1 Unit-1 Computer Fundamentals Ankit Rajpal

INTRODUCTION

Let us begin with the word compute. It means to calculate. We all are familiar with
calculations in our day to day life. We apply mathematical operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, etc. and many other formulae for calculations. Simpler
calculations take less time. But complex calculations take much longer time. Another factor
is accuracy in calculations. So man explored with the idea to develop a machine which can
perform this type of arithmetic calculation faster and with full accuracy. This gave birth to
a device or machine called computer.

WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

Computer is an electronic device. As mentioned in the introduction it can do arithmetic
calculations faster. But as you will see later it does much more than that. It can be
compared to a magic box, which serves different purpose to different people. For a common
man computer is simply a calculator, which works automatic and quite fast. For a person
who knows much about it, computer is a machine capable of solving problems and
manipulating data. It accepts data, processes the data by doing some mathematical and
logical operations and gives us the desired output.

Therefore, we may define computer as a device that transforms data. Data can be anything
like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age, sex, weight,
height, etc. of all the students in your class or income, savings, investments, etc., of a
country. Computer can be defined in terms of its functions. It can i) accept data ii) store
data, iii) process data as desired, and iv) retrieve the stored data as and when required and
v) print the result in desired format.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

Let us identify the major characteristics of computer. These can be discussed under the
headings of speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility and memory.

Speed
As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we
take hours to complete. Suppose you are asked to calculate the average monthly income of
one thousand persons in your neighborhood. For this you have to add income from all
sources for all persons on a day to day basis and find out the average for each one of them.
How long will it take for you to do this? One day, two days or one week?Do you know your
small computer can finish this work in few seconds? The weather forecasting that you see
every day on TV is the results of compilation and analysis of huge amount of data on
temperature, humidity, pressure, etc. of various places on computers. It takes few minutes
for the computer to process this huge amount of data and give the result.
You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of
instructions and even more per second. Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in


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terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or nano-second (10-9 part of a second). From
this you can imagine how fast your computer performs work.

Accuracy
Suppose some one calculates faster but commits a lot of errors in computing. Such result is
useless. There is another aspect. Suppose you want to divide 15 by 7. You may work out up
to 2 decimal places and say the dividend is 2.14. I may calculate up to 4 decimal places and
say that the result is 2.1428. Some one else may go up to 9 decimal places and say the
result is 2.142857143. Hence, in addition to speed, the computer should have accuracy or
correctness in computing.
The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the
same accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the basis of design of computer. The
errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.

Diligence
A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours
without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will
perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers
human being in routine type of work.

Versatility
It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your
computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management
or to prepare electric bills.

Power of Remembering
Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any information can
be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends
entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or
retrieve these data.

No IQ
Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user.
It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide
what you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as
you can.

No Feeling
It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does not get
tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

Storage
The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can
also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside
your computer and can be carried to other computers.





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Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer

The computer we see today is quite different from the one made in the beginning. The
number of applications of a computer has increased, the speed and accuracy of calculation
has increased. You must appreciate the impact of computers in our day to day life.
Reservation of tickets in Air Lines and Railways, payment of telephone and electricity bills,
deposits and withdrawals of money from banks, business data processing, medical
diagnosis, weather forecasting, etc. are some of the areas where computer has become
extremely useful.
However, there is one limitation of the computer. Human beings do calculations on their
own. But computer is a dumb machine and it has to be given proper instructions to carry
out its calculation. This is why we should know how a computer works.

Advantages of Computers

Because of the many advantages of a computer, it has become an important household item.
A computer operated by an individual without any specific computer operator is called as a
personal computer (PC). A PC can be a desktop or a laptop computer and can be used at
home or at office. As per the requirement of the user, software is installed in a PC. Lets
discuss the advantages of computers.
One can write more effectively by means of a computer. There are tools like spelling and
grammar checker, thesaurus and dictionary, installed in the computer. Thus, it takes less
time to proofread a written document and also, there is no need to open up a dictionary
book to look for meanings of words. Typing is much faster than writing on a paper. If there
is a need for reorganizing the sentences or paragraphs, one can cut and paste and make the
necessary changes. Thus, overall a computer allows the user to create documents, edit,
print, and store them so that they can be retrieved later.
Using a computer, one can remain connected to the world through Internet. Internet
is a network of computers that communicates via the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP). The
World Wide Web (WWW) or simply web is a huge resource of information that can be
accessed via the Internet. To mention a few of the resources, there are electronic mail (e-
mail), file transferring and sharing, online chat and gaming. The Internet allows people
from around the world to share knowledge, ideas and experiences in any field.
E-mail is a method of communication used globally and is provided with a system of
creating, storing and forwarding mails. It may consist of text messages with attachments of
audio-visual clips. One can also download or upload files using the Internet. There are also
facilities like online chatting available on the Internet. As compared to telephonic
conversation, both e-mail and online chat are cost saving. Online gaming is another
important resource of the WWW. Many online games are available, which are of common
interest for any age group. In addition, one can read current news, check weather
conditions, plan vacations and make hotel and travel reservations, find out about diseases
and treatment methods, conduct transactions, learn about specific countries and their
cultures, seek jobs, buy products, etc via the Internet. Nowadays, computers are widely
used for education and training purposes. In schools, computer education has been
made compulsory to spread awareness about computers. As a matter of fact, computers
have become a learning tool for children. Also, there are many universities that provide
online degrees, which is very advantageous for those people staying in the remote areas and
for the disabled. In fact, online education is one of the most flexible and convenient forms of


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learning. One can take the benefit of such online degree programs staying at home without
the need of relocation. Computers are also used for training purposes. Many companies use
them to train their staffs.

However, in spite of the many advantages of computers, there are some disadvantages
that cannot be ignored. The easy access to information via Internet has made students
lazy in terms of their education since they are able to download information without
exploring their topic of research. They also use computers for mathematical tables and
calculations without actually solving the problems. Also, it is important for parents to keep
a check on the browsing habits of their children as some websites are not meant for their
viewing. Other disadvantages include identity theft and virus threat. Computers
viruses are harmful to the systems and can be transferred from one computer system to
another.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER





























Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. It also
does comparison and takes decision. The ALU can perform basic operations such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc and does logic operations viz, >, <, =, etc.
Input
Input Device
Interface
Processor (CPU)
I
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

Main
Memory
Interface
Output
Output Device
CU
ALU


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Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers the data from storage unit to
ALU once the computations are done, the results are transferred to the storage unit by the
control unit and then it is send to the output unit for displaying results.

Control Unit

It controls the operation of CPU. It does two functions:
i) It transfers data (Operands and Operator) from the main memory to ALU for
processing and then it waits for ALU to finish.
ii) It then carry the result from ALU back to the main memory for further processing (if
any).

Central Processing Unit

The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the Central Processing
Unit (CPU). The CPU is like brain performs the following functions:
It performs all calculations.
It takes all decisions.
It controls all units of the computer.
A PC may have CPU-IC such as Intel 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, Celeron, Pentium,
Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV, Dual Core, and AMD etc.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS
You know that the evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in the
form that we see today. The present day computer, however, has also undergone rapid
change during the last fifty years. This period, during which the evolution of computer took
place, can be divided into five distinct phases known as Generations of computers. Each
phase is distinguished from others on the basis of the type of switching circuits used.

First Generation Computers
First generation computers used Thermion valves. These computers were large in size and
writing programs on them was difficult. Some of the computers of this generation were:

ENIAC: It was the first electronic computer built in 1946 at University of Pennsylvania,
USA by John Eckert and John Mauchy. It was named Electronic Numerical Integrator and
vacuum tubes, 70,000 registers, 10,000 capacitors and required EDVAC: It stands for
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer and was developed in 1950. The concept
of storing data and instructions inside the computer was introduced here. This allowed
much faster operation since the computer had rapid access to both data and instructions.
The other advantages of storing instruction were that computer could do logical decision
internally.

Other Important Computers of First Generation

EDSAC: It stands for Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer and was developed by
M.V. Wilkes at Cambridge University in 1949.


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UNIVAC-1: Ecker and Mauchly produced it in 1951 by Universal Accounting Computer
setup.

Limitations of First Generation Computer
Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation computers.
1. The operating speed was quite slow.
2. Power consumption was very high.
3. It required large space for installation.
4. The programming capability was quite low.

Second Generation Computers
Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky electric tubes in the first
generation computer. Transistors are smaller than electric tubes and have higher
operating speed. They have no filament and require no heating. Manufacturing cost
was also very low. Thus the size of the computer got reduced considerably.
It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU),
memory, programming language and input and output units were developed. The
programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during this
period. Some of the computers of the Second Generation were
1. IBM 1620: Its size was smaller as compared to First Generation computers and
mostly used for scientific purpose.
2. IBM 1401: Its size was small to medium and used for business applications.
3. CDC 3600: Its size was large and is used for scientific purposes.

Third Generation Computers
The third generation computers were introduced in 1964. They used Integrated Circuits
(ICs). These ICs are popularly known as Chips. A single IC has many transistors,
registers and 150,000 watts of electricity. Today your favorite computer is many times
as powerful as ENIAC, still size is very small.
Capacitors built on a single thin slice of silicon. So it is quite obvious that the size of the
computer got further reduced. Some of the computers developed during this period were
IBM-360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750. Higher level language such as BASIC
(Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed during this period.
Computers of this generation were small in size, low cost, large memory and processing
speed is very high.

Fourth Generation Computers
The present day computers that you see today are the fourth generation computers that
started around 1975. It uses large scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single
silicon chip called microprocessors. Due to the development of microprocessor it is
possible to place computers central processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These
computers are called microcomputers. Later very large scale Integrated Circuits
(VLSIC) replaced LSICs.


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Thus the computer which was occupying a very large room in earlier days can now be
placed on a table. The personal computer (PC) that you see in your school is a Fourth
Generation Computer.

Fifth Generation Computer
The computers of 1990s are said to be Fifth Generation computers. The speed is
extremely high in fifth generation computer. Apart from this it can perform parallel
processing. The concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the
computer to take its own decision. It is still in a developmental stage.
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified based on their principles of operation or on their
configuration. By configuration, we mean the size, speed of doing computation and
storage capacity of a computer.
Classification-1
Types of Computers based on Principles of Operation
There are three different types of computers according to the principles of operation.
Those three types of computers are
Analog Computers
Digital Computers
Hybrid Computers

Analog Computers
Analog Computer is a computing device that works on continuous range of values.
The results given by the analog computers will only be approximate since they deal
with quantities that vary continuously. It generally deals with physical variables
such as voltage, pressure, temperature, speed, etc.


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Digital Computers
On the other hand a digital computer operates on digital data such as numbers. It
uses binary number system in which there are only two digits 0 and 1. Each one is
called a bit.
The digital computer is designed using digital circuits in which there are two levels
for an input or output signal. These two levels are known as logic 0 and logic 1.
Digital Computers can give more accurate and faster results.
Digital computer is well suited for solving complex problems in engineering and
technology. Hence digital computers have an increasing use in the field of design,
research and data processing.
Based on the purpose, Digital computers can be further classified as,
General Purpose Computers
Special Purpose Computers
Special purpose computer is one that is built for a specific application. General
purpose computers are used for any type of applications. They can store different
programs and do the jobs as per the instructions specified on those programs. Most
of the computers that we see today, are general purpose computers.
Hybrid Computers
A hybrid computer combines the desirable features of analog and digital computers.
It is mostly used for automatic operations of complicated physical processes and
machines. Now-a-days analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters are used
for transforming the data into suitable form for either type of computation.
For example, in hospitals ICU, analog devices might measure the patients
temperature, blood pressure and other vital signs. These measurements which are
in analog might then be converted into numbers and supplied to digital components
in the system. These components are used to monitor the patients vital sign and
send signals if any abnormal readings are detected. Hybrid computers are mainly
used for specialized tasks.
Classification-2
Types of Computers based on Configuration
There are four different types of computers when we classify them based on their
performance and capacity. The four types are


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Super Computers
Mainframe Computers
Mini Computers
Micro Computers

Super Computers
When we talk about types of computers, the first type that comes to our mind would
be Super computers. They are the best in terms of processing capacity and also the
most expensive ones. These computers can process billions of instructions per
second. Normally, they will be used for applications which require intensive
numerical computations such as stock analysis, weather forecasting etc. Other uses
of supercomputers are scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological
data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known super computer
manufacturer is Cray Research. Some of the "traditional" companies which produce
super computers are Cray, IBM and Hewlett-Packard.
As of July 2009, the IBM Roadrunner, located at Los Alamos National Laboratory,
is the fastest super computer in the world.
The first Cray supercomputer was introduced in 1976 - the Cray-1


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Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers can also process data at very high speeds i.e., hundreds of
million instructions per second and they are also quite expensive. Normally, they
are used in banking, airlines and railways etc for their applications.
The main frame is the workhorse of the business world. A
main frame is the heart of a network of computers or
terminals which allows hundreds of people to work at the
same time on the same data.

Mini Computers
Mini computers are lower to mainframe computers in terms of speed and storage
capacity. They are also less expensive than mainframe computers. Some of the
features of mainframes will not be available in mini computers. Hence, their
performance also will be less than that of mainframes.
The minicomputer has become less important since the PC has gotten so powerful
on its own. In fact, the ordinary new PC is much more powerful than minicomputers
used to be. Originally this size was developed to handle specific tasks, like
engineering and CAD calculations.
Micro Computers
The invention of microprocessor (single chip CPU) gave birth to the much cheaper
micro computers. They are further classified into
Desktop Computers
Laptop Computers
Handheld Computers(PDAs)
Desktop Computers

Today the Desktop computers are the most popular computer systems. These
desktop computers are also known as personal computers or simply PCs. They are
usually easier to use and more affordable. They are normally intended for
individual users for their word processing and other small application
requirements.


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Laptop Computers

Laptop computers are portable computers. They are lightweight computers with a
thin screen. They are also called as notebook computers because of their small size.
They can operate on batteries and hence are very popular with travellers. The
screen folds down onto the keyboard when not in use.

Handheld Computers

Handheld computers or Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) are pen-based and also
battery-powered. They are small and can be carried anywhere. They use a pen like
stylus and accept handwritten input directly on the screen. They are not as
powerful as desktops or laptops but they are used for scheduling appointments,
storing addresses and playing games. They have touch screens which we use with a
finger or a stylus.
Applications of Computers in Society

1. Banking

The banking sector has transformed itself through the use of computer technology,
a transformation that began in the early 1980s with the introduction of automatic
teller machines (ATMs). Long line-ups in banks were replaced by ATMs in every
shopping mall and on nearly every corner. Further banking conveniences, such as
the automatic debit card, which consumers can use to pay for merchandise in retail
outlets, or computerized telephone and Internet banking services, have given
peoples more free time and flexibility when it comes to managing their finances.
Such conveniences point to the possibility of computer technology bringing about a
cashless society wherein all financial transactions can be carried out through the
use of smart cards (plastic cards programmed to record a person's complete
financial profile).
2. Health Care

In the health-care sector, computer technology has produced state-of-the-art
equipment such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines. Unfortunately,
the prohibitive cost of such equipment can sometimes lead to fee-for-service
arrangements whereby patients must pay to use the new, more reliable equipment.


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There is great potential for computer networks to deliver up-to-date research to
health-care practitioners. For a fee, the most recent medical literature can be
retrieved electronically by practitioners in remote areas, fostering continuing
education and improved diagnoses. Teleconferencing equipment can allow
specialists to provide consultations and to guide surgical procedures from a
distance.
3. Communication
The people can communicate with others with the means of the computers. They
can make new friends and can find old friends through the bunch of Social
networking sites like facebook, orkut, person etc.
4. Media and Information
The computers can be used to retrieve the latest information or news to create awareness in
the individuals. One can fetch any old or new news which can be text, images or videos.
5. Entertainment
People can use computers as their entertainment sources as they can use computer for
listening music, watching movies etc. They can even use computer as TV.

Applications of Computer in Business
Computers have become a requirement in the business industry. Computers easily
complete duties that are tedious and timely for humans. The business uses of
computers are extensive. Although many of the computer duties are not
irreplaceable, business has become dependent on their accuracy and timeliness.

1. Accounting
Business success is dependent upon accuracy. Many businesses use accounting software
and ledgering systems to ensure the accuracy of their financial status.
2. Customer Interaction
Computers now assist human call centers with answering customer questions, taking
payments and providing general assistance. The automated voice systems are available
with unrestricted hours and are always friendly.
3. Scheduling
Scheduling is of great importance to many businesses, especially businesses involved in
manufacturing and deliveries. Scheduling systems allow businesses to ensure they are
meeting their goals while being efficient.
4. Communication
Communication is most important in business. Computers provide businesses with a wide
array of communication methods that include, but are not limited to, email, chat, web
conferencing and VOIP.
5. Websites and Advertising
The combination of websites, advertising and marketing provide a swift means to vast
business globalization. Websites make the company quickly available to everyone.