COMPUTER INTRODUCTION

An amazing machine! We are living in the computer age today and most of our day to day activities
cannot be accomplished without using computers. Sometimes knowingly and sometimes
unknowingly we use computers. Computer has become an indispensable and multipurpose tool. We
are breathing in the computer age and gradually computer has become such a desire necessity of
life that it is difficult to imagine life without it.

To know about the complete process that how computer works, we will have to come across the
various terms such as Data, Processing and Information. First of all we will have to understand these
terms in true sense.
1.DATA: - “Data” is nothing but a mare collection of basic facts and figure without any sequence.
When the data is collected as facts and figure, it has no meaning at that time, for example, name of
student, names of employees etc.
2.PROCESSING: - ‘Processing’ is the manipulation,tranformation or translation of data into
information.The work of processing may be the calculation, comparisons or the decision taken by the
computer.
3.INFORMATION: - ‘Information ’is the end point or the final output of any processed work. When
the output data is meaning it is called information.
4. PROGRAM: It is a step by step instruction guiding a computer on what to do and how to do
5. ELECTRONIC: It uses electricity as its source of power

DIAGRAM SHOWING FLOW OF DATA IN A COMPUTER

Input Process Output

Process

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WHY USE COMPUTERS (ADVANTAGES)
Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of

processing, measured as number of instructions executed per second.

Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they
will always give correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the
inaccuracies, which could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected and
their consequences avoided in a way, which is completely transparent to the user.

Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce
exactly the same answer every time that particular process is repeated. Reliability – Computer
systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that failure of one of the components
does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.

Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of data.

Processing capability – A computer has the ability to execute millions of instructions

per second

DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS

Disadvantages of computer

The use of computer has also created some problems in society which are as
follows.

Unemployment

Different tasks are performed automatically by using computers. It reduces the

need of people and increases unemployment in society.

Wastage of time and energy

Many people use computers without positive purpose. They play games and
chat for a long period of time. It causes wastage of time and energy. Young
generation is now spending more time on the social media websites like
Facebook, Twitter etc or texting their friends all night through smartphones
which is bad for both studies and their health. And it also has adverse effects
on the social life.

Data Security

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The data stored on a computer can be accessed by unauthorized persons
through networks. It has created serious problems for the data security.

Computer Crimes

People use the computer for negative activities. They hack the credit card
numbers of the people and misuse them or they can steal important data from
big organizations.

Privacy violation

The computers are used to store personal data of the people. The privacy of a
person can be violated if the personal and confidential records are not
protected properly.

Health risks

The improper and prolonged use of computer can results in injuries or

disorders of hands, wrists, elbows, eyes, necks and back. The users can avoid
health risks by using the computer in proper position. They must also take
regular breaks while using the computer for longer period of time. It is
recommended to take a couple of minutes break after 30 minutes of computer
usage.

Impact on Environment

The computer manufacturing processes and computer waste are polluting the
environment. The wasted parts of computer can release dangerous toxic
materials. Green computer is a method to reduce the electricity consumed and
environmental waste generated when using a computer. It includes recycling
and regulating manufacturing processes. The used computers must be donated
or disposed off properly.

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Uses of Computers :
Computers have become an essential part of modern human life. Since the invention of computer
they have evolved in terms of increased computing power and decreased size. Owing to the
widespread use of computers in every sphere, Life in today’s world would be unimaginable without
computers. They have made human lives better and happier. There are many computer uses in
different fields of work. Engineers, architects, jewelers, and filmmakers all use computers to design
things. Teachers, writers, and most office workers use computers for research, word processing and
emailing. Small businesses can use computers as a point of sale and for general record keeping.

Computers Aid at Education :

Computers have its dominant use in the education field which can significantly enhance performance
in learning. Even distance learning is made productive and effective through internet and video-
based classes. Researchers have massive usage of these computers in their work from the starting
to till the end of their scholarly work.

Computers in our Health and Medicine :

Most of the medical information can now be digitized from the prescription to reports. Computation in
the field of medicine allows us tooffer varied miraculous therapies to the patients. ECG’s,
radiotherapy wasn’t possible without computers.

Aid of Computers at Financial Institutions :

We know well that computers are being used by the financial institutions like banks for different
purposes. The foremost important thing is to store information about different account holders in a
database to be available at any time. Keeping the records of the cash flow, giving the information
regarding your account,

Computers for our entertainment

Computers are now the major entertainers and the primary pass time machines. We can use
computers for playing games, watching movies, listening to music, drawing pictures.

Computers are a part of our Transport System :

With internet on computers we can know the details of the buses or trains or the flight available to
our desired destination. The timings and even the updates on the delay can also be known through
these computers.We can book our tickets through online. Staff of the transport system will keep a
track of the passengers, trains or flight details, departure and arrival timings by using computers.

Inevitable use of Computers in Business and Corporate Stages :

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Every single information shared can be recorded by using computer. Official deals and the issues
were made even through online. We use email system to exchange the information. It has wide uses
in marketing, stock exchanges and bank. Even the departmental stores can’t run effectively without
computer.

Wonders of Computer in E-Commerce :

Electronic mail is the revolutionary service offered by the computes. Video Conferencing is also
another major advantage. Electronic shopping through online shopping added favor to purchaser
and merchants. Electronic banking is now at your hand where every bank has online support for
transaction of monetary issues. You can easily transfer your money anywhere even from your home.

Computer at our Defense :

Computers are the main tools which help in developing missiles and other equipment in the
deference system. Designing and the maintenance are possible only through computers. Computer
builds the links between the soldiers and commanders through the satellite. Construction of
weapons and controlling their function is not possible without the aid of computers. The list of the
criminals and the records of the cops are maintained regularly in the system.

Computer is today’s Designer :

As per the title,computers aid in designing buildings, magazines, prints, newspapers, books and
many others. The construction layouts are designed beautifully on system using different tools and
software’s.

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HISTORY OF COMPUTER DELOPMENT
Actually speaking electronic data processing does not go back more than just half a centaury i.e.
they are in existence merely from early 1940’s. In early days when our ancestor used to reside in
cave the counting was a problem. Still it is stated becoming difficult. When they started using stone
to count their animals or the possession they never knew that this day will lead to a computer of
today. People today started following a set of procedure to perform calculation with these stones,
which later led to creation of a digital counting device, which was the predecessor the first
calculating device invented, was know as ABACUS.

THE ABACUS

Abacus

Abacus is known to be the first mechanical calculating device. Which was used to be performed
addition and subtraction easily and speedily? This device was a first develop Ed by the Egyptians in
the 10th centaury B.C, but it was given it final shape in the 12th centaury A.D. by the Chinese
educationists. Abacus is made up of wooden frame in which rod where fitted across with rounds
beads sliding on the rod. It id dividing into two parts called ‘Heaven’ and ‘Earth’. Heaven was the
upper part and Earth was the lower one. Thus any no. can be represented by placing the beads at
proper place.

NAPIER’S BONES

Napier

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As the necessity demanded, scientist started inventing better calculating device. In thus process
John Napier’s of Scotland invented a calculating device, in the year 1617 called the Napier Bones. In
the device, Napier’s used the bone rods of the counting purpose where some no. is printed on these
rods. These rods that one can do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division easily.

PASCAL’S CALCULATOR

Pascal's calculator

In the year 1642, Blaise Pascal a French scientist invented an adding machine called Pascal’s
calculator, which represents the position of digit with the help of gears in it.

LEIBNZ CALCULATOR

Leibnz Calculator

In the year 1671, a German mathematics, Gottfried Leibniz modified the Pascal calculator and he
developed a machine which could perform various calculation based on multiplication and division
as well.

ANALYTICAL ENGINE

Analytical Engine

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In the year 1833, a scientist form England knows to be Charles Babbage invented such a machine.
Which could keep our data safely? This device was called Analytical engine and it deemed the first
mechanical computer. It included such feature which is used in today’s computer language. For this
great invention of the computer, Sir Charles Babbage is also known as the father of the computer.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS

First Generation: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)

The first computer systems used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often

enormous, taking up entire rooms. These computers were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great

deal of electricity, the first computers generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language understood by

computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. It would take operators days or

even weeks to set-up a new problem. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed

on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first

commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

A UNIVAC computer at the Census Bureau.

Image Source: United States Census Bureau

Recommended Reading: Webopedia's ENIAC definition

Second Generation: Transistors (1956-1963)
The world would see transistors replace vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers. The transistor was

invented at Bell Labs in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s. 

The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more

energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a

great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-

generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

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From Binary to Assembly

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages,

which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being

developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that

stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

An early Philco Transistor (1950's)

Image Source: Vintage Computer Chip Collectibles

Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1964-1971)

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were

miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency

of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers

through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many

different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time

became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Did You Know... ? An integrated circuit (IC) is a small electronic device made out of a semiconductor material. The

first integrated circuit was developed in the 1950s by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce of Fairchild

Semiconductor.
Fourth Generation:  Microprocessors (1971-Present)
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a

single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel

4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer—from the central processing unitand

memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh.

Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more

everyday products began to use microprocessors.

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As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually

led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs,

the mouseand handheld devices.

Intel's first microprocessor, the 4004, was conceived by Ted Hoff and Stanley Mazor.

Image Source: Intel Timeline (PDF)

Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond)

Fifth generation computers are in developmental stage which is based on the artificial intelligence. The goal of the
fifth generation is to develop the device which could respond to natural language input and are capable of learning
and self-organization. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will be used in this technology. So
we can say that the fifth generation computers will have the power of human intelligence.

CHARACTERISTICS
1) The fifth generation computers will use super large scale integrated chips.
2) They will have artificial intelligence.
3) They will be able to recognize image and graphs.
4) Fifth generation computer aims to be able to solve highly complex problem including decision making, logical
reasoning.
5) They will be able to use more than one CPU for faster processing speed.
6) Fifth generation computers are intended to work with natural language.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified according to the following factors:

 1.      Physical size & processing power.

2.      Purpose for which they are designed.

3.      Functionality (Method/ mode of operation).

  A.      C LAS S I FIC A TI ON AC C ORD I N G TO PHY S I C A L SI ZE.

 Computers can be classified into 5 main groups according to their size as:

 ¨     Supercomputers.

¨     Mainframe computers.

¨     Minicomputers.

¨     Microcomputers.

¨     Portable computers (Laptops, Notebooks & Palmtops).

 Supercomputers.

 Supercomputers are the fastest, largest, most expensive & also the most powerful
computers available.

 They are very fast in processing.  They can perform many complex calculations in a

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 fraction of a second.

 Most Supercomputers use multiple processors.  In this case, a single task is split among the
processors for faster execution.  However, all the processors are controlled by a single
central processor.

 Supercomputers generate a lot of heat, & therefore require special cooling

systems.  Sometimes, the whole CPU is deeped in a tank containing liquid
Fluorocarbon to provide cooling.

 Supercomputers are very large & heavy, and are usually kept under special environmental
conditions (i.e., in a special room).

 They are operated by computer specialists.  A Supercomputer can be operated by over 500
users at the same time.

 Areas where supercomputers are used:

Supercomputers are mainly used for complex scientific applications that involve many
calculations & require a lot of computational power.  Some of the applications that use
supercomputers include;

o Weather forecasting.
o Petroleum research.
o Defense and weapon analysis.
o Aerodynamic design and simulation.

Note.  These tasks use large amounts of data, which need to be manipulated within a very
short time.

Examples of Supercomputers:

¨       CRAY T3D, NEC-500.

Mainframe computers.

Mainframes are less powerful & less expensive than supercomputers.

They are big in size but smaller compared to Supercomputers.

Are powerful computers with very high capacities of Main storage.  They also have a large
backing storage capacity.

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Have a very high processing speed, i.e., can process large amounts of data very quickly.

They can support a large number of peripherals of different types (can support between 5–
300 terminals).

They can handle hundreds of users at the same time, e.g., they can be operated by 200 users
at a time.

Mainframe computers are general-purpose, and can handle all kinds of problems whether
scientific or commercial.

Areas where mainframe computers are used:

Mainframe computers are mostly found in government departments, big organizations and
companies which have large information processing needs, e.g., they are used;

o In Banks & Hospitals for preparing bills, Payrolls, etc.

o In communication networks such as the Internet where they act as Servers.
o By Airline reservation systems where information of all the flights is stored.

Examples of Mainframes:

¨       IBM 4381.

¨       ICL 39 Series.

¨       CDC Cyber series.

Minicomputers.

A Minicomputer is physically smaller than a mainframe.  However, it can support the same

peripheral devices supported by a mainframe.

A Minicomputer can support several users at a time, e.g., can be operated by 6 users at a
time.  Several workstations/ terminals are connected to one central minicomputer so that the
users connected can share its resources (C.P.U time, storage, etc).

Minicomputers are easier to manufacture & maintain compared to mainframes.

Minicomputers are cheaper than the mainframes, but more costly than the microcomputers.

They handle small amounts of data, are less powerful, & have less memory than the

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mainframes.

Minicomputers are slow compared to mainframe computers.

AREAS WHERE MINICOMPUTERS ARE USED:

Minicomputers are used mainly in:

o Scientific laboratories & research institutions.

o Engineering plants/factories to control of chemical or mechanical processes.
o Space industry.
o Insurance companies & Banks for accounting purposes.
o Smaller organizations as Network Servers.

Example of Minicomputer:

¨       PDP-8 built in 1965 by Digital Equipment Corporation in U.S.

Microcomputers.

Microcomputers are the PCs mostly found today in homes, schools & many small
offices.  They are called Personal Computers (PCs) because they are designed to be used
by one person at a time.

They consist of very few connected units, i.e. can support very few peripheral devices
(usually 1 or 2).

The data processing in microcomputers is done by a Microprocessor (a single chip

containing the Arithmetic Logic unit & Control unit).

Microcomputers are smaller in size & also cheaper than minicomputers.  Their design is
based on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) that confines several physical components
into an IC.

They are less powerful than minicomputers & their internal memory is smaller than that of
minicomputers.

Areas where microcomputers are used:

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Microcomputers are commonly used in:

o Training and learning institutions such as schools.

o Small business enterprises, and
o Communication centres as terminals.

Microcomputers have become very popular because of the following reasons:

1)        Are cheaper than both mini & mainframe computers.

2)        Are very fast (i.e. have high processing speeds).

3)        Small in size, hence they occupy less space in an office.

4)        Are more energy efficient (i.e., consume less power).

5)        Are more reliable than the early Mainframe computers.

Examples:

¨      IBM PCs such as Apple Macintosh, Dells, Compaq, etc.

Laptops & Notebooks.

A Laptop is a PC sufficiently small & light such that a user can use it comfortably on
his/her lap.  It is designed to be used by placing it on the lap.

-     Laptops are very small in size & are portable.  They are small enough to fit inside a
briefcase; still leaving room for other items.

-     A Laptop computer operates mainly on electricity or by rechargeable batteries.

-     Laptops normally have in-built disk drives & Flat screens (Liquid Crystal Displays).

-     Can only support a limited number of peripheral devices.

-     Have limited storage capacities.

Note.  The smaller computers like Laptops tend to be more expensive than Desktop
computers because of the following reasons:

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 1)        The technology of producing smaller devices is expensive.

2)        They are convenient because they are portable.

3)        They have advanced power management capabilities (they consume less

power since a laptop can operate on rechargeable batteries).

Palmtops.

Palmtops are small enough to fit in the pocket, and can be held in the palm when being
used.

Have limited storage capacities.

Palmtops are mainly used as Personal Organizers, with some minimal programs for
calculations, Word processing, Spreadsheets, & E-mail.

Example of a Palmtop; Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).

Desktop computer.

This is the name given to any computer designed to be used when placed on a desk in an
office environment.

They are not portable.

Examples of desktop computers:

1)        Home computer.

This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed for domestic use.  It

has programs that are used typically for computer games or controlling family
finances.

2)        Personal computer (PC).

This is a microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at work or in

the home mainly for business purposes.

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 A PC can support only 1 user at a time.

PCs are mostly used in offices, schools, business premises, and at home for various
applications like computer literacy, Games, Database management, Accounting,
Word processing, Telecommunications, etc.

A PC can be connected to a mini & mainframe computer so as to enable the user

access the facilities offered by the larger machines.

3)        Workstation.

A workstation is usually a desktop computer with all the facilities but interlinked to a
network.

A typical workstation works in a similar way to a Personal computer.  However, it is

more advanced than a typical PC in the following ways:

i).          It is larger & more powerful than a PC.  E.g., workstations use 32-bit
microprocessors, while PCs use 16-bit microprocessors.

ii).        It has in-built capabilities for its interconnection & operation with other
computers, i.e., it is fully connected to a computer network as any other computer
on the network in its own right.

iii).      It has high resolution graphics.

iv).      It has a Multi-tasking operating system, i.e. it is able to run multiple

applications at the same time.

An Embedded computer.

This is a computer that is within another device or system but is not accessed directly.  E.g.,
there are embedded computers operating within Petrol pumps, Watches, Cameras & Video
recorders.

B .         CLA S SI FI C A TI ON A CC OR D IN G TO PU R POS E.

Digital computers can be classified further according to the tasks they perform either as:

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 ¨    General-purpose.

¨    Special purpose

¨    Dedicated computers.

General-purpose computers.

General-purpose computers are designed to perform a wide variety of tasks.  They use

specifically written instructions (programs) to carry out the desired processing tasks.

Example;

A single computer can be used to process documents, perform calculations, process the
Payroll, simulate the loading on a bridge, process Insurance policies, and play games,
among others.

Examples of general-purpose computers: Mainframes, Minicomputers, Microcomputers &

Laptops used in most offices & schools.

Special-purpose computer.

A special-purpose computer is designed to handle/accomplish a particular specific task

only.

Such computers cannot perform any other task except the one they were meant to
do.  Therefore, the programs which are used in a special-purpose computer are fixed (hard-
wired) at the time of manufacture.

For example;

In a computer Network, the Front End Processor (FEP) is only used to control the

communication of information between the various workstations and the host computer.

A Special-purpose computer is dedicated to a single task; hence it can perform it quickly &
very efficiently.

Examples of special-purpose computers:

o Robots used in a manufacturing industry for production only.

o Mobile phones used for communication only.
o Calculators that carry out calculations only.
o Computers used in Digital watches.
o Computers used in Petrol pumps.

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o Computers used in Washing machines.
o An Automatic pilot – a computer dedicated to the task of operating an aircraft.
o A Word processor – a special-purpose computer used in the production of office
documents, letters, etc.

Reasons why a Mobile phone is regarded to be a computer.

o It is electronic.
o Has a screen.
o It has a Keypad.
o Has a Memory.
o It is programmable.

Dedicated computer.

A Dedicated computer is a general-purpose computer that is committed to some

processing task; though capable of performing a variety of tasks in different application
environments.

E.g., the computer can be dedicated to carrying out Word processing tasks only.

C.       C LAS S I FIC A TI ON AC C ORD I N G TO FU N C TI ON A LI TY .

Usually, there are two forms of data; Digital data, and Analogue data.  Computers can be

classified according to the type of data they can process as either.

¨    Digital computers.

¨    Analogue computers, or

¨    Hybrid computers.

Digital computers.

This is the most commonly used type of computers.

A Digital computer is a computer that operates on discrete data only.  It can process both
numeric & alphabetic data within the computer, e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3…, A,B,C….

Their operation is based on 2 states, “ON” & “OFF” or on digits “1” & “0”.  Therefore, any
data to be manipulated by a digital computer must first be converted to digital form.

Their output is usually in form of numbers, alphabets, & symbols.

Digital computers are usually general-purpose computers; hence, they are widely used in

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different areas for data processing.

Most of the devices found at homes today are digital in nature.

Digital computers are less accurate, i.e. may not solve all your problems since the facilities
provided are generalized.

Examples:

¨      A Television with a button which is pressed to increase or decrease the volume.

¨      Digital watches.

¨      Calculators.

¨      Microcomputers.  They are said to be digital because they posses the ALU.

Analogue computers.

An Analogue computer is a computer that operates on continuous data.

They carry out their data processing by measuring the amount of change that occurs in
physical attributes/quantities, such as changes in electrical voltage, speed, currents,
pressure, length, temperature, humidity, etc.

An Analogue computer is usually a special-purpose device that is dedicated to a single

task.  For example, they are used in specialized areas such as in:

Scientific or engineering experiments,

Military weapons,

Controlling manufacturing processes like monitoring & regulating furnace temperatures

and pressures.

Weather stations to record & process physical quantities, e.g., wind, cloud speed,
temperature, etc.

The output from analogue computers is in form of smooth graphs produced by a plotting
pen or a trace on a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) from which the information can be read.

Note: Analogue computers usually use one characteristic, e.g. a length, to give information

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about another physical characteristic, such as weight.

Analogue computers are very accurate & efficient since they are dedicated to a single task.

They are very fast since most of them use multiple processors.

Examples of analogue devices:

¨      The computer used to control a flight simulator for training pilots.

The computer responds to the Cockpit simulator control movements made by the pilot
to physically change the environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling an
actual aeroplane.

¨      A Bathroom scale.

It uses the weight of a person to move a pointer smoothly/continuously over calibrated

scale, which shows the person’s weight.

¨      Thermometer.

It uses a volume of Mercury to show temperature.  The Thermometer is calibrated to

give an exact temperature reading.

¨      Speedometer.

In Speedometer, the rotation of the wheel is converted to a voltage, which causes a

pointer to rotate over a dial calibrated in Km/h or Miles/h.

¨      A Petrol pump measures the rate of flow of Gasoline (petrol) & converts the
volume delivered to 2 readings; one showing the volume & the other showing the cost.

¨      A Post-office scale converts the weight of a parcel delivered into a charge for

posting.

¨      A Monitor with knobs that are rotated to increase brightness.

¨      A Television with knobs that are rotated to increase or decrease the volume.

¨      A Radio with a knob that slides in a slot to increase volume.

Hybrid computers.

Hybrid computers are designed to process both analogue & digital data.  They combine

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 both the functional capabilities of the digital and analogue computers.

Hybrid computers are designed by interconnecting the elements of a digital computer &
analogue computer directly into one processor, using a suitable interfacing circuitry.

Hybrid computers are more expensive.

Example;

In a hospital Intensive Care Unit, an analogue device may be used to measure the

functioning of a patient’s heart, temperature and other vital signs.  These measurements
may then be converted into numbers and send to a digital device, which may send an
immediate signal to the nurses’ station if any abnormal readings are detected.

Comparison between a Computer and Calculator.

Calculators
Computer

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1.      Costly due to the 1.      Cheaper – they
technology used. imitate simple computer
technology.

2.      Comparatively
2.      Bigger in size. smaller.

3.      Operate at very high 3.      Slower than

speeds. computers.

4.      Are more accurate – 4.      Less accurate – most

they give up to over 10 calculators give up to 8 dp
decimal places of accuracy. of accuracy.

5.      Flexible – can be used 5.      Mostly used for

in solving any problem. numerical calculations
involving arithmetic/
6.      Work under the control mathematical operations
of programs.
6.      Calculators are non-
programmable, but if
programmable, the range is
7.      Support a variety of limited.
peripherals, e.g. keyboard,
mouse, light pen, printer, etc. 7.      They only use
Display units & Keyboards
8.      Have large internal of limited capabilities.
memory of several KB’s.
8.      their internal memory
is very small.  Most
calculators only
9.      Support large Backing use Registers for
storage media. temporary storage during
calculations.

9.      Some calculators
10.  A computer can support have got some sort of fixed
several people at the same Backing store, though very
time. limited.

11.  Have got 10.  A calculator can serve

telecommunication only 1 user at a time.
capabilities.

12.  Require well-monitored

23
 environmental conditions. 11.  Have no
telecommunication
capabilities.

12.  Do not require well-

monitored environmental
conditions.

COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

The internal architectural design of computers differs from one system model
to another. However, the basic organization remains the same for all computer
systems. The following five units (also called "The functional units")
correspond to the five basic operations performed by all computer systems.

Input Unit
Data and instructions must enter the computer system before any computation
can be performed on the supplied data. The input unit that links the external
environment with the computer system performs this task. Data and
instructions enter input units in forms that depend upon the particular device
used. For example, data is entered from a keyboard in a manner similar to
typing, and this differs from the way in which data is entered through a mouse,
which is another type of input device. However, regardless of the form in which
they receive their inputs, all input devices must provide a computer with data
that are transformed into the binary codes that the primary memory of the
computer is designed to accept. This transformation is accomplished by units
that called input interfaces. Input interfaces are designed to match the unique

24
physical or electrical characteristics of input devices to the requirements of the
computer system.               

In short, an input unit performs the following functions.

1. It accepts (or reads) the list of instructions and data from the outside
world.

2. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable format.

3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for
further processing.

Output Unit
The job of an output unit is just the reverse of that of an input unit. It supplied
information and results of computation to the outside world. Thus it links the
computer with the external environment. As computers work with binary code,
the results produced are also in the binary form. Hence, before supplying the
results to the outside world, it must be converted to human acceptable
(readable) form. This task is accomplished by units called output interfaces.

In short, the following functions are performed by an output unit.

1. It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form
and hence cannot be easily understood by us.

2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.

3. It supplied the converted results to the outside world.

Storage Unit
The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system through
input units have to be stored inside the computer before the actual processing
starts. Similarly, the results produced by the computer after processing must
also be kept somewhere inside the computer system before being passed on to
the output units. Moreover, the intermediate results produced by the computer
must also be preserved for ongoing processing. The Storage Unit or the primary
/ main storage of a computer system is designed to do all these things. It

25
provides space for storing data and instructions, space for intermediate results
and also space for the final results.

In short, the specific functions of the storage unit are to store:

1. All the data to be processed and the instruction required for processing
(received from input devices).

2. Intermediate results of processing.

3. Final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.

                      See Also: Characteristics of a Computer

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The main unit inside the computer is the CPU. This unit is responsible for all
events inside the computer. It controls all internal and external devices,
performs"Arithmetic andLogical operations". The operations a
Microprocessor performs are called "instruction set" of this processor. The
instruction set is “hard wired” in the CPU and determines the machine language
for the CPU. The more complicated the instruction set is, the slower the CPU
works. Processors differed from one another by the instruction set. If the same
program can run on two different computer brands they are said to be

26
compatible. Programs written for IBM compatible computers will not run on
Apple computers because these two architectures are not compatible.

The control Unit and the Arithmetic and Logic unit of a computer system are
jointly known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of any
computer system. In a human body, all major decisions are taken by the brain
and the other parts of the body function as directed by the brain. Similarly, in a
computer system, all major calculations and comparisons are made inside the
CPU and the CPU is also responsible for activating and controlling the
operations of other units of a computer system.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the
actual execution of the instructions take place during the processing
operations. All calculations are performed and all comparisons (decisions) are
made in the ALU. The data and instructions, stored in the primary storage prior
to processing are transferred as and when needed to the ALU where processing
takes place. No processing is done in the primary storage unit. Intermediate
results generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to the primary
storage until needed at a later time. Data may thus move from primary storage
to ALU and back again as storage many times before the processing is over.
After the completion of processing, the final results which are stored in the
storage unit are released to an output device.

The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) is the part where actual computations take
place. It consists of circuits that perform arithmetic operations (e.g. addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division over data received from memory and
capable to compare numbers (less than, equal to, or greater than).

While performing these operations the ALU takes data from the temporary
storage are inside the CPU named registers. Registers are a group of cells used
for memory addressing, data manipulation and processing. Some of the
registers are general purpose and some are reserved for certain functions. It is
a high-speed memory which holds only data from immediate processing and
results of this processing. If these results are not needed for the next

27
instruction, they are sent back to the main memory and registers are occupied
by the new data used in the next instruction.

All activities in the computer system are composed of thousands of individual

steps. These steps should follow in some order in fixed intervals of time. These
intervals are generated by the Clock Unit. Every operation within the CPU takes
place at the clock pulse. No operation, regardless of how simple, can be
performed in less time than transpires between ticks of this clock. But some
operations required more than one clock pulse. The faster the clock runs, the
faster the computer performs. The clock rate is measured in megahertz (Mhz)
or Gigahertz (Ghz). Larger systems are even faster. In older systems the clock
unit is external to the microprocessor and resides on a separate chip. In most
modern microprocessors the clock is usually incorporated within the CPU.

Control Unit

How the input device knows that it is time for it to feed data into the storage
unit? How does the ALU know what should be done with the data once it is
received? And how is it that only the final results are sent to the output devices
and not the intermediate results? All this is possible because of the control unit
of the computer system. By selecting, interpreting, and seeing to the execution
of the program instructions, the control unit is able to maintain order and

28
directs the operation of the entire system. Although, it does not perform any
actual processing on the data, the control unit acts as a central nervous system
for the other components of the computer. It manages and coordinates the
entire computer system. It obtains instructions from the program stored in
main memory, interprets the instructions, and issues signals that cause other
units of the system to execute them.

The control unit directs and controls the activities of the internal and external
devices. It interprets the instructions fetched into the computer, determines
what data, if any, are  needed, where it is stored, where to store the results of
the operation, and sends the control signals to the devices involved in the
execution of the instructions.

29
 ICT NOTES
TOPIC: HARDWARE
SUB-TOPIC: INPUT DEVICES

Definition of an input devices:

An input device is a hardware or peripheral device used to send data to a computer. An input
device allows users to communicate and feed instructions and data to computers for
processing, display, storage and/or transmission

 Keyboard

 Mouse

 Joy Stick

 Light pen

 Track Ball

 Scanner

 Graphic Tablet

 Microphone

 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

 Optical Character Reader(OCR)

 Bar Code Reader

 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

30
 1. Keyboard:
The keyboard is an input device that is used most widely to enter data.  It has very similar to the
conventional typewriter with about 101 keys. The arrangement of keys on the keyboard is known the
layout. The most popular layout is QWERTY but Dvorak layout is also used. The keys on a computer

31
keyboard are classified as follow:

The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

32
 Typing Keys
1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09)
which generally give the same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad

It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement.

2 Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in
the same configuration used by most adding machines and
calculators.

Function Keys

The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard

3 which are arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard.
Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for
some specific purpose.

Control keys

These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes

4 four directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home,
End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as

5
Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and
Print Screen.

2. Mouse:
It is one of the most popular pointing devices which are being used frequently to control cursor around the
screen. It has two-to -three buttons that are used to select an object or opening a program. It is available
in following types.

33
Wheel Mouse:
 It contains left, right buttons, and middle scrolling button as well that is used to page up/down means
scrolling. The main thing is that it has a ball under it that rotates when a user has been dragging over
there. In this way screen pointer is controlled.
Laser Mouse:
 It is very similar to the wheel mouse but the difference is that it emits a laser beam of light to get through
mouse pad instead of rolling  ball, remaining other functions are same like wheel mouse.
Wireless Mouse:  
Such type of mouse does not require a cable to attach. It consists with internal battery like dry cell, so that
it performs all other mouse functions using wireless technology.

3. Light Pen:

It is also a pointing device. We move it on the screen just like an ordinary pen
but it works with electricity. It is used for drawing maps, pictures & also has no alphabetic keys. Simply it
sends input to the computer when a user touches on the screen. That is why graphic designers &
Engineers use it most of the time.

4. Joystick:

34
 It is another computer input device having “Base” & “Stick” is known joystick. The
stick is connected to the base, so the stick can move freely up to the 180 Degree that is used to move an
object on the screen by moving it. It provides beautiful functions & facilities to control video games around
the screen. Therefore this one is very popular device among children.

5. Track Ball:

The trackball is very similar to the mouse but it has two click buttons & a ball
that can circulate freely. So a user controls the mouse pointer on the screen by moving the ball &
performs click functions by pressing buttons just like a mouse. But the advantage of the trackball is that
take very less space to move so we can use it while traveling in Bus, Plans. In simple words, it is an
alternative to the mouse.

6. Scanner:

It converts hard copy into soft copy. It scans any of written or image things and
then converts into digital form. So a user can use the scanned document for printing, uploading or to send
via mail. Now a day latest scanners provide a facility of OCR stands for Optical Character Recognition. In
fact, OCR is software that converts the document image into text format. So a user can edit it in Word
Processor like MS Word.

7. Digital Camera:
35
 Digital camera is a very popular input device that is used to capture photos.
These pictures can be transferred to the computer as it can be connected to a computer through USB
very easily. Many cameras provide facility to edit pictures with the help of built-in functions. Pictures taken
by the camera are stored in its own memory. So no need it to record them on extra film.

8. Webcams:

It is a Computer Video Camera that is used for video chatting, Video Calls,
sending E-mails to friends with full motion attachments etc. In personal computers, a webcam is attached
via USB but so many laptops & Mobiles have a built-in webcam.

9. Touch Screen:

The touch screen is very reliable in these days; this input device is used in
mobile phones and tablets. Now computer screens are also being changed by inserting touch system
because it is very easy to use than key pressing.

10. BCR:
36
 BCR stands for Bar Code Reader, it is an input device. Different kinds of products
have lines of different thickness in a particular place. So this code represents the data, and the device
contains the photocell that read the Bar Code to show actual data. Shopkeepers use it to know the price
& information of an item.

11. Electronic Card Reader:

It is also an input device that is used by bank account holders; it is also known magnetic stripe reader.  It
reads all information when someone swaps ATM or VISA card on it. Usage of ATM card is increasing
rapidly day by day in all over the world.

12.Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital
form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a

multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

13.Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark
made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to
be selected and marked.

37
It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having
multiple choice questions.

14.Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital
form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a
series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by
the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed
at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics

and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for
fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.

38
 TOPIC: HARDWARE

SUB-TOPIC: OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices are used to display results of processing to the user. They perform the following
functions:
1.  Receive results from memory
2.  Convert data into human readable form
3.  Display results to the user

Examples include: Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker, and multimedia projector.

Different Types of Output Devices

1.    Monitor

LCD Monitor

CTR Monitor

39
    

Monitor is the most commonly used output device used to display results of processing. It has a
TV like shape. Pictures on monitor are formed with picture elements called PIXEL. Monitors
may be Monochrome that will display results in Black & White. Color Monitors are also
available. They display results in multi colors. Monitor produces soft copy output.  

2. PRINTERS
A printer is an external output device that takes data from a computer and
generates output in the form of graphics / text on a paper".
There are two types of printers.

Impact printers

An impact printer makes contact with the paper. It usually forms the print image by pressing an
inked ribbon against the paper using a hammer or pins. Following are some examples of impact
printers.
 Dot-Matrix Printers
The dot-matrix printer uses print heads containing from 9 to 24 pins. These pins produce patterns
of dots on the paper to form the individual characters. The 24 pin dot-matrix printer produces
more dots that a 9 pin dot-matrix printer, which results in much better quality and clearer
characters. The general rule is: the more pins, the clearer the letters on the paper. The pins strike
the ribbon individually as the print mechanism moves across the entire print line in both
directions, i-e, from left to right, then right to left, and so on. The user can produce a color output
with a dot-matrix printer (the user will change the black ribbon with a ribbon that has color
stripes). Dot-matrix printers are inexpensive and typically print at speeds of 100-600 characters
per second.

Daisy-wheel printers
In order to get the quality of type found on typewriters, a daisy-wheel impact printer can be used.
It is called daisy-wheel printer because the print mechanism looks like a daisy; at the end of each
“Petal” is a fully formed character which produces solid-line print. A hammer strikes a “petal”
containing a character against the ribbon, and the character prints on the paper. Its speed is slow
typically 25-55 characters per second.
Line printers
In business where enormous amount of material are printed, the character-at-a-time printers are
too slow; therefore, these users need line-at-a-time printers. Line printers, or line-at-a-time
printers, use special mechanism that can print a whole line at once; they can typically print the
range of 1,200 to 6,000 lines per minute. Drum, chain, and band printers are line-at-a-time
printers.

40
Drum printer
A drum printer consists of a solid, cylindrical drum that has raised characters in bands on its
surface. The number of print positions across the drum equals the number available on the page.
This number typically ranges from 80-132 print positions. The drum rotates at a rapid speed. For
each possible print position there is a print hammer located behind the paper. These hammers
strike the paper, along the ink ribbon, against the proper character on the drum as it passes. One
revolution of the drum is required to print each line. This means that all characters on the line are
not printed at exactly the same time, but the time required to print the entire line is fast enough to
call them line printers. Typical speeds of drum printers are in the range of 300 to 2000 lines per
minute.
Chain printers
A chain printer uses a chain of print characters wrapped around two pulleys. Like the drum
printer, there is one hammer for each print position. Circuitry inside the printer detects when the
correct character appears at the desired print location on the page. The hammer then strikes the
page, pressing the paper against a ribbon and the character located at the desired print position.
An impression of the character is left on the page. The chain keeps rotating until all the required
print positions on the line have filled. Then the page moves up to print the next line. Speeds of
chain printers range from 400 to 2500 characters per minute.
Band printers
A band printer operates similar to chain printer except it uses a band instead of a chain and has
fewer hammers. Band printer has a steel band divided into five sections of 48 characters each.
The hammers on a band printer are mounted on a cartridge that moves across the paper to the
appropriate positions. Characters are rotated into place and struck by the hammers. Font styles
can easily be changed by replacing a band or chain.
Non-impact printers
Non-impact printers do not use a striking device to produce characters on the paper; and because
these printers do not hammer against the paper they are much quieter. Following are some non-
impacted printers.
Ink-jet printers

Ink-jet printers work in the same fashion as dot-matrix printers in the form images or characters
with little dots. However, the dots are formed by tiny droplets of ink. Ink-jet printers form
characters on paper by spraying ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field that arranges the
charged ink particles into characters at the rate of approximately 250 characters per second. The
ink is absorbed into the paper and dries instantly. Various colors of ink can also be used.
One or more nozzles in the print head emit a steady stream of ink drops. Droplets of ink are
electrically charged after leaving the nozzle. The droplets are then guided to the paper by
electrically charged deflecting plates [one plate has positive charge (upper plate) and the other
has negative charge (lover plate)]. A nozzle for black ink may be all that’s needed to print text,
but full-color printing is also possible with the addition of needed to print text, but full-color
printing is also possible with the addition three extra nozzles for the cyan, magenta, and yellow

41
primary colors. If a droplet isn’t needed for the character or image being formed, it is recycled
back to its input nozzle.
Several manufacturers produce color ink-jet printer. Some of these printers come with all their
color inks in a cartridge; if you want to replace on color, you must replace all the colors. Other
color ink-jet printers allow you to replace ink individually. These printers are a better choice if
user uses one color more than other colors. These printers produce less noise and print in better
quality with greater speed.
Laser printers

A laser printer works like a photocopy machine. Laser printers produce images on paper by
directing a laser beam at a mirror which bounces the beam onto a drum. The drum has a special
coating on it to which toner (an ink powder) sticks. Using patterns of small dots, a laser beam
conveys information from the computer to a positively charged drum to become neutralized.
From all those areas of drum which become neutralized, the toner detaches. As the paper rolls by
the drum, the toner is transferred to the paper printing the letters or other graphics on the paper.
A hot roller bonds the toner to the paper.
Laser printers use buffers that store an entire page at a time. When a whole page is loaded, it will
be printed. The speed of laser printers is high and they print quietly without producing much
noise. Many home-use laser printers can print eight pages per minute, but faster and print
approximately 21,000 lines per minute, or 437 pages per minute if each page contains 48 lines.
When high speed laser printers were introduced they were expensive. Developments in the last
few years have provided relatively low-cost laser printers for use in small businesses.
Advantages of Laser Printer
 The main advantage of Laser printer is its speed & efficiency at which it prints high-
quality quality graphics & text.
 Laser printers produce high-quality output as compared to other printers.
 Laser printers are quite and does not produce disturbing sounds.
 They are also capable to produce color prints.
 Disadvantages of Laser Printer
 The main disadvantage of Laser printer is its cost, they are relatively costly as compared to
other printers.
 The maintenance, repair & servicing charges are also high of these printers.
 Laser printers emit small amount of ozone and are hazardous to health and the
atmosphere.

42
3.    Speaker and Headsets

Speakers for Desktop computer

Speakers and head sets produce sound output. We can listen recorded voices, sounds or music with
the help of speaker or headset. Speaker produces sound output with the help of sound card.

Headsets - used to produce audio output

43
4.    Plotter

A plotter is an output device used to produce image-quality graphics in a variety of colors. Plotters
are used to print large maps, architectural drawings, graphs and charts. Plotters are used to draw
different designs of buildings or internal structure of machines. Plotters offer the fastest way to
efficiently produce very large drawings or color high-resolution graphics. Engineers and Architects
use plotters.

5.    Multimedia Projector.

Multimedia Projector

Multimedia projector is used to produce computer output on a big screen. These are used in meeting
rooms or in classrooms of educational institutes. Since the output produced by multimedia projector
is displayed on a large screen, it can be viewed by a large number of people in a hall, meeting /
conference room or a class room. Mostly teachers use data projectors in class rooms for delivering
lectures ( a use of audio visual aids technology)

44
 HARDWARE

SUB-TOPIC: COMPUTER MEMORY AND STORAGE DEVICES

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types −

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can

access them.

45
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.

 It is known as the main memory.

46
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

 What is RAM (Random Access Memory)?

 After the magnetic hard drive or SSD, RAM is the biggest piece of memory which
exists on the computer hardware. RAM is used to store the programs and data
being used by the CPU in real time. The data on the random access memory can
be read, written, and erased any number of times.

 It is a volatile memory which means the data stored in the RAM evaporates the
moment you cut the power. That’s one of the reasons random access memory can’t
be used as a permanent storage despite the fact that it’s way faster than the
traditional magnetic disk-based hard drives.

Types of RAM:

 SRAM (Static RAM): It stores a bit of data using the state of a six transistor
memory cell. SRAM is way faster than DRAM, but costlier.

 DRAM (Dynamic RAM): It stores a bit data using a pair of transistor and
capacitor which constitute a DRAM memory cell.

47
 What is ROM (Read-Only Memory)?
 Another notable memory type present on the computer is the ROM. As the name
suggests, the data on the memory can only be read by the computer. So, what’s the
reason these read-only memory chips are in use when we have the RAM chips?

 The ROM is a non-volatile memory, it doesn’t forget the data even if the power
supply is removed. ROM is used to store firmware for the hardware which hardly
gets any regular updates, for instance, the BIOS.

 The data on the traditional form of ROM is hard wired to it i.e written at the time
of manufacturing. Over time, the read-only memory has been developed to support
erasing and rewriting of data, although, it can’t achieve the efficiency level of a
random access memory.

Types of ROM:

 Mask ROM: This is the type of ROM for which the data is written during the
manufacturing of the memory chip.

 PROM (Programmable Read-only Memory): The data is written after the

memory chip has been created. It is non-volatile.

 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory): The data on this non-

volatile memory chip can be erased by exposing it to high-intensity UV light.

 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory): The

data on this non-volatile memory chip can be electrically erased using field
electron emission (Fowler–Nordheim tunneling). Modern EEPROMs are quite
efficient in terms of the read-write capabilities.

48
 Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not
access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories

 Types of Secondary storage Devices in Computers are:

  Magnetic tape
  Magnetic disk and
  Magnetic drum.
Magnetic tape:
• Tapes are used for recording and storing data for computer processing. It is plastic reel similar
to long lengths of movie film. A tape is usually ½” wide and 2400 feet in length and it is coated
with particles of ferric oxide on which data can be recorded magnetically.
• The process of reading and writing of data is carried out on a device called Tape Drive and the
records on magnetic tape are stored in sequential order. For example: if the payroll file is to be

49
 stored on a magnetic tape, the records would likely to be stored in the sequence of employee
numbers. Hence, magnetic tapes are referred to as sequential access device.
Magnetic disk:
• Magnetic disk is another type of secondary storage device known as random (direct) access as
it permits direct accessing of data. An individual disk is a circular metal plate coated on both side
by ferrous oxide material.
• Data is recorded in the form of magnetized spots on the tracks of the disk, a spot representing
the presence by “1” and its absence by “0” enabling representing of data in binary form.
• The surface of the magnetic disk is divided into number of invisible concentric circles called
“tracks” and these tracks are further subdivided into “sectors”, “blocks” etc. each its own unique
addresses to facilitate the location of data and the Disk moves on a vertical rotating spindle.
• Reading /writing on the disks is accomplished by means of series of read/write heads which are
placed close to the surfaces of the disks.
• It is good to know that data on the magnetic disk can be accessed again and again. It can also be
recorded erasing the older information.
Magnetic drum:
• It is a metallic cylinder coated with a special magnetic alloy.
• Data is stored in this surface as minute magnetized spoke arranged in binary form in a series of
parallel circular tracks.
• The drum rotates at a constant speed and data is recorded (or) retrieved by the read/write head.
One for each track.
• The magnetic drum provides random access storage.
 ADVANTAGES
 Very fast access
 Random access capability
 Stored data is not destroyed until new data is written in the same location.
 DISADVANTAGES
 Drums cannot be removed from the unit and stored.
 Storage capacity is limited.
 Requires machine interpretation to read the information as it is not humanly readable.
 CD-ROM
♦ CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read Only Memory) is a Compact Disc contains data accessible by a
computer. While the Compact Disc format was originally designed for music storage and play
back, the format was later adapted to hold any form of binary data.

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♦ The CR-ROM is also known as a laser disc, which is shiny metal like disk. The diameter of the
disk is 5.25 inches or 12 cm disk. Information of 650 MB can be stored which is equal to nearly
2, 50,000 pages of printed text.
♦ The data is recorded as deep holes on the disk surface or burning microscopic bits.
♦ The plain and shiny disk surface and the microscopic bits help to represent the binary numbers
0 and 1, as required by the concentric tracks.
♦ CD-ROMs are popularly used to distribute computer software, including games and
multimedia applications, though any data can be stored.
♦ Some CDs hold both computer data and audio with the latter capable of being played on a CD
player, while data is only usable on a computer. These are called Enhanced CDs.
♦ The CD-ROMs are pre-recorded disks used for storing a large amount of data and information.
Hence, the CD-ROM drive has become a standard peripheral device used for retrieval of stored
data on the CD-ROM.
♦ A CD-ROM sector contains 2352 bytes, divided into 98 [ninety-eight], 24-byte frames.
♦ A mode-1 CD-ROM, which has the full three layers of error correction data, contains a net
2048 bytes of the available 2352 per sector.
♦ On a mode-2 CD-ROM, which is mostly used for video files, there are 2336 user available
bytes per sector. A device called CD-Writer is necessary to record information onto a CD-ROM.
 HARD DISK
♦ A hard disk drive [HDD], commonly referred to as a hard drive, hard disk or fixed disk drive.
It is a non-volatile secondary storage device which stores digitally encoded data on rapidly
rotating platters with magnetic surfaced. The hard disk is an electro mechanical device. The
hard disk is also known as Winchester disk. HDDs record data by magnetizing a ferromagnetic
material directionally to represent either a “0” or “1” binary digit. They read the data by
detecting the magnetization of the material.

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♦ The magnetic hard disk is an electro-mechanical device which consists of some smooth metal
plates and disks coated on either sides or surfaces with a thin-film of magnetic material. The set
of such magnetic disks are fixed on one spindle, one above the other, like a stack of disks. This is
called a disk pack, which is sealed into one unit and mounted on a disk drive.
♦ The hard disk drive has a set of magnetic heads or read/write heads for both surfaces of each
disk, on the spindle.
♦ The disk drive consists of a motor to rotate the disk pack at a speed of about 3600 revolutions
per minute [rpm] about a spindle.
♦ Each magnetic head (or) magnetic read/write heads mounted on arm can move in and out
rapidly on the disk surface to perform read and write operations. The information is recorded and
stored or retrieved that is read from the magnetic recording surface, while the disk rotates about
the spindle at high-speed.
♦ The information is stored on the magnetic surfaces as bits 0’s and 1’s on the concentric circles
as tracks.
♦ Each track is divided into sectors of the same density.
♦ The set of corresponding tracks of all the surfaces of all the disks constitute a cylinder.
♦ The magnetic disk pack is connected to controller by an electronic circuit called as a disk
controller (or) hard disk controller HDC. The controllers accept control signals from the control
unit of the computer for specific read and write operation.
♦ Now days the capacity of hard disk begins from 20 GB, 40 GB and so on, to fulfill the need of
large data information storage.
♦ Hard disk drives are sealed to prevent dust and other sources of contamination from interfering
with the operation of the hard disk heads.
♦ The hard drives are not air tight, but rather utilize an extremely fine air filter, to allow for air
inside the hard drive enclosure. The spinning of the disks causes the air to circulate forcing any
particulars to become trapped on the filter. The same air currents also as a gas bearing which
enables the heads to float on a cushion of air above the surfaces of the disks.
 

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FLOPPY DISKS
These are also called as flexible disks. These are used in the smallest micro computer systems as
well as mini computers. Floppy disks have higher storage capacity and offer direct access
capability. The floppy disk is permanently sealed in a plastic coated jacket and the whole
package is inserted the floppy drive for data recording and retrieval.

The jacket of the disk has a small slot to permit the read/write head to contact the disk. They are
5.25 inch (or) 3.5 inch in diameter. They come in single and double density and recorded on one
or both surface of the diskette. The capacity of a 5.25 inch floppy is 1.2 mega bytes whereas for
3.5 inch floppy it is 1.44 mega bytes.
It is cheaper than that of any other secondary storage devices and is portable too. The floppy is a
low-cost device particularly suitable for personal computer system. Once data has been recorded,
a floppy disk reader can be used to enter data into CPU. Again, the disk is loaded and rotated at a
constant speed inside its envelope. Tiny magnetic heads in the disk reader access data through
the slot in the jacket.

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