FLORA OF

JAMMU & KASHMIR

Volume I
Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms (Ranunculaceae -
Moringaceae )

Editors
N.P. SINGH
D.K SINGH
 B.P. UNIYAL

With contributions by
D,K. Singh, S. Kumar, S.K. Murti, S.C. Majumder, HOC. Pande,
B.P. Uniyal, D. Basu, R. Mathur, B. Balodi, U. Chaudhary, P.C. Pant,
B.D. Naithani, Surender Singh, S. Rajeshwari and assistance from
Amit Chauhan & Prashant K. Pusalkar

Q•-äa-or

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA Ministry of

Environment and Forests
O Government of India

Date of Publicaüon : December, 2002

No part of this publication can be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

transmitted, in any form or means by electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of the Director, Botanical
Survey of India.
ISBN: 81-8177-oocs

Price : Rs. 80.00

US$ 80.00

Published by the Director, Survey of India, P-8, Brabourne Road, Kolkata-700 001;
Composed at Unit, Botuical Survey of India, Northem Circle, Dehradun and
printed at Shiva Offset Press, 14 Old Connaught Place. -248001.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT & FORESTS

Phone : 033-22436050
Telefax : 033-22424922
Gram : BOTSURVEY
E-mail : [email protected]

Dr. M. Sanjappa BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

DIRECTOR *1-8 001
P-8. Brabourne Road. Kolkata-70() 001
FOREWORD

Biodiversity is the biological wealth of the planet earth, which is

absolutely essential for environmental safety and economic security of the
world. According to estimates of some biologists there are over five, or
perhaps as many as ten million species of plants, animals and microorganisms
in the world. It has taken millions Of years Of evolution to bring about this
enormous diversity of life on earth. However, in recent years man has not
been careful enough in handling this biological wealth and merrily continues
with his incompatible activities that have impoverished this 'gene bank'

India as one of the twelve mega-biodiversity countries in the world is

committed to implementing the basic tenets of the Convention on Biological
Diversity it signed a decade ago at Rio de Janero. These are conservation,
sustainable use, and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the
utilisation of the components of biodiversity. Flowering Plants form a sizeable
part of this biodiversity. They play an important role in sustainable economic
development and form a major part of the habitat for other elements of
biodiversity. Identification of the plant resources Of a country and
development of a sound database on them are prerequisites for effective
conservation, management and sustainable utilisation of these resources.

The Botanical Survey of India has been documenting the plant

diversity in the country in the form of district, state, regional and national
Floras. This first volume Of the Flora of Jammu & Kashmir, one of the richest
states in terms of plant diversity, endemism and uniqueness of certain species
and ecosystems, is another important contribution by the department which is
singularly significant since it is published at a time when the country joins the
rest of the world in celebrating the "International Year of Mountains". It
presents an exhaustive taxonomic account of pteridophytes, gymnosperms
and angiosperms comprising 195,20 and 664 species respectively. I am sure
that this volume will be useful to various stakeholders of the biodiversity in
the country in general and the state of Jammu & Kashmir in particular.

I congratulate the conu•ibutors and editors of this cornprehensive work for

the commendable job.

Date: 13. 12. 2002

Place: Kolkata
 PREFACE

Biodiversity is one of the most defining features of the nature, vital for
the ecological security of a region and livelihood security of millions of those
who critically depend upon it for their daily sustenance. Floristic component
of the biodiversity is the major provider of ecosystem services and is basic to
meet livelihood needs of not only the human beings but all other animals at
large. The judicious management of floristic resources is, therefore,
paramount to ensure the conservation of biodiversity, its sustainable
utilization and equitability in benefit sharing as ordained in the Convention
on Biological Diveristy. In this context the floristic inventories play a
significant role in increasing our understanding and information level on the
availability of resources and its relationship with the mankind.

The biogeographically strategic location of Jammu & Kashmir,

coupled with varied phyto-climatic conditions met in its different
physiographic divisions, makes it one of the hyper-biodiversity states of the
Indian Union. The rich biodiversity of the state and its scenic grandeur have
attracted the botanists, naturalists and the travellers, who all have contributed
to our knowledge about its flora, since early nineteenth century. Yet, Sir J.D.
Hooker's monumental Flora of the British India, published between 1872 and
1897, is the only comprehensive treatise available on the flora of the state.
Despite significant contributions made on the plant resources of the state
during the twentieth century, the information on its flora is not only widely
scattered but incomplete as well.

To fill this gap as well as to prepare an up to date inventory of the plants

at district, state, regional and national level, the work on the Flora of Jammu
& Kashmir was undertaken by the scientists of the Botanical Survey of India,
Dehradun. It is largely based on over 35000 Specimens collected by the
scientists of the department from different
Pans of the state since 1956 and deposited in the herbarium of the Northern
Circle, BSI, Dehradun (BSD) and the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta
(CAL). Besides, the specimens collected by others since early nineteenth
Century and deposited in various Indian herbaria as well as all the published
vi

information on the State's floristic diveristy were also taken into account for
preparation of this flora.
 It is proposed to bring out the Flora of Jammu & Kashmir in five
volumes. The present volume, dealing with general chapters, like
introduction, physiography, drainage, climate, geology and soil, people.
forests, forest types, floristic diveristy, etc., includes detailed taxonomic
account of 195 species in 57 genera and 31 families of Pteridophytes, 20
species in 7 genera and 4 families of Gymnosperms and 664 species in 225
genera and 51 families of Angiosperms from Ranunculaceae to Moringaceae
along with keys to the family within each group, and to the genus, species
and the infraspecific categories, where ever needed. It is supported by two
maps, 123 line-drawings and 28 coloured plates.

The contributors thank the Principal Chief Conservator of Forests,

Jammu & Kashmir and the Army Commanders in the border areas of the state
for their generous help during the plant explorations. We are also thankful to
the Director General, Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education,
Dehradun and the Director, Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu for
facilitating the study of specimens deposited in their respective herbaria.
Thanks are also due to Dr. Rajendra Sarkar, Superintending Anthropologist,
Anthropological Survey of India, Dehradun for some valuable information on
the ethnic communities of Jammu & Kashmir state.

We also express our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. M. Sanjappa,

Director, Botanical Survey of India and all the former Directors of the
department for the facilities and constant encouragement during the progress
01 tnlS worK, anu to ur. K.K.Kao, ex-Joint Director ana ur. JAN. vonra,7 1
Dr. U.C. Bhattacharyya, Dr. A.S. Rao and Dr. M.A. Rau, former Deputy
Directors, Northern Circle, BSI, Dehraun for the keen interest evinced by
them in this study. Thanks are also due to Prof. B.N. Kaul (Retd.) of Amar
Singh College, Srinagar, Kashmir and Dr. R.D. Dixit, Additional Director,
Central Circle, BSI, Allahabad for critically going through the portion on
economic plants and the manuscript of Pteridophytes respectively.

We are thankful to Shri Dev Raj Agarwal, Photographer and Shri

Sanjay Uniyal, Data Entry Operator, for most of the photographs and
vii

computer type-setting and formating of the manuscript respectively. The

contributors also express their thanks to all the past and present staff
members of the Northern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Dehradun but
 for whose sincere efforts and cooperation this work would not have been
possible. The help and assistance rendered by the staff of the Publication
Section, Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata in arranging the publication of
this volume is also acknowledged.

Finally we thank M/S Shiva Offset Press, Dehradun for Its quick
printing in present form.

Botanical Survey of India D.K. SINGH

Northern Circle, Dehradun Joint Director
 CONTENTS

Foreword iii
Preface
Introduction

oil 12
16
18
20
orations 29
es 31
ity 33
ical affinities 37
40
ts 48
cies and conservation 84
resentation of flora 89
bibliography 91
nt
109
ae 112
ae 112

e 123
eae 126
e 130
ceae 133
e
134
149
ae 150
aceae 166
ae 172
173
174
179

Adiantaceae185

Hemionitidaceae188 Parkeriaceae190 Marsileaceae191

Dennstaedtiaceae192 Aspleniaceae208 Woodsiaceae210

Athyriaceae241

Hypodematiaceae243
Thelypteridaceae260 Tectariaceae261
Dryopteridaceae302 Nephrolepidaceae302 Davalliaceae304
Blechnaceae306 Salviniaceae307 Azollaceae308

Gymnosperms308 Ephedraceae311
Cupressaceae316

Taxaceae316 Pinaceae325

Angiosperms365 Ranunculaceae439 Paeoniaceae440

Annonaceae441 Menispermaceae445

Berberidaceae

Podophyllaceae460 Lardizabalaceae461 Nymphaeaceae465

Nelumbonaceae465 Papaveraceae473 Fumariaceae497
Brassicaceae596

Capparaceae

Resedaceae

Vlolaceae
620
624
624
633
691
693
702
703
710
710
735
735

751
755
757
772
781
786
793
795

804
81
1
831
84()
841
843
843
848
848
RKO

861
861
863
00
A view ofShivalik ranges near Jammu

ofMansar lake in Jammu region

A view
A view ofmixed temperate forest in Dachigam National Park

A view
 of Dachigam National Park

A view
A view
Deodar forest in Pir Panjal

Cultivated fields near Anantnag

Confluence of rivers Indus and Zanskar near Nimu in Ladakh

Mixed, alpine vegetation in Suru valley, Ladakh

 A typical cold desert landscape with Myrtama bushes

Caragana versicolor Benth. and Geranium pratense L. in

Hemis National Park, Ladakh
 Freshwater swamp near Shey, Ladakh

A wetland near Spituk showing Hippuris vulgaris L.

Osmunda claytoniana L.
Dryopteris xanthomeles (Christ) C. Chr.

Ephedra gerardiana Wallich ex Stapf

Ephedra regeliana Florin

Pinus roxburghii Sargent

Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D. Don) G. Don
Aquilegiafragrans Benth.
Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC.
Delphinium brunonianum Royle
 Caltha palustris L.

Caltha palustris L. var. alba (Cambess.) Hook.f. & Thomson

 Anemone polyanthes D. Don

Podophyllum hexandrum Royle

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.
Corydalis crassifolia Royle

Corydalis govaniana Wallich

 Viola biflora L.

Arenariafestucoides Royle
Dianthus orientalis Adams var. angulatus (Royle ex Benth.)
Majumdar
 Gypsophila cerastioides D. Don

Silene moorcroftiana Wallich ex Benth.

Silene rechingeri Bocq.
Hypericum perforatum L.
Peganum harma/a
L.
Geranium pratense L.
Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.

INTRODUCTION
(D.K. Singh & B.P. Uniyal)

Perched like a majestic crown in the extreme north of the Indian

Union, the state of Jammu & Kashmir lies between the coordinates 32017'
to 37020t north latitude and 73025' to 80030' east longitude. The entire
territory extends to over 640 km from north to south and 480 km from east
to west, covering a total area of about 2,22,236 sq. km in the north western
Himalaya. The state comprising 14 districts largely covers rugged
mountainous terrain, except for the small tracks adjoining the Punjab
plains and the valley of Kashmir. Leh, with an area of ca 82,665 sq. km is
the largest district Of the state. The total population of the state, as per the
2001 census, is 10,069,917 with an average population density of about
99 persons per sq. km. Wedged between Afghanistan and North West
Frontier Province of Pakistan on the west and the north-west,
Turkmenistan and China on the north and Tibet in the east, as it is, the
state is strategically located from the phytogeographical point of view
representing the floristic gateway to the west Asian, Mediterranean and
Central Asian elements in the Flora Of India. On the south it is bordered
by Punjab and Himachal Pradesh.
 The entire state is broadly divided into three main structural groups
resulting from the stratified rock formations. These are the Panjal, the
Zanskar and the Tertiary groups. The Panjal comprises the outer hills,
outer plains and the middle mountains of the Lesser Himalaya, the
Zanskar, the entire tract from Lahaul and Spiti in the east to Karakoram in
the north, and the Tertiary group is represented by the valley of Kashmir
and other river valleys. The three geological constituents have resulted
into considerable physiographic as well as climatic variations with direct
bearing on the seasons, soil and vegetation in the state. In fact the state
forms a transitional region of diverse physical and phytoclimatic features.

Physiography
Biogeographically the state falls under Boreal zone with two
subzones, viz. Sino-Siberian or the Trans-Himalaya, and Sino-Himalayan
 BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

or the North Western Himalaya, and four Biomes, viz. Tundra zone,
Alpine zone, Temperate zone and Subtropical zone (Rodgers 1985;
Khoshoo. 1993). The relief features of the state are comparable with a
three storeyed structure, each representing a distinct geomorphological
and climatological regime.

The province of Jammu with the Shivaliks, the undulating ravinous

plains and the outer hills on the south of Pir Panjal represents the first
storey. The Shivalik hills in the region are largely anticlinal and on an
average rise to an elevation of 600-1200 m overlooking a series of 'Duns'.
The area receives an average annual precipitation of about 170 cm
through south-west monsoon. The tectonic valley of Kashmir, originally
a synclinal valley, with its lacustrine deposits called 'Karewas' covering
more than half the area and some 'duns' between the Pir Panjal range on
the south and south-east, and the Great Himalayan range in the north and
the north-east represents the second storey. The valley of Kashmir, with
an average height of about 1600 m, experiences a submediterranean
climate with average annual precipitation of about 105 cm, which is
mostly in the form of snow during winter months. And the Trans-
Himalayan region comprising the territories of Gilgit, Baltistan and
Ladakh, north of the Great Himalayan ranges, forms the third storey with
some of the loftiest inhabited tracts of the world. Ladakh, including the
territories of Rupshu, Nubra and Zanskar is the largest tract of the state,
covering almost half its area. The region presents a Holarctic climate with
extreme cold arid condition and receives average annual precipitation of
less than 10 cm at Leh.

The Pir Panjal and the great Himalayan ranges almost divide the
state into three distinct physiographic divisions, which are isolated from
one and other by lofty mountain barriers. The passage from one region to
another is usually facilitated through high altitude passes.

The outer plains : Approaching from the Punjab district of Gurdaspur,

a stretch of level land, averaging between 300 to 360 m altitude, continue with
the Punjab plain. This is bordered by a low, sparsely vegetated and irregularly
broken low hilly terrain. The subaerial denudation in this region has resulted
into depressions out of anticlinal tops, leaving more rigid and compressed
 FLORA OF JAMMU & KASHMIR

synclinal systems of strata to standout as elevated ground. The succession of

escarpments and deep slopes with broad longitudinal valleys is a conspicuous
feature of this region of Shivaliks of Jammu division. The erosion and
depositions from the sediments of the Himalayan rivers have resulted into
finer soil characteristic of the region. This area lying between the rivers Ravi
in the east and Jhelum in the west is known as Kandi. This division,
comprising parts of Jammu, Kathua and Mirpur districts, is full of ravines
which carry off the flood waters of the monsoon rains with soil exposing the
sandy beds of seasonal streams which are full of pebbles and boulders.

The outer hills : This region shows a diverse and complex physiogrpahy.
The region rises gradually from the north-western limits of the outer plains in
the form of low-lying hills and broken mounds with average height between
700 to 1500 m. It ends in an abrupt, steep escarpment. These young tertiary
hills, known as the Iva l S, separate the middle Himalaya from the plains. The
region is conspicuous by .the sight of bare grey sandstone with uncovered soil.
The narrow hills open into small valleys, called duns, longitudinally extending
up to Devsal in the west. To the north of the Devsal Dun a longitudinal valley
runs on the opposite side of Ramkot and is enclosed by Karai Thar hills which
is above 1500 m.

The physiography of this region shows an unusual rate of deposition

with undulating topography having abrupt steepness in the north. In outer hill
region, the orthoclinal structures appear with steep escarpments on the
southern face and a gentle inclination on the north. The southern limbs of the
folds of this part are faulted in their anticlines. Whereas. towards the interior
there is a compression of synclinal folds with an autochthonous position. The
river Chenab divides this region into two flanks which covers the upper reaches
of Jammu and Kathua districts and lower reaches of Poonch, Rajouri and
Udhampur districts. The numerous streams forming tributaries of Chenab,
Ravi and Tawi rivers have special significance in collecting water to irrigate
the outer plains and beyond in the south.
The middle Himalaya : The middle Himalayan region of the state
consists of the Panjal-trap. The southern aspect of these mountains faces
the outer plains and occupy the middle and upper reaches of Doda,
Poonch and Rajouri districts, while its northern aspect comprise the
valley of Kashmir and other Himalayan valleys, like Sind, Lidder,
Kishenganga, Lolab, etc. The average height of this region varies from
 4 BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

ca 1500 to more than 4,700 m above the mean sea level. The region,
famous for its scenic beauty and grandeur, is criss-crossed with deep cut
ravines with precipitous cliffs. More or less converging ranges in this
division are intersected by deep gorges through which rivers flow. The
middle Himalayas have a very rich drainage system with upper coarses
of river Chenab (Chandrabhägä) and its tributaries, The orthoclinal
mountains help preserve moisture in the region and support rich
vegetation.

To the north of these parallel ranges lies the Pir Panjal. The Panjal trap
is largely composed of Permo-Carboniferous volcanic rocks.
nnA th;c• nhl/<lnarnnhir• r11MIQtnn IQ nnt AIQt1not except
towards Muzaffarabad beyond Hazara where the river Kishenganga joins
Jhelum at Domel.

In the higher reaches in this division, there are a number of small

valleys, comparable with mountain glades, which dot the mountains at
Ramnagar, Bhaderwah, Ramban, Kishtwar, Padar, Reasi, Rajouri and
Basoli- There are a number of high altitude nagges in the Pir Panjal range,
like Pir Panjal (3505 m), Bundil (4200 m), Banihal (2832 m), Haji Pir
(2490 m), etc. which facilitate the movement across this range.

North of the Pir Panjal, lies the famous valley of Kashmir with an
average altitude of ca 1600 m. Surrounded on all sides by high mountain
ranges, except for the passes and a narrow gorge at Baramulla, the valley is
the drainage basin of river Jhelum and its tributaries. With the lacustrine
Karewas protruding throughout the valley from Shopian to Baramulla, it
presents an interesting geomorphology with no physical monotony.
5

Geologically the valley of Kashmir has undergone many changes.

Having been part of the geosynclinal Tethys even up to the Permian, when it
was a region of calm and quite sedimentation, it suffered many violent
changes. The mountain walls abruptly rising on sides exhibit massive
quartzites and Silurian to the west of Wullar lake. Glacial boulders,
conglomerates and dogra slates appear beyond the Baramulla gorge towards
Hazara.
 FLORA OF JAMMU & KASHMIR

The inner Himalaya : The valley of Kashmir narrows towards the north
with the massive structure of Kazi Nag range. The Great Himalaya or the
innermost mountains rise above the limits of perpetual snow with an average
height ranging from over 3000 m to above 8000 m, with Peaks like Nanga
Parbat or Diyamir (8128 m). The central Himalayan axis bifurcates near Kullu
in Himachal Pradesh, with its north-western branch known as Zanskar Range
reaching the twin peaks of Nun Kun (7055 m). The other, Dhauladhar Range
extends further to the north west. This physiographic division covers nearly 70
per cent of the total area of the state and includes the territories of Ladakh,
Gilgit and Baltistan. It is a high plateau with cold-arid conditions. The
Karakoram Range to the north of this plateau culminates into the

second highest peak of the world the Godwin-Austin or the Mt. K

(8615 m). The glaciers on this mountain are the source of river Hunza which
drains into river Gilgit.

The valley beds in the north-west part of this physiographic division

descend on the mountains till Gilgit is reached at about 1524 m. On its north
and north-east, this river valley has vast flat plains, like Deosai (3962 m) and
Lingzhitang (4877 m). Some of the major passes in Great Himalayan and
Karakoram mountain ranges are : Khardung la (5666 m), Sarsank la (5716 m),
Poat la (5716 m), Tanglang la (5328 m), Chang la (5267 m), Singo la (5034
m), Lachulang la (5034 m), Baralacha la (4891 m), Chilung la (4401 m), Zoji
la (3529 m), Karakoram pass (5352 m), Muztagh pass (5706 m), Sia la (5432
m), Marpo la (561 1 m), Sasar la (5300 m).

Drainage
The Hindukush and the Karakoram ranges in the north-west and
the north, with perpetual snow cover and a large number of world
renowned glaciers, like Siachen, Baltoro, etc. form the watershed of the
central Asian drainage flowing into the Indian ocean. An important
leature Of the river system in the state is its antiquity as compared to the
mountains they traverse through. The major rivers in the three divisions
of the state are Ravi, Ujh, Tawi and Chenab in Jammu; Jhelum, Liddar,
Vishav, Rambiara, Sukhnag, Dudganga, Indus, etc. in Kashmir; and the
Indus, Shyok, Zanskar, etc. in Ladakh (Map-I).
 6 BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

The Ravi : The Ravi, known as Iravati in Sanskrit and Hydrotes in

Greek iq the smallest river of Puniab and drainq the southern slooes of
Pir Panjal range and northern slopes of Dhauladhar range. It leaves the
Himalaya at Basoli and passes close to Kathua, near Madhopur, where it
enters the plains of Punjab.

The Ujh : It is the typical Shivalik stream draining the Shivalik hills
in the summer months, when the monsoon rains flood these small
valleys.

The Tawi : The T awi drains the outer hill region. It flows round
the city of Jammu after draining the interior mountains to the northeast
of the city.

The Chenab : Chenab originates in the Himalayan contours of

Lahaul-Spiti in Himachal Pradesh as two streams, Chandra and Bhaga.
The Chandra issues from Chandra tal in the south-eastern lap of
Baralacha la, while Bhaga originates from the north-western slopes of the
same range. The two streams meet at Tandi and form Chandrabhaga
which is called Chenab once it enters the state near Kishtwar. At Kishtwar
it is joined by the river Wadvan, which is fed by snow at Nun Kun. The
Chenab is a typical middle Himalayan river with rapids in its upper course
and deep gorges cut through the rocks at the lower reaches.

The Jhelum : Known as 'Vyeth' in Kashmiri, 'Vitasta' in Sanskrit

and Hydaspes in Greek, th.e river Jhelum originates from a soring near
Ananthnag at the bottom of a spur of Pir Panjal range. With its canals
and lakes, Jhelum forms the main arterial system of the valley of
 FLORA OF JAMMU & KASHMIR

Kashmir, The basin of Jhelum in the valley is like a oval trough between the
Great Himalayan and Pir Panjal ranges. The alluvium, that filled the valley,
has a depth of over 1800 m and has resulted into an unique geomorphological
feature of the valley of Kashmir the lacustrine and fluviatile Karewas.
 8 BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

The river flows north-west through the middle of the valley and
after a winding course it forms the Wular lake. It leaves the lake at south-
western side near Sopore and flows slowly south-west to the gorge at
Baramulla. From this point the river is more rapid and flows westward
to Muzaffarabad, where it sharply turns southward and is joined by the
river Kishenganga.

The Vishav : It is an important tributary of river Jhelum which it

joins below Bijbehara. Originating from the Kaunsarnag lake, it drains
the Kulgam area which is known as the rice-bowl of southern Kashmir.

The Lidder : It is again an important tributary of the river Jhelum

with its source in the Sheshnag lake.

The Rambiara : It is another tributary of the river Jhelum originating

from the northern sloeps of Pir Panjal.

The Sukhnag . It drains the Gulmarg area of the Kashmir valley.

The Dudganga : It flows from Ludurmarg in the central Pir Panjal,

and near Tarakuti mountains it divides into two streams, the Sang-Safed
and the Yachera. It flows to the south of Srinagar and in the western
mountain of Baramulla-Gulmarg area with a number of springs below
the Apharwat, Khilanmarg, Alapather, Gagrimarg, Banilanag and
Kantarnag.

The Sind : It is an important tributary of Jhelum. Its traditional

source is the sacred lake of Gangabal in the Harmukh mountains. The
headwater emerges at Zoji la and the Amarnath peak in a limestone

cave. In its about 96 km course, the Sind drains the loftiest mountains
the Ihelnm at Shadiour. Sind feeds the Anchar lake. near Ganderbal.
 FLORA OF JAMMU & KASHMIR

The Kishenganga : The river Kishenganga originates in the valley of

Tilel and Gurez in the mountains of Dras. It passes through Keran, Karnah,
Teetwal, Ghori, etc. and empties into Jhelum at Domel near Muzaffarabad.

The Indus : The river Indus drains the largest tract of the state
comprising the territories of Ladakh, Baltistaq and Gilgit. It enters Ladakh
from south-east and flows in north-westerly direction through a barren land of
granites, granulites, gneisses, phyllites and schists. It is joined by the river
Zanskar below Leh and others, like Shyok, Shigar, etc. before it enters the
North West Frontier Province of Pakistan after circling the Nanga Parbat at the
western-most end of the Great range.

Besides, there are about 18 natural lakes in the state covering a total area
of over 700 sq km, the prominent among them being the Mansar, Surinsar,
Sanasar (Jammu); Dal, Anchar, Hokarsar, Manasbal, Wular, Kaunsarnag,
Gangabal, Tarsar Marsar, Sheshnag, Anantnag, etc. (Kashmir); and Pangong,
Tso Morari, etc. (Ladakh).

Climate
Like its extremely diverse physiography, the state of Jammu & Kashmir
shows an equally remarkable diversity in climate in its different regions
(Table-I).

Temperature : In the outer plains and the outer hill regions of

the average annual temperature ranges around -30 10 celsius
with the maximum of 40.60 C and minimum of 26.80 C during summer months
(April October) and 220C and 11.50C respectively during the winter months
(November - March). The mean annual temperature in the interior of middle
Himalayan region and its adjoining regions averages 13.30C. The mean
maximum and minimum temperatures between
Table— 1 . Mean average temperature and rainfall data at selected places in Jammu & Kashmir (source: ClimatologicalTables of India
Meterological Deparünent, 1951 -1980).

Jammu (367m) Bnihal Quazidund ( 1739m) Gulrnarg (2655m) Leh (3514m)

Srin.r (
1587m)
Rain(run) Rain- Tanperature Rain- Rainfall Teaperature Rainfall Tenperature Rainfall

Min. Max. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min.

Min. MM.

21.9 9.6 46.4 10.9 1.0 206.0 7.5 -1.8 180.4 7.8 -0.6 64.9 1.1 -7.6 274.6 1.5 -11.0 7.1

26.6 13.6 53.4 15.7 4.4 217.3 13.6 2.8 202.2 13.6 3.8 98.5 5.7 -2.9 231.8 6.5 -5.9 11.0

April 32.9 19.0 26.3 21.2 8.7 130.5 19.0 7.1 142.3 19.4 7.7 87.5 11.2 1.6 166.8 12.3 -1.1 9.1
6
383 24.4 16.0 24.9 11.3 83.0 22.8 10.0 113.0 23.8 10.7 71.9 15.2 4.5 138.8 16.2 3.2 9.0
O
40.6 26.8 51.8 28.9 15.1 51.0 27.7 14.3 64.4 292 14.7 37.2 20.2 7.7 76.3 21.8 7.4 3.5

July 353 24.5 283.4 28.2 17.6 104.5 28.0 17.2 95.8 30.0 18.2 48.7 21.2 10.3 100.3 25.0 10.5 15.2

August 33.7 24.5 344.5 27.6 17.1 100.0 27.8 16.4 74.3 29.7 17.5 69.7 20.2 10.1 95.3 25.3 10.0 15.4

Sqtanba 33.6 23.0 123.9 26.4 12.4 59.3 25.8 11.3 61.9 27.8 12.9 33.3 18.4 6.3 54.1 21.7 5.8 9.0
31.7 18.4 38.1 23.4 7.1 34.8 21.3 6.0 41.3 21.9 6.1 36.4 14.5 2.7 68.1 14.6 -1.0 7.5

Novemba 26.8 12.6 11.9 17.9 3.2 57.1 14.9 1.1 49.8 14.7 0.9 27.0 9.1 -2.0 19.2 7.9 -6.7 3.6

Dæemba 21.1 8.5 42.2 12.3 0.5 107.1 7.6 -2.3 96.1 8.2 -1.6 43.3 -5.5 67.3 2.3 -11.8 4.6