fig. 4: Between 1969 and 2009, ISD has lost 210.247 km2 of
which 65.062 km2 has been lost in the current decade

The Dampier-Hodges line roughly corresponds with the Kakdwip-Bashirhat-Dhaka lineament. This line
was drawn to demarcate khas mahal (government's own estate) in the early 19th century, because the
zamindars (landlords), to avoid paying legitimate revenue, started large-scale encroachment of forest
adjacent to their estates. Threatened with possible loss of revenue, the Government set out to demarcate the
non-leased forest area as khas mahal. Dampier was the then Commissioner of Sundarbans and Lt. Hodges
was the Surveyor. They drew a line from Kulpi on the river Hugli to Basirhat on the river Khhamati that has
since been known as the Dampier-Hodges line, south of which lies the Indian Sundarbans Delta.

The landscape is characterised by a web of tidal water systems. The average tidal
amplitude is between 3.5-5 metres, with the highest amplitudes in July-August and
the lowest in December-January. Of the 8 rivers that dominate the landscape only the
Hugli and Ichamati-Raimangal carry freshwater flow of some significance. Being the
moribund part of the lower delta plain of the GBM system, the ISD is experiencing
both declining freshwater supplies and net erosion (Fig. 4), as has been recorded since
1969 (Hazra et al, 2002; Hazra, 2010).
The climate of the region is tropical with high relative humidity between 70-88
percent. The mean maximum temperature is 34C during June and the mean
minimum temperature is 11C during January. Although the region experiences

DISPOSITION OF FRESH / SALINE AQUIFER IN COASTAL TRACT,

SOUTH 24 PARGANAS DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL
SCALE
150 100 50
m.

50 100 150
m.

10

15

Km.

VERTICAL

Km.
HORIZONTAL

BASANTI
DIAMOND HARBOUR

MANDIR BAZAR

NIMPIT
JOYTISRAMPUR
GOSABA

Fig. 5: Disposition of sub-surface fresh/saline aquifers from Diamond Harbour in the

northwest to Gosaba in the east is depicted with the aid of lithological and hydrochemical
data from seven bore holes as observed by the Central Ground Water Board

SOURCE: S. P. SINHA RAY

CANNING

occasional rains through most of the year barring January and February (Chaudhuri
and Choudhury 1994), the monsoon period, which occurs between June and October
accounts for about 80 percent of the annual precipitation. The ISD is prone to extreme
storm events which are frequent during the pre-monsoon period, and from September
through November. Historical records indicate a high frequency of extreme weather
events, such as severe storms or cyclones.
There are three aquifer zones in the ISD (Fig.5), the shallower one occurs within 60m
below ground level (bgl) which is mostly brackish. The second zone occurring between
70-160m bgl is also brackish. The third aquifer zone, fresh in nature (sweet water),
occurs in the 160 m to 400m zone. The saline water aquifers at the top are separated
from the underlying freshwater group of aquifers by a thick clay layer varying in
thickness from 4m at Gangasagar to 120m at Kultali; the general thickness of the
intervening clay blanket is between 20-50m (Sinha Ray, 2010).
A pronounced ecological change is evolving in this delta due to huge discharges of
untreated domestic and industrial effluents carried by tributary rivers as well as the
disposal of contaminated mud from harbour dredging and resulting from the rapid
emergence of the Haldia Port Complex, a major oil disembarkment terminal in
eastern India. The Sundarbans delta has become susceptible to chemical pollutants
such as heavy metals, organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons which may have changed the estuary's geochemistry
and affected the local coastal environment (Sarkar et al, 2007; Guzzella et al, 2005;
Binelli et al, 2007). Due to a diversity of inputs such as agricultural runoffs,
wastewater and sewage discharges, and agricultural wastes, maximum concentrations
of organochlorine pesticide residues were recorded at sites located along the main
stream of the Hugli (Ganges) estuary. Among the hexachlorocyclohexane isomers
(HCHs) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane DDTs, -HCH and DDE predominate.
From an eco-toxicological point of view, the impacts of DDT and HCH are much
pronounced.

Sundarbans forest of the contiguous deltaic block in India and Bangladesh

extending up to 85 km inland is almost the same size as the mangrove tract of
Niger Delta but smaller than the West Africa mangrove coast

Groups/common name

Scientific name

IUCN Red List Status

REPTILES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Leatherback Sea Turtle

Hawksbill Sea Turtle
Olive Ridley Sea Turtle
River Terrapin
Three-striped Roofed Turtle
Red-crowned Roofed Turtle
Spotted Pond Turtle
Crowned-River Turtle
Narrow-headed Softshell Turtle
Asian Giant Softshell Turtle
Indian Softshell Turtle
Indian Peacock Softshell Turtle
Indian Rock Python
King Kobra

Dermochelys coriacea
Eretmochelys imbricata
Lepidochelys olivacea
Batagur baska
Batagur dhongoka
Batagur kachuga
Geoclemys hamiltonii
Hardella thurjii
Chitra indica
Pelochelys cantorii
Nilssonia gangetica
Nilssonia hurum
Python morulus
Ophiophagus hannah

Critically Endangered
Critically Endangered
Vulnerable
Critically Endangered
Endangered
Critically Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Near threatened
Vulnerable

BIRDS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

White-rumped Vulture
Greater Adjutant Stork
Lesser Adjutant Stork
Greater Spotted Eagle
Darter
Black-headed Ibis

Gyps bengalensis
Leptoptilos dubius
Leptoptilos javanicus
Aquila clanga
Anhinga melanogaster
Threskiornis melanocephalus

Critically Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Near Threatened
Near Threatened

MAMMALS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Royal Bengal Tiger

Fishing Cat
Gangetic Dolphin
Irrawaddy Dolphin
Finless Porpoise

Panthera tigris tigris

Prionailurus viverrina
Platanista gangetica
Orcaella brevirostris
Neophocaena phocaenoides

Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable

SOURCE: IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES; VERSION 2010.3 <WWW.IUCNREDLIST.ORG>VIEWED ON 20 OCTOBER 2010.

Table 1: Threatened or endangered fauna of ISD

Although resource estimation of ground water has not been carried out, utilising
Darcy's Law, it has been calculated that rate of ground water flow across the southern
boundary of Sundarbans is around 68MCM/year. The strata below 170m bgl can
therefore be tapped in a number of Community Development (CD) Blocks. The quality
of ground water in deeper aquifers occurring between 160-400m depth is generally
within permissible limits of drinking water standards set by the Bureau of Indian
Standards and is arsenic free; pH ranges between 7.8 and 8.2 indicating slight
alkalinity (ibid).
Water monitor

White-bellied sea eagle

As home to a significant portion of one of the world's largest contiguous block of

mangrove forests, the portion under natural vegetation in ISD holds a prominent
global place and a part of it has been designated as UNESCO World Heritage site in
1987 in recognition of its high biodiversity as well as the occurrence of endangered
and highly threatened species, including the only population of tigers found in a
coastal mangrove habitat.
The most prominent feature of the ISD is the ubiquitous mangrove ecosystem that
dominates the landscape. The ISD accounts for 85 per cent of all mangrove habitats
found in India; 63 of the 69 mangrove plant species found in the country exist in the
ISD (Kathiresan and Rajendran, 2005). More recent research suggests that the area
may hold up to 140 mangrove, mangrove associates, back mangrove and coastal zone
flora (Naskar, 2010). At least, seven of these mangrove species or species group are
threatened and require immediate conservation measures, viz., Aegiceras
corniculatum, Heritiera fomes, Kandelia kandel, Nypa fruticans, Rhizophora spp.,
S. apetala and S. caseolaris (Chaudhuri and Choudhury, 1994).
Although records for most faunal groups are fragmented and different estimates for
species numbers exist, Das and Nandi (1999) provide a total of 1434 recorded species.
However, recent estimates for certain phyla and orders illustrate that this is a
continually shifting tally; for instance, more recent studies have more than tripled the
number of recorded arachnids from ISD (Majumder, 2007).

Blue fiddler crab

Amongst the rich

biodiversity of Indian
Sundarbans Delta, at
least 13 reptiles, 6 birds
and 5 mammals are
currently classified as
threatened or
endangered

The mangroves of the ISD perform a variety of ecosystem services. They release about
6,000 tonnes/ha of litter over the course of a year, contributing vast amounts of
organic nutrients that support a range of ecosystem functions, including estuarine and
coastal fisheries for ecologically and commercially important species. They also act as
a barrier to the cyclones and storm surges, a role that is very important for the
protection of human settlements to the north. Alterations to and removal of mangrove
vegetation over time have led to a number of extirpations (local extinctions) as well as
the contraction of habitat for a number of species. Six species are known to now be
extirpated from ISD, namely: the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis); the swamp deer
(Cervus duvaucelli); the Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus); the great Indian
one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis); the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus); and
the chitra turtle (Chitra indica) (Chaudhuri and Choudhury 1994, Sanyal 1999).
Although there is no agreement among experts about past occurrence of R. Unicornis
in the region, there are published accounts claiming its historical presence in the
region (Ghosh, 1992; Reza et al, 2000). The barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak) is also
possibly locally extinct as it was last sighted in the 1970s (Sanyal 1999, Chatterjee
2004). A list of faunal species that are currently classified as threatened or
endangered is given in Table 1. The majority of these find place in the schedules of
Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, amended to date and/or IUCN Red Data Book.

There is relatively little reliable knowledge on the status of tiger populations (Note:
the official 2001 tiger census estimates 271 individuals in ISD) in the Sundarbans
delta as a whole in terms of ecology, range, population and mortality rate due to a
dearth of systematic studies, particularly joint studies by India and Bangladesh in the
border areas (Barlow, 2009). Since February 2010, a range of techniques including
camera traps, DNA sampling, pug mark surveys and the assessment of tiger claw
marks on trees have been engaged in the ISD to get a reliable estimate of tiger
numbers and these figures are yet to be released.

Indian Sundarbans Delta

HAROA

CD Blocks

MINAKHAN

HASNABAD

SANDESHKHALI - I

HINGALGANJ

LEGEND
International boundary
District boundary
Block boundary
Mouza boundary
Road
River & stream
Inhabited but not denotified

CANNING - II

SANDESHKHALI - II

JOYNAGAR - I
GOSABA
JOYNAGAR - II

BASANTI

MATHURAPUR - I

KULTALI
MATHURAPUR-II

KAKDWIP

SUNDARBANS RESERVED FOREST

PATHARPRATIMA
SAGAR

NAMKHANA

BAY

OF

BENGAL

Fig. 6: Administrative map of Sundarbans

10

B A N G L A D E S H

CANNING - I

1.2 Socio-economic profile

Although rain fed agriculture is the mainstay of the economy in the ISD, the socioeconomic profile is not uniform throughout the inhabited part of the ISD. This
differentiation is due to geographical characteristics, population composition and
their background, access to different sets of resources and subsequent occupational
specialisation, and the non-uniform pace of socio-economic transformation through
the region.
Bunds on agricultural fields
meant to delineate properties
and water management are
used to grow vegetable crops
in Kultali CD Block. This can
be attributed to the work of
Ramkrishna Ashram
in the field of agriculture

Embankments make it
possible to practice agriculture
in the ISD. However, these
breach often due to waves
accompanied by high winds

The main economic activity in the ISD, rain-fed paddy agriculture, is made possible by
the construction of earthen embankments to keep brackish tidal water at bay.
Historically, in the Sundarbans salt-tolerant paddy varieties such as Matla and
Hamilton could be cultivated on raised sections of the islands without embankments.
However, while searching for the six locally recalled salt-tolerant farmers' paddy
varieties, NBPGR informed availability of only two varieties; others developed over
centuries are believed to have been lost under the onslaught of green revolution
2
(Pers. comm. to Asish Ghosh, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, 2010) .
Administratively, the inhabited part of the ISD is composed of 19 CD Blocks (subdistricts) (Fig. 6). Two out of the 19 CD Blocks viz. Sagar and Gosaba have no road
connection with other islands, which makes these Blocks rather isolated and remote.
However, these two Blocks have a number of other positive attributes that compensate
for some of the disadvantages due to remoteness. Sagar Island is culturally considered
to be the end of the river Ganga and the island is known to the Hindu pilgrims as
Ganga Sagar. Around the middle of January every year on the day of Makar
Sankranti, the southern tip of Sagar attracts pilgrims from all over India, in hundreds
of thousands. A huge infrastructural set up is in place to cater to this large influx
which the local population can take advantage of through the year. This includes a
large rural hospital and a wide all-weather road running through the length of the
island. Similarly, the main entry point to the Sundarban Tiger Reserve adjoins the
otherwise remote Gosaba CD Block and therefore, income from tourism is the highest
here compared to other Blocks adjoining forest in the ISD. However, the forest fringe
villages in the four CD Blocks of Kultali, Basanti, Gosaba and Hingulganj are witness
to intensifying human-wildlife conflict with the ISD's tiger population that has
resulted in considerable loss of human life.
The CD Blocks that are closer and better connected to Kolkata and the district
headquarters enjoy greater advantages in terms of opportunities and access to services
such as grid electricity.
Lack of access to modern energy services (Fig. 7) limits opportunities in the more
remote islands of the ISD. For instance, perishables such as fish and vegetables fetch
smaller profits in the absence of facilities for storage and/or value addition. Poor
access to energy services and the consequent lack of opportunities is further
compounded by very high population density and poverty in the ISD; an extremely
high proportion of the population (about 34 percent) subsists below the poverty line.
This is accompanied by a high dependence on the natural system for biomass and
other terrestrial and aquatic resources leading to further degradation of the natural
ecosystem.

In July 2010, WWF-India was informed by Dr. Asish Ghosh about the possibility of accessing seeds of
'Hamilton' paddy from Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Calcutta. Only 25 grains of
Hamilton paddy could be obtained from the Calcutta University farm in Baruipur, a little south of Kolkata.
While 15 of these grains were passed on to Dr. Debal Deb, noted rice scientist, other 10 grains were passed on to
Umapati Sarkar, a farmer from Sandeshkhali II CD Block for further propagation. Both Dr. Deb and Mr.
Sarkar were successful in multiplying the number of seeds. Dr. Deb informed that tests showed that Hamilton
can withstand 14 ppt salinity. If ultimately re-introduced into the region, it could significantly enhance
adaptive capacity of the farmers against recurrent salt water inundation.

11

The population as we see it today in the ISD is mainly the result of immigration from
neighbouring areas. Sections of the population represent first generation immigrants
from other areas such as the East Midnapore district in West Bengal and parts of what
is now Bangladesh, adjoining the ISD. The others are descendants of settlers who
arrived during the days of colonial administration. There are two distinct categories
apparent among the past settlers. One group came to ISD in search of new
opportunities as the frontier was being opened up, while the other group came to
escape oppression in their places of origin. A further category consists of a small group
of people of tribal origin from Chotanagpur plateau who were brought to clear forest.
This group has remained on the margins of society, and quite literally on the margins
of the islands. As of now, the population is more or less evenly balanced between the
two major religions, Hinduism and Islam. The two main religious communities have
existed side by side in relative harmony for generations largely thanks to the frontier
characteristics of the population. Even so, disharmony along communal lines was
witnessed sometime in the 1940s (Danda, 2007). Amongst the Hindus, about 74
percent belong to the Scheduled Castes (SC) and 10 percent to the Scheduled Tribes
(ST); strictly speaking STs are not within the Hindu fold (ibid).

SOURCE: WB-WBGEDCL

Access to electricity in

Indian Sundarbans Delta

LEGEND
International boundary
District boundary
Block boundary
Mouza boundary
Forest reserved boundary
Road
Rail, Railway station
River & stream
Having Electricity
No electricity
Inhabited but not denotified

B A N G L A D E S H

SUNDARBANS RESERVED FOREST

BAY

OF

BENGAL

Fig. 6: Grid electricity distribution map of Sundarbans

12

In the ISD caste and religious identities are not found to be a strong determining
factor of access to opportunities possibly for two reasons, (i) land reforms and land
distribution undertaken by the state government, and (ii) rapid physical changes
along the edges of the islands. It is common to find caste fishermen to be marginal
farmers and caste farmers to be fishermen. Access to resources is also determined by
geographical location. For example, moving west to east, in decreasing order, we find
significant sections of population engaged in coastal fishery in Kakdwip, Namkhana,
Patharpratima, Kultali and Mathurapur II blocks but not further east whereas further
east, we find sections of population again in decreasing order, engaged in the
extraction of resources such as biomass, honey, fish etc, from forests and water
courses within forest area. Here, it is important to note that while coastal fisheries are
open-access, forest access is regulated.

Southern Health Improvement

Samiti has effectively used the
concept of on board mobile
medical dispensary.
Residents of islands are
the major beneficiaries
of such dispensaries that
run on pre-defined routes
and schedule

13

Excerpt from the Report of the World Heritage Committee, Eleventh session, 7-11 December 1987

2. GOVERNANCE AND
POLICIES

Of the 9,630 km of land that comprises the ISD, about 4,260

km is classified as reserved forest under the exclusive
jurisdiction of the state Forest Department. In December 1878,
the colonial administration notified the Sundarbans forest as
'Protected Forest'. These were lands that could be opened for
reclamation/conversion to agriculture with the consent of the
Forest Department. By designating the 24-Parganas tidal forests
as 'Protected' rather than 'Reserved' forests, the Forest Department left itself an
option: it could either lease these lands for clearing and conversion to farming, or it
could transfer them to timber production and management as reserved forests. By
May 1943, all residual 'Protected' forest was reclassified as 'Reserved' forest to
forestall any further reclamation/conversion. This forested part of ISD as we see it
today is overseen by the Director of the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve (SBR) through
the Divisional Forest Officer of 24-Parganas (South) Forest Divisions and the Field
Director of the Sundarban Tiger Reserve which came into being through a notification
in December 1973. All of the ISD was declared as Biosphere Reserve in March 1989
but the human inhabited part is de jure not under the jurisdiction of the Director of
Biosphere Reserve.
The Sundarban National Park within the Tiger Reserve was declared a World Heritage
Site in 1987 and is provided with the highest level of official protection, classified as a
Category Ia (Strict Nature Reserve) Protected Area under the IUCN classification
system. Despite the categorisation, the Forest Department is rather constrained by the
lack of adequate staff and infrastructure in its regular activity of protection, and this
fact also constrains opportunities for research regarding ecosystem functioning and
health.
In order to improve consideration of environmental sustainability issues,
conservation, and social and economic values of forests, the National Forest Policy
was redrafted in 1988, which subsequently led to the Joint Forest Management
Resolution of 1990. In accordance with this policy shift, the Government of West
Bengal issued two specific guidelines in 1991 and 1996, both of which have a bearing
on the management of Sundarbans forest. These are (1) Mangrove forest areas of
Sundarbans, and (2) National Parks and Sanctuaries of the State respectively.
Based on these notifications community based committees, devised to increase
community involvement in ecosystem management as well as to redistribute the
benefits of appropriate management more fairly were developed. Accordingly, 51
Forest Protection Committees (FPCs) and 14 Eco Development Committees (EDCs)
associated more specifically with National Parks and Sanctuaries, were constituted in
Sundarban Biosphere Reserve between 1993 and 1998 in 46 forest fringe villages
across seven CD Blocks. The EDCs, which were formed in villages adjoining
sanctuaries, are entitled to 25 percent of tourism receipts. However, due to the
discontinuation of coupe operations in the ISD's forest in accordance with a Supreme
Court directive in 1996, the share of forestry revenue that FPCs would have ordinarily
received is no longer available. This has created an unequal situation amongst the
committees in forest fringe villages which not only poses difficulties while seeking
community cooperation for management of forested region in ISD but also leaves
scope for corruption. The situation is under review so as to bring EDCs and FPCs at
par in terms of entitlement to tourism revenue. Nevertheless, despite these
difficulties, through positive engagement with the local population through EDCs and
FPCs, the Forest Department, since 2001, has been able to achieve zero mortality of
strayed tigers due to retaliation by villagers.
The 19 CD Blocks of the ISD fall within two separate districts of North 24 Parganas
and 24 Parganas (South). The highest unit of elected local self-government at the
district level is the Zilla Parishad followed by Panchayat Samiti at the block level, and
Gram Panchayat at the village cluster level. Parallel to this is the civil administration
headed by civil servants (Block Development Officers and others); direct governance
of the state government ends at the block level. Up to the block level, administration
of different spheres of governance is overseen by various departments assigned with
sectoral responsibilities.
15

 DAVID WOODFALL

HAROA
C.D Block SAGAR
Name of GP

Household No.

MURIGANGA-I

3211

MURIGANGA-II

3110

DAS PARA SUMATINAGAR-I 3226

C.D Block JAYNAGAR - I

Population

Name of GP

Household No.

18261

NARAYANI TALA

3368

C.D Block JAYNAGAR - II

Population

Name of GP

16362

FUTIGODA

Household No.

3695

KHAKUR DAHA

2045

10381

SAHAJADAPUR

3313

18320

JANGALIA

3244

16515

MOYDAH

2678

15217

17503

4050

20120

SAHEBKHALI

4185

19537

4392

26825

KALINAGAR

4195

21160

DURGAMANDAP

4138

21224

GOBINDAKATI

3120

15107

MONIRHAT

2995

17956

SEHARA RADHANAGAR 3404

17310

MONIPUR

3414

17444

JOGESHGANJ

4131

19927

NALGORA

1757

9214

KALITALA

3366

16682

6653

39635

18682

BAISHATA

DHABLAT

4400

26031

SRIPUR

3161

16738

GHORAMARA

899

5236

UTTAR DURGAPUR

2065

12351

BAHARU

2909

15657

CHUPRIJHARA

HINGALGANJ

CANNING - II

C.D Block NAMKHANA

Population

Name of GP

Household No.

2998

16289

MERIGUNJ-I

3051

18337

BUDHAKHALI

4475

23290

MADHUSUDANPUR

3206

17388

MERIGUNJ-II

2853

17143

NARAYANPUR

4193

22078

SRINAGAR

2472

13139

KUNDAKHALI GODABAR 3559

21307

NAMKHANA

5422

28354

SRI SRI RAMKRISHNA

5621

30186

JALABERIA-I

2943

16318

HARIPUR

4150

21765

PRATAPADITYA NAGAR 5780

29390

JALABERIA-II

2691

16491

SHIBRAMPUR

4843

26124

BAPUJI

20847

DEULBARI DEBIPUR

3789

21903

MOUSHUNI

3340

20013

5870

30237

RISHIBANKIM CHANDRA 4594

SWAMI VIVEKANANDA

24030

RAMGOPALPUR

16099

2975

C.D Block PATHARPRATIMA

Name of GP

DAKSHIN ROYPUR

3875

22620

MATHURAPUR-

2500

13828

MATHURAPUR - I

Household No.

Population

Name of GP

Household No.

3183

16350

GILARCHHAT
KASHINAGAR

2170

11366

DABIPUR

6375

33087

KAUTALA

2436

12822

2399

8050

43047

4090

23325

LALPUR

14402

RADHAKANTAPUR

1381

7151

18007

KRISHNACHANDRAPUR 1670

8379

DIGHPAR BAKULTALA

3134

16332

GOPALNAGAR

2595

14445

NALUA

4170

22849

RAIDIGHI

4555

24957

DURBACHATI

2883

16655

LAKSHMI-NARAYANPUR 2344

12096

KUMRAPARA

2857

15332

KANKANDIGHI

3954

21824

NAGENDRAPUR

3713

21355

NANDAKUMARPUR

4112

24095

PATHAR PRATIMA

4652

26604

UTTAR

3683

20404

LAKSHMI-NARAYANPUR 4626

G PLOT

4488

25601

DAKSHIN

SRIDHARNAGAR

2847

16353

ABID BHAGABANPUR

2996

16827

ACHINTYANAGAR

3826

22577

SANKARPUR

2464

15131

HERAMBAGOPALPUR

3518

19521

BANASHYAMNAGAR

2880

16402

SRINARAYANPUR PURNACHANDRAPUR

2740

14842

25841

International boundary
District boundary
Block boundary
Mouza boundary
Road
Rail, Railway station
River & stream
Reserved Forest
National Park
Wild Life Sanctuary
Core Zone
Buffer Zone
Inhabited but not denotified
Each colour patch represents one GP

KAKDWIP

PATHARPRATIMA
C.D Block MINAKHAN
Name of GP

ATPUKUR

Household No.

2980

Population

15978

MOHANPUR

3529

18613

BAMANPUKUR

3930

20759

MINAKHAN

5598

29222

KUMARIOLE

4173

24943

DHUTURDAHA

3072

17977

CHAITAL

3896

21506

CHAMPALI

3460

18122

SAGAR

NAMKHANA

Map not to Scale

BAY

Household No.

C.D Block CANNING - II

Population

Name of GP

OF

BENGAL

Household No.

C.D Block GOSABA

Population

Name of GP

Household No.

Population

MATLA-I

5493

26286

DEULI-I

2860

16519

RADHANAGAR-

TALDI

7527

37673

DEULI-II

2810

16159

TARANAGAR

DARIA

3673

19733

SARANGABAD

6183

37051

AMTOLI

2975

15304

HATPUKURIA

3558

20402

TAMBULDAH-I

4039

24021

CHOTOMOLLAKHALI

3746

18430

4196

21070

DIGHIRPAR

5580

27861

TAMBULDAH-II

2843

16212

KUMIRMARI

3336

16192

NIKARIGHATA

5031

27276

NARAYANPUR

4799

25307

SAMBHUNAGAR

2686

13953

ITKHOLA

3832

22403

MOTHERDIGHI

3952

22415

PATHANKHALI

2467

13503

GOPALPUR

4332

25880

KALIKATALA

2192

13238

BIPRADASPUR

3113

16064

BANSRA

7660

37113

ATHAROBANKI

4077

25045

C.D Block HASNABAD

LEGEND

Population

3058

BRAJABALLAVPUR

C.D Block CANNING - I

Name of GP

MATHURAPUR-II

C.D Block MATHURAPUR - II

DIGAMBARPUR

17210

BASANTI

18504

RAMGANGA

3129

JOYNAGAR - II

22994

PASCHIM

LAXMIJANARDANPUR

GOSABA

24924

C.D Block MATHURAPUR - I

Name of GP

GANGADHARPUR

JOYNAGAR - I

KULTALI

Population

Household No.

DAKSHIN -

MAIPITH BAIKUNTHAPUR 3755

3419

SANDESHKHALI - II

Population

SURJANAGAR

FRASERGANJ

SANDESHKHALI - I

B A N G L A D E S H

CANNING - I

28572

20831

KORAKATI

3422

4872

15952

4502

24546

HARI NARAYANPUR

GURGURIA BHUBANESWARI 4484

3390

SANDELER BILL

4731

27602

GOPALGANJ

HINGALGANJ

15771

NAZAT-II

4642

21559

15932

3207

22802

GANGA SAGAR

20162

2892

SANDESHKHALI

12827

3720

3916

BERMAJUR-II

20172

3768

GORDWANI

3596

16361

3598

2648

24345

RABINDRA

2993

SARBERIA AGARHATI

RUPAMARI

4923

NETAJI

BOYERMARI-II

DULDULI

DAKSHIN BARASAT

3768

Population

18034

18736

26984

Household No.

3681

16196

4553

Name of GP

Household No.

3439

RAMKAR CHAR

Population

BISHPUR

3326

22735

Household No.

10895

JELIAKHALI

17400

3897

Name of GP

1938

KHULNA

3180

BELEDURGANAGAR

C.D Block KULTALI

BERMAJUR-I

Name of GP

17285

MAYAHOWRI

37363

C.D Block KAKDWIP

14570

C.D Block HINGALGANJ

Population

9072

670

6599

25546

Household No.

3202

119

BAMAN GACHI

19416

2438

Name of GP

1631

CHALTA BERIA

25124

3503

BOYERMARI-I

C.D Block SANDESHKHALI - II

Population

NAZAT-I

18093

4340

DHOSA CHANDANESWAR 4520

Household No.

HATGACHHI

DAS PARA SUMATINAGAR-II 3080

RUDRA NAGAR

RAJAPUR KORABEG

Name of GP

Sundarban Biosphere Reserve

19041

18725

C.D Block SANDESHKHALI - I

MINAKHAN

Population

19588

HASNABAD

Name of GP

Household No.

KACHUKHALI

2462

11977

RANGABELIA

2721

13801

SATJELIA

3390

16693

LAHIRIPUR

4371

20752

GOSABA

3499

17169

BALLY-I

2332

11640

BALLY-II

3184

16274

C.D Block HAROA

Population

Name of GP

Household No.

C.D Block BASANTI

Population

Name of GP

23186

CHARAVIDYA

Household No.

23088

CHUNAKHALI

4020

21642

22260

FUL MALANCHA

5452

29883

3687

Population

MURARISHA

5327

28276

SALIPUR

4242

21138

BHEBIA

5462

27836

BORJURI

4036

MAKHALGACHHA

4131

22149

SONAPUKURSANKARPUR 4106

AMLANI

4108

20260

KULTI

4642

25843

KANTHAL BERIYA

3858

22905

HASNABAD

2932

14300

KHASBALANDA

4450

23474

AMJHARA

4104

23084

PATLIKHANPUR

3813

19299

HAROA

5752

29896

UTTAR MOKAMBERIYA

3384

18118

BARUNHAT-

4305

20903

GOPALPUR-I

6663

34775

R C KHALI

4639

26652

MASJID BATI

2543

13459

BHOWANIPUR-I

2061

10143

BASANTI

4648

25387

BHOWANIPUR-II

2820

14355

JYOTISHPUR

3150

16645

BHARATGARH

4675

26416

NAFARGANJ

2839

14767

JHARKHALI

1148

5848

RAMESWARPUR

The two departments that have the broadest administrative influence over the ISD are
the Sundarbans Affairs Department (SAD) and the Forest Department. The
Sundarban Development Board (SDB) was created in 1973 in order to address the
socio-economic backwardness of the region. In 1994, the SAD was developed as a
dedicated department under which the SDB was subsumed. The original mandate of
SDB was to coordinate activities of the various sectoral departments operating in the
ecoregion. However, the SDB has since morphed into a parallel implementation
agency with a range of divisions mirroring the departmental mandates of different
state departments (e.g., Agriculture, Fisheries, Social Forestry, and Civil Engineering).
Currently India is in its 11th Five-year Plan period, which spans from 2007 to 2012.
West Bengal has prepared its own state-level plan for the same period that reflects
specific state concerns and issues with a total budget for the five-year period. Under
the 11th Five-year Plan the state has specific provisions for the ISD. The Plan
highlights problems such as: limited livelihood opportunities; high proportion of
people belonging to backward communities; low levels of irrigation and cropping; 63
per cent unemployment rate; and a high dependency on natural resources that
threaten natural systems and protected areas (State Planning Board 2007b). It is
difficult to present CD Block-level income levels in the 19 CD Blocks as the Human
Development Reports of the two districts are not in the same format, making direct
comparison difficult. However, the data available clearly indicates that the CD Blocks
within ISD suffer greater levels of poverty than other CD Blocks in the same district.
This is illustrated in Table 2, which shows poverty levels in all the CD Blocks of 24Pargans (South), separating CD Blocks that (a) fall within the ISD, and (b) are located
outside the ISD. This shows how the average poverty ratio in the ISD is close to twice
as much as compared to CD Blocks located outside the ISD.

Severe cyclonic storms have

become more frequent over
the past 120 years. Cyclone
Aila devastated the ISD in
May 2009

22

Blocks of 24 Parganas
(South)
(a)

Standard

Poverty

(% of households)

of living rank

rank

CD Blocks that fall outside the ISD

Thakurpukur-Maheshtala
Budge Budge-I
Budge Budge-II
Bishnupur-I
Bishnupur-II
Sonarpur
Baruipur
Bhangar-I
Bhangar-II
Falta
Diamond Harbour-I
Diamond Harbour-II
Magrahat-I
Magrahat-II
Kulpi
Mandirbazar
Average poverty ratio
(B)

Poverty ratio

6.44
14.78
34.04
16.59
10.82
23.36
26.04
28.22
17.20
21.56
24.27
27.30
28.41
29.26
52.64
29.90
24.43

1
3
16
4
2
7
9
11
5
6
8
10
12
13
28
14

1
2
11
4
3
5
6
12
8
7
14
9
10
13
23
15

15
27
20
22
24
29
19
17
21
18
25
25
26

16
28
17
20
25
29
21
19
22
18
26
26
24

SOURCE: DISTRICT HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT: SOUTH 24 PARGANAS

Table 2: Human development in the CD Blocks of 24-Pargans

(South) (a) outside the ISD and (b) inside the ISD

CD Blocks that fall within the ISD

Canning I
Canning II
Jaynagar I
Jaynagar II
Kultali
Basanti
Gosaba
Mathurapur I
Mathurapur II
Kakdwip
Sagar
Namkhana
Patharpratima
Average poverty ratio

31.05
50.32
39.57
42.60
46.36
64.89
38.03
34.43
39.56
34.91
44.17
48.17
49.13
43.32

23

Specific policy objectives outlined include (State Planning Board 2007a; State
Planning Board 2007b):
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

Extending irrigation systems through water harvesting or other appropriate

means to allow for the cultivation of second crops and investigating
possibilities of horticultural expansion
Constructing and maintaining embankments
Improving connectivity (e.g., roads, bridges, culverts)
Extending the provision of services such as drinking water and electricity,
particularly to scheduled caste (SC) and scheduled tribe (ST) communities
Improving marketing infrastructure
Developing skills to improve the scope of non-agricultural employment
Supporting pisciculture activities
Improving education facilities with a focus on women as well as SC and ST
communities
Pursuing afforestation with community involvement
Ensuring community participation in local governance.

In India, special provisions for coastal management are provided under the 1991
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) notification number S.O. 114(E) amended till date, of
the Ministry of Environment and Forests. This covers all areas within 500m of the
high tide line and provides guidance and stipulates restrictions governing
development of industries, management of waste, processing standards, mining of
coastal resources, construction, and groundwater extraction (within 200m of the high
tide line). This notification covers the whole of the ISD under different CRZ
categories. The CRZ I category is applied to: all the forested areas of the ISD; all sand
dunes; all land that lies within 100m of a tidal creek; all uninhabited islands, and
Sagar Island. The rest of the ISD is under CRZ III category.
Although the provisions of CRZ have not yet been implemented in West Bengal, in
1997, West Bengal was the first state in India to submit a Coastal Zone Management
Plan (CZMP). A new state-level Integrated Coastal Management Plan is being
developed by the government with support from the World Bank and it is expected to
be released by the end of 2010 (Pers. comm. to Gayathri Sriskanthan, Bhattacharya
2010).

Embankments with gentle

slope, wide tops, and
mangrove vegetation in front
withstood the onslaught of
cyclone Aila

24

West Bengal initiated a state disaster management policy and framework in 2005 that
outlined a strategy for: (a) pre-disaster, (b) disaster phase, and (c) post-disaster
response (Department of Disaster Management, 2005). This document outlines an
implementation framework that includes the development of institutional
mechanisms for implementation; a broad mitigation and prevention strategy that
includes targets to develop a land-use planning framework; and disaster management
planning down to the district and block levels including the ISD. However, this does
not seem to have been operationalised as was evident in the inadquacy of the response
to cyclone Aila that devastated the ISD in May 2009.
Embankment slope
stabilization
could be achieved using
mangrove and other
vegetation as buffers

The management of the embankment system is vital for the protection and
maintenance of agrarian land use and human habitation in the ISD. During the
colonial administration, embankment management was governed by the Bengal
Embankment Act, 1882. In independent India, responsibility for maintaining the
embankment systems of the ISD was passed on to the Drainage Wing of the Irrigation
Department, Government of West Bengal. This department has considerable
experience in riverine flood embankment management but there is a lack of expertise
in the design, construction and maintenance of embankments in the very specific and
different conditions of a macro-tidal regime like the ISD. The Embankment Act was
last amended in 1967 and there is considerable scope to update and improve both the
management arrangements and legislation that currently oversees the ISD's
embankment system.
Current understanding of how the embankment system should be managed is
somewhat unclear at the policy level and debated at the technical level. At the
technical level, discussion on embankment management has looked at the application
of geo-jute supplements and bolder pitching (Hazra 2002, Sanyal 2005); reducing
pore water pressure through improving drainage (Bhandari 2005); and using
mangroves and other vegetation as buffers and for slope stabilisation (Hazra 2002,
Bhandhari 2005, Sanyal 2005). One aspect that is currently not being looked into as
regards maintenance of embankments is ownership. Earlier, the zamindars were the
owners and maintained these in their own interest as private property. With the
abolition of zamindari system, ownership of these structures was placed with the state
rather than pursuing the option of greater community ownership. A common property
arrangement, rather than a public property model, might have encouraged the
communities on the islands to be more proactive in embankment maintenance.
Currently, there is little community involvement and a culture of dependency on the
state for embankment management, despite the obvious and direct benefits of good
management to the immediate community.

Reducing pore water pressure

through improved drainage
could possibly ensure longer
life of embankments.

25

3. DRIVERS OF
CHANGE

3.1 Climate

Although the earth is passing through a period of natural warming for

about 18000 years, the global warming experienced since the last century
is attributed largely to anthropogenic factors (IPCC, 2007). However, it is
sometimes difficult to be unambiguous in attributing the current changes
in ISD to climate change. Nevertheless, the changes are perceptible in
terms of changes in sea surface temperature, sea level rise, and changes
in the precipitation pattern and occurrence of cyclone events.
3.1.1 Sea level rise
The ISD is presently under the threat of severe coastal erosion due to relative sea level
rise (Hazra et al, 2002). The relative sea level change has been measured from
observed tide data for the period 2002 through 2009. Although it may be argued that
year-on-year variability of annual relative sea level change from short periods of data
makes the determination of long-term trends very unreliable, the analysis of 50 years
of data from the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level (PSMSL) from three of the
four data stations in the Hugli estuary appears to show sea level increase of between
+0.76mm/year and +5.22 mm/year at different locations in the ISD (Nandy and
Bandypadhyay 2008).
The tide gauge data of Sagar Island observatory for the period 2002-2009 indicated a
rise in the Relative Mean Sea Level (RMSL) at the rate of 12 mm/year during the
decade (Hazra, 2010). Considering the record of past 25 years, the rate of relative sea
level rise comes close to 8 mm/year, which of course is significantly higher than the
rate of 3.14mm/year observed during the previous decade (Hazra et al, 2002). Besides
global warming and subsequent thermal expansion of water, subsidence which for the
Bengal Delta(s) is rather rapid (2-4 mm/yr), compaction of silt and other local causes
may be responsible for the exceptionally high rate of relative sea level rise in the
Indian Sundarbans. The mean tide level in ISD seems to vary in close correlation with
sea surface temperature (SST) in the Bay of Bengal.

ANURAG DANDA

27

INTER ANNUAL CHANGE OF MEAN TIDE LEVEL

WITH SST(2003-2009)
28.8
28.6
28.4
28.2
28
27.8
27.6
27.4
27.2
27

3150
3100
3050
3000
2950
2900

MEAN TIDE LEVEL

IN METRE
SST IN DEGREE
CELCIUS

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

3.1.2 Temperature change

Surface air temperatures over the Bay of Bengal have been found to be rising at a rate
of 0.019C per year and a similar trend has been observed in the data collected from
the ISD. Current projections estimate that the temperature in the ISD will rise by 1C
by 2050 (Hazra et al, 2002). The annual composite SST data during the period 20032009 varied from 28.023C in the year 2004 to 29.381C in the year 2009. During
this period the SST showed rising trend at the rate of 0.0453C/year and reached the
highest level in the last year under study (Hazra, 2010). This rate observed from the
study is found to be in conformity with the estimation done by Singh (2002), which
estimates a decadal rate of about 0.4C to 0.5C. Increase in sea surface temperatures
has a bearing on chemical composition of sea water in terms of increased acidification
and decreased dissolved oxygen levels.
3.1.3 Changes in precipitation and cyclone activity
Cyclones are rare in Bay of Bengal from January to March. In April and May, these
form in the south and adjoining central Bay and move initially northwest, north and
then recurve to the northeast often striking the Arakan coast in April and AndhraOrissa-West Bengal-Bangladesh coasts in May. Most of the monsoon (June September) storms develop in the central and in the north Bay and move west-northwestwards affecting Andhra-Orissa-West Bengal coasts. Post monsoon (OctoberDecember) storms form mostly in the south and the central Bay, recurve between 15
and 18 N affecting Tamil Nadu-Andhra Orissa-West Bengal-Bangladesh coasts.
Pre- and Post-monsoon storms are more violent than the storms of the monsoon
season. Life span of a severe cyclonic storm in the Indian seas averages about 4 days
from the time it forms until it makes landfall. Severe cyclonic storms over Bay of
Bengal registered 26 percent increase over last 120 years, intensifying in post
monsoon (Singh, 2007). During the last part of the decade (2007-2009) the northern
part of Bay of Bengal has witnessed four cyclones Sidr, Nargis, Bijli and Aila.
In the ISD, cyclones bring strong wind, heavy rainfall and flooding, resulting in severe
coastal erosion and embankment failure.
Analyses reveal that the frequency of storms, surges, depressions, and cyclones has
actually decreased in the ISD. This pattern appears to be in line with global climate
models which also predict declines in cyclone frequency. For example, the decadal
frequency of storms in the Bay of Bengal from 1891 to 1961 as per the record of Indian
Meteorological Department (1964) indicates that 56 cyclones occurred during 19211930, while a lower number of 32 storms were reported for the period 1951-1960
(Gopinath and Seralathan, 2005). However, the intensity of these events appears to be
increasing, possibly as a result of rising sea surface temperatures (Hazra et al, 2002).
Analyses of cyclonic events over the last 120 years indicate a 26 percent rise in the
frequency of high to very high intensity cyclones over this time period (Singh, 2007).

Rise of frequency of severe

cyclonic storms over Bay of
Bengal during the past 120
years

Pentad running average

Best fit

90

80

Pentad running IR averag

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

28

2001

1991

1996

1981

1986

1971

1976

1961

1966

1951

1956

1941

Years

1946

1931

1936

1926

1911

1921

1916

1901

1906

1891

1896

1881

1886

3.2 Population
As reported in the last official census in 2001, the population of the ISD residing in the
19 CD Blocks was 3.8 million and the next official census for 2011 is currently
underway. The population in the ISD is essentially rural but still exhibits high
population density (Fig. 8); in 2001, the average population density of the 19 CD
blocks varied between 615 to 1,738 persons/km, with an average density of 925
persons/km. This is higher than the average of 904 persons/km for the state of
West Bengal (DPD, 2004). While the population of the ISD has grown significantly
since 1951 due to a combination of natural growth and immigration, (Danda, 2007),
the overall land area has been steadily decreasing; since 1969 there has been a loss of
210 km2, and since the beginning of 2001, the net loss stands at 44km2 (Hazra, 2010).
The absence of high value return from land is due to lack of diversity of options in
agriculture. Agricultural practice in the ISD is mostly subsistence in nature, and the
communities on the islands largely depend on natural ecosystems for biomass needs,
creating a direct link between poverty and ecosystem degradation.
3.3 Market
The political rise of the Left Front to power in the state of West Bengal in 1977 marked
the beginning of over three decades of left-wing coalition rule. The Left Front
government implemented land reform to a good extent which provided permanent
and inheritable rights to sharecroppers who had cultivated the same piece of land for
some time (DPD, 2004). The aim of the reform was to reduce the insecurity of
sharecroppers, which it has achieved in the ISD. Even so, over half the population is
composed of landless labourers.
The vast majority of livelihoods in the ISD are dependent on rain-fed agriculture.
Open access resources also provide an important basis for the livelihoods of the
people of the ISD. Fishing, crab harvesting, wild shrimp seed collection, and the
utilisation of forest resources are all market driven activities as is brackish water
aquaculture. Small-scale pisciculture is carried out at subsistence level and to cater to
local markets. Other economic activities, such as transport provision, small-scale
commerce and tourism also play a subsidiary role in defining the local economy.
SOURCE: SCHOOL OF OCEANOGRAPHIC STUDIES, JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY

Fig. 8: Population map of Sundarbans

29

 NASA

Sidr on 14 November 2007

4. IMPACTS OF
DRIVERS

4.1 Natural environment

Degradation of natural ecosystems in the ISD is caused both by direct human

activities and natural environmental changes. In terms of forest degradation,
there have been no comprehensive studies to pinpoint which drivers are more
significant, though there is now better knowledge on the scale of forest loss.
Recent studies by the School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University
(Hazra, 2010), examining existing data and satellite maps of forested areas of the
ISD estimate that there has been a 5 percent loss of cover in the 20 years between
1989 and 2009. The same study has found that often degraded forest is being replaced by
saline blanks, further reducing forest cover. The creation of saline blanks is largely attributed
to sporadic inundation of the upper reaches of the island during high tide and storm surges and
subsequent drying.

As far as the impacts of climate change on other components of the natural environment are
concerned, except for changes in the physical components mentioned in Section 3, there is
insufficient knowledge to attribute changes directly to climate change. However, it has been
shown in other studies, that climate induced increase in surface-ocean stratification has effects
on phytoplankton productivity which may lead to an overall decrease in primary production.
By the end of 2100, the expected increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide is likely to give rise
to an almost three-fold increase in CO2 concentration of surface water of the Bay of Bengal;
these changes will affect sea water pH and enzymatic activities of phytoplankton (Kawser et
al, 2003).
In a recent assessment by Beaumont et al (2010), using >600 realizations from climate model
ensembles, of the likelihood that by 2070, the Global 200 iconic ecoregions of which the
Sundarbans is one will regularly experience monthly climatic conditions that were extreme in
1961-1990, show that up to 86percent of terrestrial and 83percent of freshwater ecoregions
will be exposed to average monthly temperature patterns >2 Standard Deviations (2) of the

31

1961-1990 baseline. Tropical and subtropical ecoregions, and mangroves, face extreme
1
conditions earliest, some with <1 C warming. These results suggest many Global 200
ecoregions may be under substantial climatic stress by 2100.
One can more confidently identify perceived changes in the ISD that are due to population rise
and market forces. For example, declining fish catch per effort is due to the extraction of near
shore biological resources at unsustainable levels (Fisheries Department, 2008). A number of
harvesting practices such as ring seining, mini-trawling and purse seining are known for their
decimating impacts on the juvenile populations. As elsewhere, fishing operations are not only
becoming more mechanised, more people in absolute numbers have also become engaged in
this activity in the ISD (ibid).
4.2 Socio-economic
The increased intensity of extreme events in the ISD, potentially due to climate change, poses
great challenges to the safety of the human settlements in the delta. It is estimated that in the
last 30 years approximately 7,000 people have been displaced from their original homes and/or
islands in the ISD as a direct result of sea level rise, coastal erosion, cyclone incidences and
coastal flooding. The economic cost due to this in the last 20 years is estimated to include
property damage worth Rupees 1,035 million (Hazra et al, 2002). The ISD is particularly
vulnerable to coastal flooding and it is understood that about 1.35 million people are currently
at high risk from sea level rise, storm surges and coastal flooding with a further 2.4 million
people exposed to moderate risk (ibid). It may well be accepted that the present population in
the ISD is living under the constant threat of natural disasters, compromising their safety and
socio-economic security, thus reducing their ability to pursue a secure and sustainable
existence.

The Global 200 comprises 238 ecoregions of exceptional biodiversity (Olson DM,
Dinerstein E, 2002)

32

Human health issues in the ISD are undoubtedly shaped by the underlying characteristics of
the area. A high population density, lower availability of health care facilities and problems
with the provision of adequate sanitation all contribute to an increased vulnerability to health
risks. Poverty and gender inequity issues are manifested in the fact that West Bengal sits well
below the national average in terms of rates of chronic nutritional energy deficiency
and anaemia in women, the prevalence of which is ever greater in rural areas such as
the ISD. Similarly, children between the ages of 1-3 constitute a particularly
nutritionally deprived group. Decreased food security may result in a magnification of
these patterns (DPD, 2004).
Studies carried out by the School of Oceanographic Studies (Hazra, 2010) referred to
earlier, have observed that there is a significant increase in the settlement area
from1226 km2 to 1666 km2, while the available agricultural land has reduced from
2149 km2 to 1691 km2 during the period 2001-2008. This conversion, along with the
growth of population implies an increasing threat to food security in ISD. The study
also found a small increase in the aquaculture farms (particularly in North 24
Parganas) from 603 km2 to 649 km2, which could be due to market pressure or due to
aquaculture operations utilising land that has become unsuitable for agriculture
because of prolonged or repeated salt water inundation. Irrespective of the reason for
the observed increase, it is common knowledge that socio-economic pattern of the
local population undergoes a negative change due to conversion of land to aquafarms.

33

5. INDIAN SUNDARBANS
DELTA IN 2050
A VISION

5.1 Background

The pattern of governance in the ISD has so

far struggled to keep up with the
management and development challenges
posed by this complex system. Given the
disproportionately heavy impact that climate
change is expected to have on this delta area,
the need to improve adaptive management
and develop more appropriate solutions for
this unique system has become acutely
urgent. Changes, in the face of climate
change, are required in the broader context
of physical limitations of a delta system, national development and human settlement
management, biodiversity conservation, and transboundary cooperation. Putting the
ISD in perspective and accounting for this broader context will be crucial if correct
management decisions are to be made.
If current policies and patterns of development continue, the ISD is likely to face steep
and insurmountable challenges in coping with the pressures of predicted changes,
particularly in the face of population growth and impacts of climate change. To date,
the gravity of these challenges has not been publicly recognised. The ISD is in need of
early, proactive and informed interventions by all actors involved in the management
and development of this area, especially the state and national governments.
The growing consensus among a vast body of scientists and experts from all over the
world is that unless highly informed and sometimes bold changes in policy and
governance are introduced, coping with the pressures of predicted changes will be
nearly impossible (Gleditsch et al, 2007).
In view of the grave situation facing the ISD and the fact that without much needed
change, this environmentally and economically important area is rapidly heading
towards an uncertain future, WWF, in the course of conservation work in the region,
is suggesting an alternative scenario to the business as usual, informed by the best
available current knowledge and research, for the consideration of decision makers.
The aim of this alternative scenario is to stimulate reasoned public discussion. This

35

Vision document takes a long-term perspective of 40 years into the future. Where do
we want to be by 2050 in terms of the status of the ISD's economy, culture,
communities, social and economic indicators, sustainability of the delta's ecosystems,
water availability and security from climate change and extreme events?
The Vision 2050 scenario that follows is merely indicative and, within the limits of
this short study, cannot by any means be exhaustive. Moreover, the scenario also
needs to be put through rigorous economic and social analysis to arrive at benefits
that would accrue and the costs involved vis--vis the cost of inaction or maintaining
status quo. The scenario operates within the boundary conditions laid by the present
freshwater flow in River Hugli. It is assumed that freshwater flow in the river will
remain at the present levels. The scenario is simultaneously aimed at continued
human development with reduced threats from extreme events, and restoration of the
mangrove ecosystem and related ecosystem services in the long run. At present, the
aim of developing a specific scenario is to stimulate reasoned public discussion and
action to consider some of the ideas presented. The scenario can be made operational
in a phased manner. WWF, in collaboration with other organisations, will in the
immediate future take up economic and social analysis of the scenario to take the
vision development process further.

SUNDARBANS

HAROA

BIOSPHERE DISTRICT
2050

MINAKHAN

HASNABAD

SANDESHKHALI - I

HINGALGANJ

CANNING - II

LEGEND
SANDESHKHALI - II

International boundary
District boundary
Block boundary
Mouza boundary
Road
River & stream
Inhabited but not denotified

CANNING - I

JOYNAGAR - I

GOSABA

JOYNAGAR - II

BASANTI

MATHURAPUR - I

KULTALI
MATHURAPUR-II

KAKDWIP

PATHARPRATIMA
SAGAR

NAMKHANA

Fig. 9: The area below the green line could be considered for mangrove restoration

36

5.2 Delta Vision

The Vision: Enhanced protection for human economic activities together with
restoration of mangrove forests, and encouragement of phased and systematic
outmigration.

technologies

infrastructure

Human

producer goods

Capital
Assets

Savings

Financial
credit

health

knowledge

Physical

In order to provide a safer place for the people to live in as well as to restore the
mangrove forests to conserve ecosystems and ensure ecosystem services, including
biodiversity, serious alterations in the strategy for the management of the ISD are
needed. Decision makers and managers of the ISD will hardly have any control over
extraneous drivers of change such as the climate and, to a large extent, market forces.
However, they can alter present policies and pattern of governance.

skills

connectedness
networks
Social
exchanges trust

wages role in decision making

Political

Furthermore, restoration of the mangrove forests and their ecosystem services would
expectedly generate good economic returns in the long run. The local as well as global
institutions would be jointly responsible for raising the finances for the realisation of
this vision. The following scenario is suggested from this background.

well organised communities

However, if the vision is to be realised, the whole process needs to be based on new
and interdisciplinary knowledge of science and policy. Therefore, at the very outset,
establishment of an independent research institution for taking up interdisciplinary
research is suggested as part of the vision. This research institution should have the
autonomy to undertake research and create a knowledge centre on the ISD. In this, it
should collaborate with national and international centres of research.
Phase I:
For making the scenario operational, to begin with, the area of the ISD (19 CD Blocks)
should be identified as a single administrative unit instead of being part of two
separate districts. Furthermore, the area currently demarcated as the Sundarban
Biosphere Reserve (SBR) should be reconstituted as a 'Biosphere District' with
scheduled area status. The governance structure in the 'Biosphere District' would
have to take into account the roles of state Forest Department, especially the
Sundarban Biosphere Directorate; Sundarban Affairs Department; and the three-tier
local self-government mechanism; all similarly important stakeholders. Additionally,
the Fisheries Department, which as of now remains at the margins so far as
management of the ISD is concerned, would have to be made an equal stakeholder.
The 'Biosphere District' with scheduled area status should institutionalise restriction
of outsiders from acquiring land and obtaining permanent residence in the area so as
to check population growth through immigration. This would not only help check
runaway population growth, but also constrict the land market. This is necessary for
two reasons. Firstly, development indicators of the island CD Blocks compare poorly
with other CD Blocks of the ISD and the rest of the two 24-Parganas Districts.
Secondly, as per its own admission in the District Human Development Reports of
2010, it is going to be an extremely uphill task for the Government to bring the
indicators at par with the best in the state and therefore, the population in these CD
Blocks (marked by the green line in Fig. 9) need to be provided appropriate mobility
and opportunity within the 'Biosphere District' as well as the neighbouring areas.
Development of facilities and infrastructure for enhanced opportunities need to
precede any encouragement towards mobility, both physical and occupational.
The green line is also approximately the limit of tidally active creeks, indicating the
ecological appropriateness of these areas for the restoration of the mangrove forests.
This line demarcates 45 Gram Panchayats within six island CD Blocks (Sagar and
Namkhana have been left out for reasons that will be explained below) comprising of
207 mouzas (revenue villages) which within the 'Biosphere District' would need
special support and finances in terms of developing the capacity of the population to
make a living from non-farm/secondary or tertiary production activities. Planning for
capacity building of this population should be a major activity in Phase I for the
implementation of the Vision. Such planning should necessarily be preceded by an
exhaustive social audit not only in the area demarcated by the green line on Map 5.1
but also in neighbouring areas.

37

ISD in 2050

The eight CD Blocks of Sagar, Namkhana, Patharpratima, Kultali, Basanti, Gosaba,

Sandeshkhali II, and Hingulganj have common geomorphological characteristics in
terms of being substantially or totally disconnected from mainland by tidal channels.
Thus, they present similar challenges for sustainable development; Sagar and Gosaba
CD blocks are totally composed of islands and cannot be reached by land transport at
all. The green line on the map leaves out Sagar and Namkhana because these are
important destinations of religious and beach tourism respectively and therefore, are
beneficiaries of substantial investments in terms of metalled roads and electricity
supply (Sagar is yet to be connected to the grid but the process is currently underway).
The remaining six CD Blocks are laggards in every development indicator barring
primary education. In drawing the green line, the current Gram Panchayats have been
taken as the smallest unit. The green line suggested here is only illustrative and
further research may result in a different alignment.
Phase II:
In this phase, physical infrastructure should be developed in the outer margin of the
'Biosphere District' as well as in the two neighbouring districts for absorption of the
younger section of the population that is expected to gradually emigrate from the area
below the green line allowing for restoration of mangrove forest. The physical
infrastructure to be developed should take into account the current and predicted
impacts of extreme events of high intensity and consequent flooding. These newly
developed places should preferentially not only provide secure housing and other civic
amenities but also opportunities for development of human capital and offUnder the business as usual scenario, farm/livelihoods in secondary or tertiary production activities. These could be
without appropriate land management
and planning, islands are likely to be developed around places such as Kakdwip, Raidighi, Jamtala, Canning, and Malancha.
prone to severe inundation

Phase III:
In Phase III, the population of 8,14,186 individuals below the green line on the map
as per 2001 census should be provided counselling, and strong financial inducements
including compensation for the amount of land they have access to so that it becomes
an attractive proposition for at least the younger section of the population to take up
residence in the newly developed areas and make use of the infrastructure there to
enhance their human, social, political, financial and physical capital. However, despite
financial compensation, the population or sections thereof could continue to live at
their current locations should they choose to.

SANCTUARY ASIA

Sundarbans delta might

witness transboundary
cooperation in light
of climate change

39

Phase IV:
In Phase IV, as the population below the green line starts to migrate to the newly
developed areas, the land if unused by the current access right holders should be
restored as mangrove forest. The total restored area by 2050 could be around 1190
km2. After 2050, investments should only be made for ecosystem restoration.
5.3 Analysis
In this four-phase approach it is envisaged that there will be improvement in human
development, prevention of avoidable loss of life and livelihood due to high intensity
weather events, partial reversal of ecosystem degradation attributed to the colonial
period, and improvement in ecosystem services. Returns from a healthy mangrove
ecosystem in terms of ecosystem services are known to be in the range of US$ 2000 to
9000 per hectare per year (Spalding et al, 2010) which is not necessarily the case with
built environment.
The partial reversal that is suggested here could provide benefits in the form of
increased natural protection to areas further north, increased productivity of Bay of
Bengal fisheries, opportunities for tourism, and an increase of natural habitat by 28
percent within the SBR. This increase in natural area would compensate for the
current and predicted loss of land due to relative sea level rise and erosion over the
next two centuries.
Along with the four-phase approach for human well being and enhanced ecosystems,
there is a need for a tourism plan to create a profit line through exploitation of
increased natural capital. A research plan for coordinated monitoring of social,
biological and physical parameters, and a plan for transboundary collaboration
ultimately aimed at higher level organisational/operational integration are also
needed so to complement the efforts on the Indian side by corresponding efforts on
the Bangladesh side. As of now only about 15 percent of the Sundarbans forest in India
and Bangladesh taken together is within the 'Protected Area' network. Within this 15
percent, India's contribution is about 80 percent in the form of one National Park and
three Wildlife Sanctuaries; Bangladesh's contribution is in the form three Wild Life
Sanctuaries. The Indian part being the smaller part of the total area of the
Sundarbans, restoration as envisaged in the Scenario will have limited global impact
and therefore, opportunities for effective conservation will have to be sought in
Bangladesh through collaboration. However, for Bangladesh, the Sundarbans is a
principal source for forest resources. The challenges for Bangladesh to protect the
Sundarbans forest are considerable. The opportunities for effective conservation
would be far greater only if efforts at restoration of mangrove ecosystems are made
simultaneously in India and Bangladesh. Therefore, a comprehensive transboundary
collaborative plan is in order.
5.4 Public consultation
This Vision Scenario was discussed with at least 500 residents of the ISD at three
different locations during consultative sessions in April-May 2010. Only about 5
percent of the participants thought emigration was possible. This may partly be due to
the fact that current circumstances present few opportunities for positive emigration
and the inhabitants of the region feel that current opportunities for change are
limited. The experience of involuntarily displaced people in other parts of the country
in terms of rehabilitation and resettlement may also be partly responsible for the
current position on emigration that the people of ISD are taking. The perception of
how feasible the proposed scenario is could be markedly different if a carefully phased
out, participatory capacity building and empowerment is pursued. In such
circumstances moving away from high-risk areas towards better opportunities may
appear as the most attractive option for the younger section of the population. Even in
countries that have more economic resources than India, it is becoming clear that
moving away from high-risk areas is and should be a preferable option. Hurricane
Katrina and its aftermath in New Orleans, USA is a case in point.

40