Classical Guitar Mini Masterclass

Technical Teach-ins
Derek Hasted MA (Cantab) DipABRSM

What is this e-book?
Its a collection of Mini Masterclasses - short tutorials on a whole variety of guitar topics
Where can I get a copy?
Visit www.derek-hasted.co.uk/e-books/
What are they for?
Theyre for people learning the basics of guitar and for guitar teachers
What do they cover?
These little articles cover some of the topics which Tutor books tend to miss out.
They explain why things are as they are, and they explain them from the perspective of a guitarist.
What don"t they cover?
These articles arent about guitar technique, they are about understanding the music behind the notes.
Copyright
These articles are all written by Derek Hasted and the copyright in them remains with Derek Hasted.
Students are free to download and print pages for their personal use.
Teachers have my permission to make copies, provided my logo and copyright clause remain on each page.
What do they cost?
There is no charge for these pages.
Are they helpful and informative?
If you think so, Id love it if you visit www.derek-hasted.co.uk/shop/ and see what music I have for sale
This e-book was last updated 5 June 2011
Derek Hasted 2010-1 The copyright in this material remains with Derek Hasted
I give permission to guitar teachers to copy & use these articles provided that this copyright clause and my logo remain on every copy
erek
haste
Mini Masterclass www.derek-hasted.co.uk
CONTENTS
................................................................................................... Articulation 3
....................................................................................................... Cadences 5
....................................................................................................... Damping 6
...................................................................................... Degrees of the scale 8
............................................................................................ Dynamic Range 9
.................................................................................... Equal Temperament 10
............................................................................................ Graded Exams 12
......................................................................................... How fast is fast? 13
.................................................................................... High Position Work 14
...................................................................................................... Intervals 15
............................................................................................... Italian Terms 17
........................................................................................... Key Signatures 20
................................................................................................. Modulation 22
......................................................................................... Musical Devices 23
...................................................................................................... Phrasing 24
..................................................................... Restringing a classical guitar 25
................................................................................. The Seventh Position 29
..................................................................... Speed - How to Play Quickly 30
........................................................................................................ Sustain 32
............................................................................... The Three Chord Trick 34
.......................................................................................... Time Signatures 36
.......................................................................................... Tone Production 38
........................................................................................ Tuning Problems 43
........................................................................................................ Vibrato 45
......................................................................................... When to restring 46
Most recent changes
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April 2011 Cadences and Three Chord Trick added
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February 2011 Graded Exams added
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February 2011 How Fast is Fast added
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February 2011 Time Signatures added
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November 2010 e-book launched
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Articulation
Articulation is how successive notes in a phrase are joined together or separated to give the phrase a sense of urgency
or relaxation that is over and above conveying the mood by the speed of playing.
Articulation denotes the change to normal playing to legato (smooth playing) and staccato (detatched playing)
Normal playing
In guitar, all notes die away starting at the moment they are sounded.
In a succession of notes all played at the same volume, the start of each new note is very clear, since it is, by denition,
louder than the (already-decaying) previous note.
Legato
Legato - literally bound - is when notes have an almost invisible gap between them.
In addition to the word legato as a performance indication, the slur sign can be used to call up a smooth and unobtrusive
start to the second note.
On a piano or organ, legato may actually involve a fraction of a seconds overlap between the old note and the new,
especially on a Church Organ which takes a while to speak a new note
On a wind instrument, the second note is not tongued, but simply continues from the rst. Legato is difcult on brass
instruments if the jump between the notes is large because the lip has to suddenly change tension
On orchestral strings, legato playing uses a uni-directional bow, instead of sawing back and forth
In singing, legato is where one syllable lasts for more than one note
On guitar we can use ligados - snaps & hammers (pull-offs & hammer-ons) to give our second note a smooth start
As a general principle, ligados work best if the rst note is on the beat, and the second note is off the beat - for
example, when the rst note of a set of beamed quavers or semiquavers is plucked, and the second is slurred.
It is hard to maintain the character and volume of a phrase with snaps & hammers if the notes we slur don't go with the
beats in the music.
One technique that can be used effectively is to duck down the volume of the notes that are off the beat.
Here's an example you can play three ways...
1. With no articulation
2. Using slurs - long snaps (pull-offs) to shape the notes
3. Using dynamics to shape the notes
It seems illogical that a phrase in which all the notes are at
different volumes can sound smoother than a phrase which is
totally uniform, but a constant barrage of notes can be tiring on
the ear.
Staccato
Staccato notes are cut short - indicated with a '.' above or
below the note-head (or the word stacc)
On all the above instruments, the note is cut short simply by

"not playing the note any more".
On a piano or organ, the key is released
On a wind instrument, the breath is stopped
On a bowed instrument, the bow stops
On guitar, a note continues once it is started, and has to be explicitly damped The left hand can be removed (but not on
an open string of course!)
The left hand can touch the vibrating string (easier said than done sometimes if other notes are following)
The right hand can back and touch the string to stop it (often the favoured method)
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haste
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Articulation
Articulation is the mixing of normal, legato and staccato playing to shape individual notes as well as phrases.
Articulation isn't easy to incorporate into solo playing because different notes may overlap each other in the piece.
In ensemble music, we have much more control - any or all the players can use articulation easily - it makes sense to use
it!
An example
A good example of using articulation in an ensemble piece is when the tune is in the bass.
The human ear tends to assume that the highest note is the tune. To overcome this in a symphony orchestra, one uses
sustain and tone colour (for example, putting a low tune on trombones so that it cuts through).
On guitar, we can lighten the textures in the higher parts by articulating them with gentle staccato, creating the illusion of
more power and more sustain in the bass.
See also the Damping article
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haste
Cadences
What is a cadence?
In simple terms, a cadence is the pair of chords that harmonise the end of a phrase - that is to say, the nal two chords
that underpin the conclusion of a melody, or a section of melody.
The majority of music phrases, at least in classical music, choose from a surprisingly limited range of chord-pairs, and
even music which modulates (changes to a different key), will usually pick from the same small set based around the
notes in the new (temporary) key.
This short article denes the principal sorts of cadence, at the level normally found in the Aural section of Classical
Guitar Graded Exams, and doesnt cover the more exotic cadences that can be constructed.
Naming the chords
In order to name the chords, we traditionally use the key-independent names such as Dominant, or key-independent
degrees of the scale, such as V. My Degrees of the Scale article denes these families of names.
Seeing inside the chords
In Classical Guitar, chord names are not written in the music, and so there is an element of detective work to tie together
the notes on the page and the chords they make up. My Three Chord Trick article includes a list of the notes in the
common chords for the common guitar keys, and sure enough, the principal contenders for the chords in a cadence are the
same chords as in the three chord trick.
The perfect cadence
The perfect cadence is the cadence that brings closure to a piece, and is V to I.
Here is an example in the key of C that has been tailored to t on guitar.
The plagal cadence
Often called the amen cadence, this also brings closure but does not have the nality of
the leading note rising to the tonic. The progression is IV to I and often the melody stays on
the tonic, as in the example here.
The imperfect cadence
Not so much imperfect musically, but rather simply the opposite of the perfect cadence -
one that moves the phrase to the dominant (without a clear modulation involving a change
of key and an accidental), and leaves the phrase there, ready for an answering phrase that
returns the music home. The progression is I to V.
The interrupted cadence
Strictly speaking, the interrupted cadence is a perfect cadence that is diverted from V to
anywhere other than I, often II or VI (which are minor chords). It generates a feeling of
tension, where the expected resolution doesnt come.
See also the Degrees of the Scale article and the Three Chord Trick article
www.derek-hasted.co.uk Mini Masterclass
erek
haste
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Damping
There are two sides to mastering "Damping" or the deliberate stopping of a strings vibrations.
One is damping that is required in the music notation - indicated by a staccato mark or a rest
The other is damping that is necessary to ensure the music is clean and pleasing
Damping that notation calls up
Whenever the notation includes a staccato mark (a . on the note-head) or an explicit rest, we need to silence the string or
strings necessary. There are 5 basic ways to achieve this
1. Lifting the left hand nger (no good for open strings!)
2. Touching the string(s) with the left hand nger (hard to do if the hand is playing other notes too)
3. Touching the string(s) with the other right hand nger (great for really short notes)
4. Touching the string(s) with the same right hand nger (great for chords)
5. Touching all the strings with the side of the right hand (be careful not to make a clonking sound!)
Sometimes a "belt and braces" approach is the best - if the music has an extended staccato passage, for example, its good
to release the left hand and replace the right hand at the same time.
Note - when lifting the left hand nger, lift it just enough to let the string rise off the fret
If you lift the nger right off the string, the open string will sound.
Conversely, if you dont lift it enough, the string will rattle on the fret till its damped
Playable example
Heres a simple example to bring together some of these techniques...
The staccato is best effected using methods 1 and 4 together.
The rest at the end of the bass note is best effected by method 4.
Damping to improve the music
Damping is an important part of solo and ensemble technique, and a lot of it isnt indicated in the music.
Orchestral instruments (strings, brass & woodwind) have sustain and the player maintains each note throughout its life;
the guitar is bit of a maverick - a note continues (but decays) with a life of its own. Stopped (ngered) notes cease when
the nger is lifted, but open strings ring on.
Damping is needed when notes we don't want ring on through notes we do. The music won't tell us when, but our ears
will!Let's look in more detail...
The problem
Here's the end of Brouwers Un Dia de Noviembre, simplied just a little. Its all rst
position - no tricks!
When you play the As, the open E & B of the previous bar both ring on. (The G is killed by the
A, of course). As they were played earlier, they're not as loud as the As, but they denitely ring on.
If you touch the E & B strings immediately before sounding the As, your ear will notice the gap or silence. But...
The solution (1)
Touch the E & B strings immediately after sounding the As, your ear won't notice the discord for the brief time it exists.
The solution (2)
There are other subtle ways that the guitar sings on... Sympathetic vibration means a string stopped at the fth fret can
make the open string of the same pitch burst into life, so be careful using 5th fret notes to replace open strings - they may
bite back. What you thought was a way to control when the (ngered) note stops (instead of using an open string) may
leave you with the open string ringing on just the same!
Just as an open string can vibrate in sympathy with another string of the same pitch, so a harmonic in an open string can be
excited by another string of a much higher pitch. Try the following experiment - be sure your guitar is accurately tuned first.
Play just the open B - the rst note of the incipit. Now place a right hand nger on it and leave it there. The B
apparently rings on - actually, it has excited the 3rd harmonic on the bottom E string, which is now vibrating.
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If you have a nice guitar, it will bite back even harder. Try this scenario - you need to be quick ...
Just play the open B loudly and then stop it with your right hand
Take the right hand away and now stop the bottom E string whose harmonic is vibrating in sympathy
Now listen. The B is still sounding.
Why? The open B has started back up, excited (yes, thats the proper word) by the bottom E strings harmonic
So to stop these spurious vibrations, we have to getem all at the same time.
Yet another caution!
Most ensemble music is single line so its not too hard to tidy up these ghost notes as you go along. Except...
Your guitar will also vibrate in sympathy with your neighbours, so you may nd a totally unexpected note spilling
from your soundhole!
erek
haste
Degrees of the scale
What is it?
This is about the various ways we can name the degrees of the scale.
This isn't a detailed look at Tonic Solfa, it's just touching the surface and doesn't deal with accidentals.
Ever listen to someone whistling a well-known tune?
Did they know what key the original was in, and what key they're whistling in? No!
Does it matter? No!
All that matters is whether the next note of the tune goes up or down, and by how much. As long as you move around the
piece by the correct amount relative to the previous note it doesn't matter what the starting note is.
Naming notes relative to other notes
There are two issues in describing a tune's next note relative to the previous note.
How to name a jump up or down the scale in relative terms - see my Intervals sheet
How to name the note we've landed on in relative terms - that's this sheet.
Three ways to name a note without using its name!
I'll give you some examples further down the page, but here are the three ways...
1. Numeric names... I for the rst note in a scale, II for the second, and so on
2. Formal Names... Tonic, Supertonic, Mediant, Subdominant, Dominant, Submediant, Leading Note, Tonic
3. Tonic Solfa... Doh, Re, Me, Fa, Sol, La, Ti, Doh (note different languages spell these differently!)
To complicate matters a little, there are two sorts of Tonic Solfa -
Moveable Doh (where the rst note of a scale is Doh)
Fixed Doh (Doh = C)

Here are two worked examples
Key C
Scale note C D E F G A B C
Numeric names I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Formal names Tonic Supertonic Mediant Subdominant Dominant Submediant Leading Note Tonic
Fixed Doh Doh Re Me Fa Sol La Ti Doh
Moveable Doh Doh Re Me Fa Sol La Ti Doh
Key G
Scale note G A B C D E F# G
Numeric names I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Formal names Tonic Supertonic Mediant Subdominant Dominant Submediant Leading Note Tonic
Fixed Doh Sol La Ti Doh Re Me Fi (*) Sol
Moveable Doh Doh Re Me Fa Sol La Ti Doh
(*) Fi is one of many spellings that are applied to indicate that the note is sharpened compared to Fa.
An aside - why is the submediant above the mediant when the subdominant is below the dominant?
The prex "sub" denotes below. Why is the submediant above the mediant then?
The Dominant is the name of the key that is one sharper than the current key. It is ve to the right of the Tonic.
The Mediant is halfway between the Tonic and the Dominant.
The Subdominant is the name of the key that is one atter than the current key. It is properly regarded as being ve to the
left of the Tonic (as you can see if you start at the right hand edge of the table and move left.
The Subdominant isn't "one under the Dominant", it's "as far below the Tonic as the Dominant is above.
If you start at the right hand Tonic and move left, the Submediant is halfway between the Tonic and the Subdominant.
erek
haste
Dynamic Range
Dynamic Range
It's just a posh phrase for difference between the softest and loudest sounds. Different volumes are indicated by the well-
known symbols ppp, pp, p, mp, mf, f, ff, fff
How big are the differences?
Now that's the tricky bit! A symphony orchestra has a massive dynamic range because one ute is a lot quieter than 100
brass, string and woodwind players all going at out. But a single guitar has a limited range - capped at the top by the
sound of strings slapping against the ngerboard, and at the bottom by sheer inaudibility.
Certainly, a guitar ensemble or guitar orchestra has the ability to extend the range by varying the number of players, but
the key to it all is still to maximise the dynamic range of each guitar.
But didn't you just say....
So we need to maximise the dynamic range of each guitar. But didn't we just say that it is xed?
Once we accept that the guitar really has a workable range from pp to ff, we have agreed that we should be able to play at
6 different volumes.
And that's what this article is about - maximising the dynamic range of the player!
Why this article?
There are two skills to acquire in gaining a full dynamic range
Being able to play at six noticeably different volumes
Bringing those volumes to bear in performance

Playing at six different volumes
Make no mistake, playing mf is effortless, but playing at the ends of the dynamic range are not.
Playing quietly requires great control and nails free from snags and catches.
Playing loudly is physically hard work and if anything is out of kilter with the left hand, will be peppered with buzzes.
A guitar will speak more loudly and with a more rounded and pleasing tone if the string is pushed towards the front of the
guitar as it is plucked. Any slapping of the rst and most intense excursion of the string is also minimised.
A well-known way to improve the production of loud notes is to weave a tissue between the strings at the bridge and play
loudly in comparative silence.
Dynamics in performance
We all know the rabbit in the headlights feeling a performance can bring and its no surprise that the bodys response to
all this is to put the right hand back in the middle of its comfort zone, and to watch the notes on the page but not the
performance markings.
Marking volume changes in red is a good start to unpicking this response - they won't get missed.
Another well-known trick is to over-emphasise volume changes and then having placed in the audience's mind the new
volume, gradually back off from the limits of your range a little. Youre back nearer your comfort zone (and no-one
knows except us...)
erek
haste
What the music requires What you play
What the audience is convinced they hear!
Equal Temperament
It was Pythagoras who rst discovered that notes which blend well together have frequencies of vibration that are related
by simple fractions.
For example, the octave is when one note vibrates exactly twice as fast as another.
The perfect fth (for example C to G) is when the G vibrates exactly 3/2 times as fast as the C.
Here are some building bricks laid out with lengths in the ration of 3 to 2 - see how the pattern repeats regularly, and how
the resulting composite pattern has an innate structure.
This structure is not so different from the regular pattern of vibration of the eardrum when a perfect fth is sounded - the
eardrum vibrates in a simple pattern, pleasing to the brain.
When two notes do not have this sort of relationship, the pattern does not repeat for a long time, and the vibration of the
eardrum changes constantly. Here, the ratio is just slightly more than 3 to 2.
When a perfect fth is out of tune, you'll be familiar with the "beating" or vibration that is perhaps once or twice a
second, and needs to be slowed to zero to get the fth "perfect".
The problem
There's a problem. Indeed, the problem has been known to occupy whole books about tuning, but we can cut to the chase
in one page.
Suppose we start at bottom C on the piano, and go up in perfect fths - C G D A E B F# C# G# D# A# F C.
In 12 steps we have got back to C, just as we arrive at the top reaches of the keyboard.
Each time we have gone up, we have increased the frequency by 50%.
After 12 steps we have gone up in frequency by 1.5
12
which is 129.75.Here's a picture...
But we've gone up exactly 7 octaves, and each has double the frequency, so we have gone up in frequency by 2
7
, or 128.
Does not compute!
In order for the octaves of the piano (and indeed the guitar) to be perfect, the fth needs to be slightly smaller than 1.5
It needs to be 2
(7/12)
, which is 1.4983 instead of 1.5.
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x2 x2 x2 x2 x2 x2 x2 x2 =128
x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 x1.5 =129.75
But that's not in tune!
The tiny attening of the perfect fth doesn't notice. If I redrew the top picture in the ratio of 1.4983:1 instead of 1.5:1, it
would take about a thousand blocks before the growing displacement was obvious.
In musical terms, the beating between, say, C on the second string and G on the top string, is slower than once every two
seconds. It's hard to hear.
And so...
And so in guitar terms, tuning a chord to perfection instead of to "near perfection" will make another chord sound worse!
When tuning a guitar, it's vital to try different chords so make sure that the tuning errors (which we have to have) are
distributed evenly (so they don't notice) and not unevenly (so they accumulate in certain chords).
An example
Here's an example - play the chord of E in rst position, and you will nd you can atten the G string and the chord stays
sounding nice. However, if you atten the G string as much as you can with the E chord still sounding pleasant, you will
then nd a chord of C sounds intolerably "out" !
When I tune using a tuning fork, rather than a chromatic tuner, I double check my tuning by playing the chords of E and
C, and also an open chord of D (just Ds and As). I'm checking to make sure they all sound reasonably in tune, rather than
some in tune and some most denitely not!
erek
haste
Graded Exams
What is a Graded Exam?
Here in the UK, a number of examination boards have set up Graded Exams in all the common musical instruments,
including Classical Guitar.
As an adult reading this, you might well be wondering what one is.
Well, its not like a driving test. There are 8 main levels, not one single standard; and although you can fail, just as you
can fail a driving test, if you do fail, you don't have to be accompanied by a proper guitarist each time you take your
guitar out for a spin!
But let's talk about passing, not failing!
Do I need to pass a Graded Exam?

Not unless music is going to be your career
So whats in it for me?

As an adult, not necessarily anything. But some students love a goal, and they love proof theyve attained it
What will I gain, doing an exam, that I wont gain just with lessons?
A focus on perfection, rather than progress.
A chance to play to someone else (most teachers, like me, provide dozens of other chances to play to someone else!)
Types of Grade
There are three types of Graded Exam provided by most examination boards....
Practical - show you have mastered your instrument
Theory - show you understand how music works
Musicianship - show you can apply musical techniques on the y

In a broad brush summary, Practical is the one that interests Classical musicians, and Musicianship interests those with a
Jazz leaning.
The theory, by contrast, is a desk-based exam. Its entirely optional in the lower grades, but to be able to enter a Practical
exam above Grade 5, you need to demonstrated that you understand Theory at Grade 5 level.
What are the Grades?
Most exam boards have 8 Grades, and for an adult, a Grade is about the amount of progress one makes in a year if one is
keen and dedicated.
It's possible to do the Grades faster, but doing exams end-to-end is a blinkered and poor way to master the Guitar. Id
rather play a thousand fun pieces than just three difcult ones, and Im sure you would too!
What does a Practical exam consist of?
Its a short visit to an exam centre, just 15 minutes at the lower Grades!
Youll play 3 pieces youve chosen from a set-list and prepared over the previous 3-6 months
Youll play the examiner's choice of some scales and arpeggios on the set-list which you need to have memorised
Youll do a piece of sight-reading to show that you dont just play guitar parrot-fashion
Youll listen to some snippets of music played on a piano and answer questions on what youve heard
And some time later youll receive your marks and a report
If someone wants to do exams with me, I teach to the Associated Board syllabus, as I like their emphasis on musicality
and not just technique...
If a player is musical, theyll hear and repair technical problems.
If a player is just a technician, theyll manage the notes, but miss the music
Associated Board have a website at www.abrsm.org
erek
haste
How fast is fast?
A lot of guitarists get a bit over-obsessed with the need for speed.
For many guitarists, a better question is...
How fast is too fast?
If a piece of music is played too quickly, its nothing more than a gabble. At the novice and intermediate stage of learning,
pieces are often short, meaning that a fast performance achieves little than a sense of disatisfaction that the piece was
over before it started.
There are other factors that make a piece sound too fast...
As ones speed increases, the notes become shorter, and the imperceptible gaps between the notes start to become a
larger percentage of the total sound - the music starts to sound rough round the edges
At the limits of ones uency, certain passages will cross the threshold into I can't quite manage this
Theres a pertinent quotation going around...
Back off a little from what your fastest tempo is so the listeners dont have to be nervous for you.
What speed is the right speed?
If youre playing for an audience, they may well know the piece. If they have an expectation that this piece goes at a
certain speed, that's the right speed for it to go at!
What's the right speed for me?
A few years back, Associated Board (the exam board ABRSM) published a table of speeds they felt were appropriate for
the scales in their graded exams.
For those unfamiliar with their concept of grades, each Grade represents, at least for an adult, where you could expect to
be after another years progress with guitar.
These gures are the speeds at which the music should still sound relaxed!
Who said that exams are getting easier?
Remember that a well-learned scale with familiar patterns is much easier to present smoothly than a piece containing
bespoke, unfamiliar, shapes.
See also the Speed - How To Play Quickly article
erek
haste
Grade Years of playing Notes / second Notes / minute Notes / second Notes / minute
1 1 ~1.5 88 ~1.6 96
2 2 2 120 1.9 112
3 3 ~2.5 152 2.2 132
4 4 ~3 184 ~2.7 160
5 5 4 240 3.2 196
6 6 ~4.5 264 ~3.7 224
7 7 ~4.9 290 4.2 252
8 8 5.3 320 4.8 288
High Position Work
Why go up the neck?
As we play higher up the neck, we dont only gain new, higher notes, and lose a corresponding number of deep bass
notes... notes of the same pitch are found on different, thicker strings. The combination of extra thickness and reduced
length changes the note appreciably, giving it a much warmer sound, with a reduced harmonic content and a less pungent
attack.
But there are other gains and losses too - lets explore some of them.
On the upside
Vibrato is much easier to effect - as we near the centre of the string, it is easier to make longitudinal movements of the
ngers and easier to take the string with the nger, giving a true vibrato in which the pitch variation above and below
the note are essentially equal.
Reach is smaller and it's easy to borrow a nger outside the position to nd those elusive few notes that are missing
from each position on the guitar - an advantage thats particularly powerful if the music is rich in incidental sharps and
ats.
Tone is altogether more liquid (though the open strings present a tone that's markedly different and harder to
incorporate seamlessly).
The lesser reach reduces tension in the left hand and makes it much easier to be agile up the neck.
On the downside
A high action (and action always will be higher further up the neck) can make it cumbersome to get the ngers placed
properly, and can make it difcult to mix fretted notes (depressed quite some way down) with open strings (vibrating
some distance above the frets). Good guitars have a lower action, partly because they are inherently louder and don't
need a high action, and partly that the curvature of the neck is spot on along the whole length (there is no need to raise
the action to defeat persistent buzzes at certain areas of the neck).
It is easier to deform the string laterally with a nger that does not descend vertically, making it very easy to sharpen
perhaps one note in a difcult chord.
It is also easier to deform the string longitudinally, so that a big stretch of 5 or 6 frets can see the high note pulled sharp
and the low note tugged at.
The gap between strings 2 and 3 is a semitone less than all the other strings, and up the neck its quite easy to nd a
familiar ngering - (for example in VII position, the bottom string yields D under the 4
th
nger, in exactly the same
way as in II position, the 5
th
string yields D under the same nger. However, as the scale is traversed, the notes affected
by the 3
rd
string will be at a different point in the scale. This feeling that I know how it goes but its gone wrong is
easily overcome in time, but in the early stages of going up the neck can cause all sorts of errors that are quite
unsettling, as familiar ngerings no longer work quite as they used to.
Somewhere else
Sometimes a plus, sometimes a minus... the crossover between nylon and wound strings is at a different point in the
scale. The crossover point marks a real difference in tone between the thickest, stiffest string and the thinnest, brightest
one. Sometimes a careful choice of position can give exactly the right result. Sometimes we have to make do (and
playing the 4
th
string with the esh of the thumb instead of the nail can help minimise the difference.
What position should I be in?
Now if we knew the answer to that, ngering a guitar piece would be so easy we wouldnt need editors!
Certainly, some positions suit some keys - in the IX position, every diatonic note in the key of D is under the ngers.
Yet curiously, VII position is often used for D - the top octave is under the ngers, but the bottom octave is less so.
As you can see, its not obvious! A little experimentation, however, will soon show whether, for example, the position
you've chosen requires lots of low notes with the 4th nger (not the easiest nger to reach a long way with), or whether
the strong ngers take the lions share of the work.
One thing is clear - facility all over the neck opens up a greater palette of tone and, indirectly, lyricism. Just as a cook can
serve one type of meat in many ways, so we, by position work, can serve up a phrase in an almost innite variety of
colour...
See also the Seventh Position article.
Intervals
What are Intervals?
Theyre the way we name the jumps that a melody takes as it progresses.
Ever listen to someone whistling a well-known tune?
Did they know what key the original was in, and what key theyre whistling in? No!
Does it matter? No!
All that matters is whether the next note of the tune goes up or down, and by how much.
As long as you move around the piece by the correct amount relative to the previous note it doesn't matter what the
starting note is.
Naming notes relative to other notes
There are two issues in describing a tunes next note relative to the previous note.
How to name a jump up or down the scale in relative terms - thats this sheet
How to name the note weve landed on in relative terms - see my Degrees of the Scale sheet.
The two parts to an interval name
An interval is the gap (in pitch, not time) between 2 notes. There are two parts to an interval name:
1. The rst part says how many note names separate the 2 notes
Note - we count both the notes as well as those in between, so C to E is a third
2. The second part says whether the gap is large or small
Example - A to C is a third, but is 3 frets. C to E is a third but is 4 frets
We don't specify the actual number of frets of separation, we simply say whether its a large gap or a small one
Types of interval
For most intervals, we describe the gap with one of 4 qualiers (youll nd these names applying to chords too!)
Diminished, Minor, Major & Augmented - Minor is small, Major is large, Diminished is very small, Augmented is very
large
For the 4th and 5th (eg Tonic to Subdominant or Dominant) there is only one spacing that sounds "good"; we use
Diminished, Perfect and Augmented - Perfect sounds good, the others sound "strained"
A convenient way to think of this (although there is an exception to the rule I'm about to give) is that Major, Minor &
Perfect intervals relate to the gaps we nd between any two notes of a scale, and that Diminished & Augmented intervals
relate to gaps when one or both notes is altered by an accidental.
The exception to this "rule" in the key of C, for example, is the interval between F and B, which is an augmented 4th, and
between B and F, which is a diminished 5th.
A table of interval names
* Example : The interval from the Open D string to the Open B string is found in the table on the row marked 6ths - its
a 6th.
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Interval
Name
Here are the Interval Names (from low to high note)
The interval name is the same, even if the notes are sharp or at
Unison C-C D-D E-E F-F G-G A-A B-B
2
nd
C-D D-E E-F F-G G-A A-B B-C
3
rd
C-E D-F E-G F-A G-B A-C B-D
4
th
C-F D-G E-A F-B G-C A-D B-E
5
th
C-G D-A E-B F-C G-D A-E B-F
6
th
C-A D-B(*) E-C F-D G-E A-F B-G
7
th
C-B D-C E-D F-E G-F A-G B-A
Octave C-C D-D E-E F-F G-G A-A B-B
The next table shows how to work out if its a Minor 6
th
or a Major 6
th
.
Note : When we name intervals, we include the notes at either end. When we count the gap, we count the frets in the
normal way (eg C-D is 2 frets)
Note: Intervals larger than an octave (such as a 9
th
) is also called a compound interval (a 9
th
is a compound 2
nd
)
A table of intervals
* Example : The interval from the Open D string to the Open B string is 9 frets.
Combining this with the result from the previous table, we see the interval is a Major 6
th
.
Inversions
These tables name the interval assuming that the lower note is rst.
Inverting an interval means putting the lower note on top.
When we invert an interval, several things happen...
The Interval Name becomes (9-The Interval Name)
Augmented becomes Diminished and vice versa
Major becomes Minor and vice versa
Perfect stays perfect

Example : D to B is a Major 6th. B to D is Minor 3rd
This swapping over is much like the swapping over that happens in the order sharps and ats get added to a Key
Signature
Why bother understanding inversions?
Recognising intervals helps with recognising chords, and, like intervals, chords are frequently inverted too; feeling at ease
with groups of notes on the score is a powerful step towards being at ease with them on the ngerboard.
See also my Key Signatures sheet.
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Interval/no of frets 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Unison Uni Aug1
2
nd
dim2 min2 Maj2 Aug2
3
rd
dim3 min3 Maj3 Aug3
4
th
dim4 Per4 Aug4
5
th
dim5 Per5 Aug5
6
th
dim6 min6 Maj6 Aug6
7
th
dim7 min7 Maj7 Aug7
Octave dim8 8va
Key (larger intervals are capitalised)
dim = diminished, min = minor, Maj = major, Aug = augmented
Per = perfect, Uni = unison, 8va = Octave
Italian Terms
What are they?
Music Notation is a universal language, understood by autists, cellists, pianists and more. In fact, apart from a few
guitarists obsession with reading nothing but tablature or tab, its pretty much totally universal. Unlike tab, it tells you
what you must achieve, not how you must achieve it, and it leaves sufcient room for the player to consider alternative
ngerings, for example.
But whilst it expresses pretty concisely the pitch and relative lengths of all the notes, it gives little clue whether the music
is fast and furious, or slow and gentle. It gives few indications about how to shape the music.
Italian Terms is a catch-all name for the narrative or descriptive mark-ups that express, in plain language, how to shape
the piece. Italian is used simply because it provides a standard vocabulary that, once learned, is understood the world
over.
This article denes some of the more common terms.
.......................................... Accelerando or Accel Becoming gradually faster
........................................... Ad lib or Ad Libitum At (the performers) pleasure
................................................................. Adagio Slow and leisurely
............................................................. Affetuoso Tenderly
........................................................... Affretando Hurrying, pressing onwards
................................................................. Agitato Agitated
........................................................... Allargando Broadening out, often with an increase in tone
............................................................ Allegretto Slightly less than Allegro (A little allegro)
................................................................ Allegro Lively, reasonably fast
.............................................................. Amoroso Loving
............................................................... Andante Literally Walking - at a moderate pace
............................................................ Andantino Usually a little faster than Andante. Can sometimes mean the opposite!
............................................................... Animato Animated
.............................................................. A piacere At pleasure
....................................................... Appassionato Passionately
.................................................................... Assai Very
............................................................... A tempo Become normal speed after a diversion
................................................................ Attacca Go on straight away
............................................................. Ben, bene Well (Ben Marcato : Well marked)
........................................................................ Bis Twice
............................................................... Brillante Sparkling, brilliant
...................................................................... Brio Vigour. (Con Brio : With Vigour)
............................................................... Calando Decreasing tone and speed
......................................... Cantabile or Cantando In a singing style
.................................................................... Capo The beginning (literally, the head)
............................................................. Capriccio A caprice - a piece in light-hearted style
.................................................................... Coda (Literally tail) - a passage to conclude a piece or movement
............................................................. Col, colla With the
................................................................... Come As (Come Prima : As At First) (Come Sopra : As Above)
............................................................... Comodo Convenient (usually in the sense of "at a convenient pace")
...................................................................... Con With (Con Moto : With Movement)
.............................................. Crescendo or cresc Getting louder
........................................................................ Da From, of
................................................... Da Capo or D C From the beginning
................................................. Dal Segno or D From the sign ()
.................................................................. Deciso Decisively, rmly
........................................................ Decrescendo Becoming gradually softer
............................................................... Delicato Delicately
............................................. Diminuendo or dim Becoming gradually softer
................................................................... Dolce Sweetly
.................................................................. Dolore Grief, sorrow
...................................................... En dehors (Fr) Prominently or emphasised
.............................................................. Energico With energy
.......................................... Espressivo or Espress With expression, with feeling
................................................................. Estinto As quiet as possible (literally extinguished)
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................................................................... Felice Happy
.................................................................. Feroce Fierce
...................................................................... Fine The end. DC Al Fine - back to the start, end at Fine
Forte or f.............................................................. Loud
Fortissimo or ff.................................................... Very Loud
Forzando or fz or ............................................ sfz With a strong accent (literally forced)
................................................................... Fuoco Fire
................................................................ Furioso Furiously
............................................................... Giocoso Gay, merry
.................................................................. Giusto Strict, exact (Giusto tempo : In strict time)
............................................................ Grandioso Grandly
................................................................... Grave Very Slow
.............................................................. Grazioso Gracefully
............................................................ Impetuoso Impetuously
........................................................... Incalzando Increasing speed, with an implication of increasing thickness of sound
........................................................... Lacrimoso Sadly (literally tearfully)
.................................................... Langsam (Ger) Slow
................................................................... Largo Slow and stately, broad
............................................................. Larghetto Less slow than Largo
.................................................................. Legato Smoothly
.............................................................. Leggerio Lightly
................................................................... Lento Slowly
.................................................................... Loco (Literally place or in place) - restore normal pitch after 8va
....................................................................... Ma But (Ma non troppo : But not too much)
............................................................. Maestoso Majestically
............................................................ Mancando Dying away
............................................................... Marcato Marked, accented
.................................................................. Marcia A march
............................................................... Marziale Martial (not to be confused with marital!)
................................................................... Meno Less (Meno Mosso : Less Movement)
................................................................... Mesto Sadly
Mezzo forte or mf................................................ Moderately Loud
Mezzo piano or mp..............................................Moderately Soft
........................................................... Misterioso Mysteriously
............................................................. Moderato Moderately (applied to tempo)
................................................................... Molto Much
.............................................................. Morendo Dying away
.................................................................. Mosso Movement
.................................................................... Moto Movement
.......................................................... Non troppo Not too much
............................................................. Obbligato Cannot be omitted
......................................................... Op. or Opus Work (a published composition)
.................................................................... Ossia Or (denoting a choice)
........................................................... Passionato Passionately
................................................................ Patetico With feeling or pathos
........................................................... Perdendosi Dying away
................................................................ Pesante Heavily
............................................................. Piacevole Pleasingly
........................................................... Piangevole Plaintively
Pianissimo or .................................................. pp Very soft
Piano or p............................................................ Soft
....................................................................... Piu More (Piu Mosso : More movement)
Pizzicato or pizz...................................................Literally plucked (but on the guitar, deliberately damped)
........................................................... Pochettino Rather little
.......................................................... Pochissimo Very little
.................................................................... Poco A little (Poco a poco : Little by little or gradually)
....................................... Precipitato, Precipitoso Impetuously
................................................................... Presto Very quick
.......................................................... Prestissimo As fast as possible
................................................................... Primo First
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................................................................... Quasi As if, almost
.............................................. Rallentando or Rall Becoming gradually slower
......................................................... Rinforzando Reinforcing
............................................................... Risoluto Boldly
........................................... Ritardando or Ritard Becoming gradually slower
..................................................... Ritenuto or Rit Held back (Slower at once)
................................................................ Ritmico Rhythmically
................................................................. Rubato Robbed, stolen - making a note or notes longer at the expense of others
................................................................ Scherzo A Joke
.......................................................... Scherzando Playfully
........................................................... Sec, Secco Detached (literally dry)
................................................................... Segno A sign (See D )
.............................................................. Semplice Simple
................................................................ Sempre Always
................................................................... Senza Without
Sforzando or sf or ........................................... sfz With a sudden accent
.................................................................. Simile In a similar manner
........................................... Slargando/Slentando Gradually slower
.......................................................... Smorzando Dying away
................................................................... Soave Gentle, smooth
................................................................... Sopra Above
.............................................................. Spiritoso Spirited
.................................................. Staccato or stacc Short, detached
............................................................ Strepitoso Noisy, boisterous
........................................................... Stringendo Gradually faster
....................................................... Subito or Sub Suddenly
........................................................... Tacet (Lat) It is silent
.................................................................. Tempo The speed of the music
................................................. Tempo di gavotta In the time (and style) of a gavotte
.................................... Tempo Primo or Tempo I Resume the original speed
........................................................ Teneramente Tenderly
....................................................... Tenuto or ten Held
............................................................ Tranquillo Quietly
................................................................. Troppo Too much. (Ma non troppo - but not too much)
.................................................................. Vivace Lively, Quick
................................................................ Volante Flying
................................................. VS (Volti Subito) Turn the page quickly
There is a page of humorous denitions at www.derek-hasted.co.uk/denitions/
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Key Signatures
What is a key signature?
The most straightforward denition is that its the group of sharps or ats just after the
clef on every line in a piece.
More accurately, you should regard the signature and the clef together as dening the
pitch of the notes on the stave and dening which of the 7 notes that we use are sharp
(or at) notes.
Some facts
A key signature can have up to 7 ats or up to 7 sharps
A key signature will never contain both sharps and ats
There is only one signature that has n sharps - theres a table below
Each signature has the effect of pushing one or more notes up or down a semitone, moving them closer to one
neighbouring note, and further from the other. For example F#is closer to G than F is, but its further from E.
Why do we need a key signature?
If we play a scale of C, going through all the letters of the alphabet, we produce a major scale of C; the jump in frets
between notes is 2,2,1,2,2,2 and nally 1. You can even play the scale starting on fret 3 of string 5 and going up the string,
rather than across the ngerboard. You'll play frets 3,5,7,8,10,12,14,15. Its cumbersome, but this is about understanding,
not performing.
If you try the same scale starting on the G that is on fret 3 of string 6, going up via the same frets, youll discover that the
penultimate note you play is not F, but rather it is F#. We have just seen that the key of G requires one sharp and its F.
You can start on any fret and any string and play any major scale, simply by going up the string 2,2,1,2,2,2,1 frets and
discovering the notes youve landed on. When there is ambiguity (the note is G# or Ab, for example), pick the choice that
gives you one of each letter name.
Minor scales
Ever wondered why the key signature with no sharps is C, and not the rst letter of the alphabet? Read on
Once the music theoreticians got their hands on the minor scales, things became mucky, but to understand key signatures,
we dene the natural minor scale as the scale that you get when you play all the letter names starting on A with no key
signature (which gives us a sequence that goes up 2,1,2,2,2,1,2,2 - it has a lovely symmetry - two equal parts). The natural
minor scale has a modal, folk-like character redolent of traditional western music. A is therefore a relevant base from
which to begin, and the minor scale is the natural (pardon the pun) starting point.
If we take a different starting note but follow the same recipe, we generate a natural minor scale in any key. As we go
ascend, we discover which notes are sharp or at, and therefore what key signature we need for that starting note. We nd
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Signature Which notes? Major key Minor Key
7b B E A D G C F Cb Abm
6b B E A D G C Gb Ebm
5b B E A D G Db Bbm
4b B E A D Ab Fm
3b B E A Eb Cm
2b B E Bb Gm
1b B F Dm
none - C Am
1# F G Em
2# F C D Bm
3# F C G A F#m
4# F C G D E C#m
5# F C G D A B G#m
6# F C G D A E F# D#m
7# F C G D A E B C# A#m
$
$
$
?
@
the grouping of sharps or ats looks familiar - the fteen different key signatures have the same collection of sharps or
ats as in the major keys and we can summarise it all in a little table.
The patterns are not easy to nd at rst, but look at the the order notes go sharp - the opposite order to which they go at.
And the list of keys going down the page has the same sequence of letters as the removal of the ats and the addition of
the sharps. Each pattern contains the letters of the alphabet in two interlocking ribbons - every second letter is in
alphabetical order.
A mnemonic
We add sharps in this order... Father Christmas Gave Dad An Electric Blanket
And ats go in this order... Blanket Exploded And Dad Got Cold Feet
But what about Major and Minor?
Every Key Signature denes exactly one major key and one minor key. Unsure whether it's major or minor? Happy pieces
are Major.
Still unsure? Have a look at the last bass note - it's 99% sure to be the key of the piece.
Hang on 12 doesn't equal 15!
We have 15 Key Signatures (7 ats down to none, up to 7 sharps), but there are only 12 semitones in an octave. What is
happening?
That's because C#and A#m at the bottom of the table are the same notes as Db and Bbm at the top - the top 3 entries and
the bottom 3 entries are duplicates of each other.
There's too much to learn!
As guitarists, we seldom play in more than one at, or more than 4 sharps. The table we really need to be at ease with is a
lot smaller...
In fact, as music readers, as opposed to music writers, we don't actually have to learn anything - every time we see a piece
of music it will t the same pattern, and we soon learn the pattern by repetition - the written music actually reinforces the
rule, rather than requiring us to know the rule.
See also my Time Signatures article.
Signature Which notes? Major key Minor Key
1b B F Dm
none - C Am
1# F G Em
2# F C D Bm
3# F C G A F#m
4# F C G D E C#m
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Modulation
What is it?
Modulation is a posh word to denote going to a new key.
Sometimes its a large scale change to a piece, and there will be a double bar line and a new key signature that heralds a
passage in a new key.
Sometimes its a temporary change and there will be some incidental sharps or ats (characteristic of the new,
temporary key) that introduce a cadence in the new key, before the music returns to the "home key".
Typical modulations
Nothing is typical, of course, and some of the greatest composers have enjoyed parading their talent by weaving a melody
that seamlessly takes the listener to a key that's totally unexpected - the musical equivalent of driving round a corner to
see an unanticipated vista.
But expecting the expected will help you read more accurately and position the hands more appropriately.
Here are the most common modulations...
From tonic to dominant (see my Degrees of the scale article) - going to one more sharp/one less at
Example - going from C (no sharps) to G (one sharp)
From tonic to subdominant (or from dominant to tonic) - going to one less sharp/one more at
Example - going from A (3 sharps) to D (2 sharps)
From relative major to relative minor (see my Key Signatures article) - signature stays the same
Example - going from C to Am
From relative minor to relative major - signature stays the same

Example - going from Em to G
Playable examples
Here are some really cut-down examples so that guitarists of any ability can try out the common modulations
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From C to G
An extra sharp appears
From A to D
The highest sharp in the signature is removed
From C to Am
The minors leading note is sharpened
From Em to G
The minors leading note is naturalised
Musical Devices
No, not in the sense of instruments or physical equipment!
This mini-masterclass is about the facets of music we can use to turn a score from a pile of notes into a piece of
music.
Every single note and every phrase made up of a sequence of notes has features that we as musicians, and that we as
guitarists, can alter to improve the musicality
Each note has pitch, length, volume and tone
These four characteristics place the note uniquely in the sound-canvas you are creating...
The pitch - how high you place the note on the canvas - the height
The length - how long the note resides in the piece - the breadth
The volume - how in your face the note is - the distance or depth
The tone - how the note is wrapped up - its appearance

And we, as players, can tailor these a little...
For individual notes
Pitch - we can add vibrato to long notes to make them sound more compelling - see my Vibrato teach-in
Length - we can shorten notes or make them smoother via snaps & hammers - see my Articulation teach-in
Volume - we can accent individual notes
Tone - unlike most other instruments we can
Vary our tone (pianos cant for example)
Vary it independently of volume (most wind instruments cant) by moving the right hand to the bridge or ngerboard
For phrases...
Pitch - not much we can change here - pitch denes the melody - but we can gliss between notes
Length - we can change the speed of a phrase - stepwise or gradually faster or slower - see my Italian Terms teach-in
Volume - we can change the volume of a piece stepwise or gradually louder or quieter
Tone - we can alter the tone - especially effective to delineate a repeat
As musicians, rather than technicians, we try to add these devices to every piece we play
Here"s our toolkit
There are other devices too (like pizzicato for length) that are more rarely used.
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Per note Sudden changes Gradual changes...
Pitch
vib - vibrato
Step changes in pitch
We can connect 2 notes with a glissando
or slide. Not really a step change, but its
used suddenly for effect, not all the time
Length
staccato or a . - shorter
legato or a slur - longer
Step changes in speed
MM (Metronome Mark) or an Italian
word such as Largo, Presto
Gradual changes in speed
accel (accelerando) - getting faster
rall (rallentando) - getting slower
Volume
> - accent
Step changes in volume
pp - pianissimo
p - piano
mp - mezzo piano
mf - mezzo forte
f - forte
ff - fortissimo
Gradual changes in volume
cresc (crescendo) or opening hairpin -
getting louder
dim (diminuendo) or closing hairpin -
getting quieter
Tone
Apoyando - for strong notes
Tirando - for arpeggios
Step changes in tone
Sul ponti - near the bridge
Sul tasto - over the ngerboard
Phrasing
Phrasing
Phrasing in instrumental music is akin to phrasing in singing, although singers have the additional incentive that they
really must stop and draw breath from time to time. The presence of space in song, where the singer can breathe, is also
found in instrumental music.
It is the act of nding the phrases, respecting them and shaping them that has the umbrella term phrasing.
A rule (or not)
Always beware a rule that begins generally speaking...
However, generally speaking, phrases in folk music and songs are often 8 or 16 bars long, regardless of whether the bars
have 2,3 4 or more beats. More mature classical music has what is called the long line - a melody that carries on and
evolves and which is passed from instrument to instrument as it is developed.
Whichever style of music one is playing, the audience will enjoy it so much more if it is sensitively phrased.
It's not the destination it"s the journey
How true that is for so many aspects of life, but here in the world of music, the converse is almost as true for some pieces
(for example Hampshire Guitar Orchestras popular version of Palladio), where the nal cadences are obviously all about
where were going and not about where we are right now. Other pieces, (for example HAGOs version of Moulin
Rouge) are more about the glorious undulations that permeate the whole piece.
How to phrase
Phrasing is an art not a science and no amount of prescriptive rules will make someone a "natural" at phrasing. But there
is a toolkit of techniques that you should experiment with
Repeats often benet from mellowing of tone and/or volume
Phrase ends often benet from a slight pause or breath
A breath can be executed as a lengthening of the last note of the phrase, (slowing the pace of the piece), or by
shortening the last note (to create a gap without losing momentum)
Rubato is often effective when the phrase climbs to its highest notes (creating a sort of roller-coaster ride through the
phrase)
Vibrato on the longer notes can create a more lyrical phrase - see my Vibrato teach-in
Articulating the notes in a phrase by staccato or legato playing can heighten the mood - see my Articulation teach-in
Allowing the volume to rise and fall a little with the notes can increase the lyricism
Taking a phrase in a different position on the neck can provide a welcome contrast - see my Seventh Position teach-in
Phrasing in ensemble
In many respects, phrasing is easier in ensemble because we all have fewer notes to worry about and more choices about
how and where to play them.
But remember that if youre playing an inner part that is providing harmonic substance to the overall sound, it might not
have a shape of its own that is obvious how to phrase. It is obviously not good practice to phrase an inner part with no
appreciation of the tune, because phrasing needs coordination (especially phrasing based on rubato!)
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Restringing a classical guitar
Guitar strings are a bit like bicycle tyres - they wear out and have to be replaced.
In fact they are more than a bit like bicycle tyres - theres the guitar equivalent of a puncture - an infrequent, but sudden
and premature failure of a string, usually mid-piece!
Guitars arent as greasy as bicycles, so its well worth getting the hang of changing strings yourself rather than taking the
guitar to a music shop. But that rst time of restringing can be a nightmare that seems to require you to have the dexterity
of a brain surgeon. And three hands.
Here are photos to guide you through the process.
So when do you restring?
See my When to Restring article
Knot a lot...
There are, of course, several ways to restring a guitar, and one or two enthusiasts will have their own style of knotting that
gives their guitar an individual appearance. But heres my take on tying those knots...
Lets start at the bridge end
I change one string at once (in the photos I've removed other
strings so you can see what's going on more easily).
I start with the bottom string - it settles fastest; by the time
we replace the top string, we have a good string to tune to
without needing electronic tuners or tuning forks all the time.
Some overwound strings have a good end and a bad
end (with a sparse winding) - its not a manufacturing fault.
If we tie the bad end at the bridge and part of the sparse
winding extends onto the vibrating length of the string, the
string will sound out.
So I'll tie the knot using the end of the string that's at the top
of the picture.
Lay the guitar on your lap, and sit well away from objects
like tables, because the rst time you do this, the guitar may
slide around like a freshly-caught eel!
Pass the good end through the hole and leave yourself
enough to work with. You can cut off any spare string later.
Dont go mad though - the strings are only so long!
As you get more skilled, you'll be able to judge exactly how
much string to use.
erek
haste
As you feed the string through in the direction of the red
arrow, take the good end and pass it under the string.
In the photo, Ive made a larger loop than we need, simply so
you can see it more clearly.
If you are left handed, you might want to do the mirror image
of this - indeed, if you look at the photo, the top strings
(which I haven't replaced yet) are a mirror image of the knot
Im about to tie.
Take the free end in your right hand and tuck it under the
string following the arrows in the photos.
In this photo it's gone under the string once.
In the next one I've gone under again - take the free end, pull
it towards you, and thread it back under the the string, just to
the right of where it goes under here. See the arrows in the
next photo, but that photo is after the knot is tightened.
HINT : The monolament strings are very slippery - loop
round 3 times, rather than 2 - then you can be sure they will
never slip.
HINT : When you have looped it, trap the free end at the
back of the bridge, as shown here - it is more secure!
Pull gently on the vibrating part of the string to tighten the
knot, but dont overdo it - let the knot seat itself under
tension.
If you lever the knot really tight, you will put a sharp kink in
the string as it passes from the bridge saddle to the hole in
the tie-block.
A gentle kink is ne - it shows the knot is holding. A severe
kink stretches the bres in the taut portion of the string
unevenly - some will snap, leading to the eventual failure of
the string where the knot is tied.
erek
haste
Now to the other end
At the tuning peg end, rotate the appropriate roller (arrowed)
so that the hole is aligned as shown.
Drape the string over the roller.
From the underside of the roller, bring the string through the
hole.
Many guitarists believe that the more windings there are on
the roller, the more the string misbehaves when there are
changes in temperature.
To minimise the wrap, pull all the string through, seating the
string in the nut slot as you do so.
Ive turned the peg a bit now so that you can see the arrows
more easily, but there is no need to do so.
In the last step, you passed the string through the hole and
pulled it tight (the red arrow).
Now take the free end over the string (green arrow) and back
through the hole (blue arrow).
Its as if you've stapled the string down!
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haste
Wind the string, ensuring that successive windings are
adjacent, and on the side of the bobbin hole thats nearer the
nut slot.
If you let the windings stray all over the bobbin, they may
reach the sides; further turns of the peg wedge the string into
an ever decreasing gap, jamming the bobbin. If you apply
more force on the peg, you might crack it (Ive seen that
done!)
Because I pulled the string tight before I stapled it, there are
only a couple of turns on the bobbin (the photo shows the
string up to pitch).
Dont worry about the string straying on the bobbin once its
up to pitch - the amount of adjustment you'll make is tiny.
And nally
The last job is to trim the ends of the strings back.
CAUTION : A long string tail at the bridge will reach the
front of the guitar and can be the source of hard-to-nd
buzzes!
The more often you can tune the guitar back to pitch in the
rst few days, the faster it will settle down.
erek
haste
The Seventh Position
I write a lot of ensemble music, and as soon as the music extends beyond three parts, its necessary to ensure that each
part has a suitable margin between the parts above and below. And that means that it becomes essential that the tune
moves further up the neck of the guitar.
The seventh position is excellent when playing in the keys of C, G and D, the simpler keys.
A position is numbered from one upwards, and the basic denition is that the nth position is when the left hand rst
nger is on fret n, and so in the nth position frets n .. n+3 are available under ngers 1 .. 4
What's where?
VII posn encompasses frets 7, 8, 9 and 10, and takes us as high as top D.
In many respects VII posn feels like II posn. For example
In IIposn, ngers 1,2 and 4 give you F#, G and A on the top string
In VIIposn, the same ngers give you the same notes but on the second string
In IIposn, ngers 1,3 and 4 give you A, B and C on the third string
In VIIposn, the same ngers give you the same notes but on the fourth string
Broadly speaking, the same notes are under the same ngers in II and VII, (but on the next string down in VII posn).
There are new notes on the rst string
We lose some of the bass notes

However, because the gap between the 2nd and 3rd strings is different to all the other strings, it means that the notes on
the second string in IIposn aren't quite in the same place on the third string in VIIposn. You won't believe me when I say
you soon get used to this, but you do!
Learning how to play up the neck
Classical Guitarists are about as far from jazz players as its possible to get!
Classical players often learn music slavishly, working out where every note is then trying to remember what nger goes
where, instead of what note is where
Tab players are worse - they just do what it says and dont even know what notes are where!
Jazz players, on the other hand, have an intuitive feel for notes and the degrees of the scale - given a note, they can
easily nd the notes around it
Most classical tutor books will give you a diagram like the one above, and then a piece to be played up the neck. That will
get you playing up the neck, but not really learning the neck intuitively. It's having the intuitive feel that means that new
pieces come good quickly, that memory is more reliable, that playing is more fun
Here's a better idea - armed with some simple tunes in simple keys (elementary recorder, violin and ute books are ideal),
attempt to play them in VII posn. There's only one way to understand the neck, and that's to see what you can do with it!
What VII can't do
A look at the chart above will show you that in VII, Bb is not available on the top string, nor on the second string, so VII
is not suitable for F Major or D Minor.
In the same way, G# is not available between the fourth and fth string, and so not all pieces in A Major or F# Minor will
be under the ngers.
In the higher positions, however, it becomes much easier for the rst or fourth nger to reach one extra fret and pick up
all the missing notes.
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haste
Speed - How to Play Quickly
I want to play faster
Don't we all!
Remember that in an ensemble, we may produce an impressive performance from harmonic complexity or rhythmic
complexity without necessarily having raw speed, so good music and fast music are not necessarily one and the same.
But if you can play at speed with neatness and precision, you have more control and legato that you can bring to slow
pieces as well.
How do I play faster?
Its tempting to say practise more, and that, of course, is part of the solution. But if you play badly at speed and you
practise a lot, you simply learn how to play badly at speed with less effort. Playing with mistakes simply reinforces how
to play badly.
So the most important point of all is to play for perfection and then to increase speed, not the other way round.
Why does it go wrong?
The Guitar is a cumbersome instrument - it takes two (different) actions in the two hands to make each note. If the right
hand plucks before the left hand has made the note, there will be a wrong note (left hand not in position) or a mufed note
(left hand in the act of pressing the string down). And so, in normal playing, the left hand arrives marginally before the
right. This cuts the previous note very slightly short and follows it with a tiny period of silence until the string is plucked.
Its this tiny period of silence - imperceptible in slow playing - that becomes signicant when the notes are very short.
Playing fast is all about minimising this silence.
Start slowly
If slow runs are not perfect, fast ones cannot possibly be. Slow runs give you time to hear what is not right - intelligent
and conscientious listening can root out problems that are harder to diagnose at speed. Its easier to hear detail if you
record yourself and listen to the recording, so that you are not concentrating on doing at the same time as listening.
Left hand
Human musculature is such that force and control are not natural bedmates.
Minimising the effort expended will result in much better control...
Use less pressure - most people press far harder than is needed
Use the right hand edge of the fret to help minimise the pressure needed and to get tactile feedback from the fretwire
about where your nger really is
Keep the ngers low - it takes time to move a nger a long way, and a lot of force to do it quickly
Keep the ngers spread - a nger that hovers over its fret has to move less far than if the hand closes up when
resting
Right hand
Attention to the right hand nails will mean that all the ngers react equally and there is not a maverick which plucks
slightly early or late
Planting or feeling for the string introduces another period of silence - the ngers need to reach the string on the
move
Think of a young child kicking a football coming towards them - they trap the ball and then kick it
A more experienced footballer kicks the ball while its in motion

Brain
The brain is very good at controlling short bursts at speed, but longer bursts require more conscious thought which
disrupts the playing.
Learning fast passages by heart can cure this.
Many learners actually play fast notes faster than is needed because they tense up as the hard bit arrives - a
metronome can be effective, and is a good way to chart progress from week to week.
Before performing, practise at a slightly higher tempo than the piece requires. A 5% drop in tempo at performance
seems to generate 10% more time!
erek
haste
Versatility
Although its cost-effective on your time to practise playing fast just on the notes required, that is ne for this piece
but no help for next time
Better is to dig out those old scale books and rattle through the common patterns
Most tonal melody is scale-based, at least in the small, so rehearsing the common nger patterns produces a good pay-
back in the future
erek
haste
Sustain
Sustain is that glorious constancy of texture, that smoothness of progression, that effortless music-making - that perfect
antidote to plinky-plunky playing.
The guitar isnt a sustaining instrument - unlike orchestral instruments, all our notes die away as soon as they are
sounded. But there are one or two little tricks up our sleeves that can give an ensemble the illusion of sustain. This teach-
in introduces a few of the obvious and not so obvious ones.
The guitar
You cant get more energy out (as sound) than you put into the string when you stretch it to one side. But as you might
guess, an expensive guitar is more efcient at turning the string vibration into sound.
There is an aside - some loud guitars achieve their volume by taking the energy out of the string more rapidly, as these
graphs show, which plot volume (up) against time (to the right)
Good sustain - sound dies away slowly Loud guitar but at the expense of sustain
A banjo is a ne example of taking a lot of energy from the string very quickly - its loud with minimal sustain. An
electric guitar is the opposite - massive sustain because virtually no acoustic energy is being radiated. Somewhere in the
middle is the classical guitar, and its certainly true that some guitars have more sustain than others.
And heres a tip - you may well nd that the 4th string has a lot more sustain than the third string, and in ensemble you
might do well to take a mid-register melody up the neck to get onto the 4th string and away from the third.
The exact opposite often applies to the 3rd string - up the neck it is gutless and mufed (because it is so thick and short).
Here, you'll get more sustain if you move to the thinner, longer second string, or you can try tting one of the more
modern 3rd strings - a DAddario composite or a Savarez carbon string.
Playing faster
Because every note dies away, the faster a piece is played, the less each note dies away before another takes its place. The
effect is that each note hardly changes volume. As well as increasing the illusion of sustain, it also increases the average
volume of the music, as the graphs below show.
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haste
Fast playing - sound stays loud Slow playing - sound dies away
Playing slower
Now this has got to be a leg-pull surely? If playing faster increases the illusion of sustain, how can playing slowly
increase it too? Well, between each pair of plucked notes on the same string there is a small silence as the new note is
ngered and then sounded. When novices play, this dead space can be noticeable. It tends to be a xed overhead, and so
when playing short notes, the amount of dead space can signicant, and makes the melody sound very staccato. Slowing
down slightly improves this, as the next graphs below show.
Poor technique trying to play slightly too fast Poor technique seems smoother when slow
Ligados
The ligado or slur, by denition, removes the gap between adjacent notes, and this can enhance the illusion of sustain,
removing all the gaps in the graphs above.
Sympathetic writing
Sometimes it is possible to layer an ensemble so that different parts are plucked on different beats, or so that the lower
parts move more slowly. In each case, the overall sound then has no periods of total silence and sustain is assured.
Vibrato
Vibrato is a technique that adds interest to solo lines - ute or voice, for example. Adding interest can also create the
illusion of adding sustain.
The ear is not a good listener, and the brain tends only to react to changes of sound. We're all familiar with noticing that
the washing machine has nished, and this is simply that the brain has switched off to the constant drone of the wash-
cycle, but reacts to the change when the machine switches off.
In the same way, the ear soon ignores plain tones, and they drop from the listeners attention. A little vibrato, however,
keeps the ear interested, and the listener will consciously track the note for a lot longer. Its an illusion of sustain, but its a
very workable one.
erek
haste
The Three Chord Trick
What is it?
A lot of guitarists, particularly those from the world of Rock, Folk and Country & Western will tell you that all sorts of
straightforward songs can be harmonised with just three chords. A bit of an over-generalisation, but not as much as one
might imagine.
How can that over-generalisation be of any use to a Classical Guitarist?
Much of the more playable repertoire in the world of Classical Guitar is based around arpeggios, rather than polyphonic
(choral) writing, and an arpeggio is a disembowelled chord.
If you can understand the key of the piece and if you look into each bar of music, you may nd that some, or even all, of
each bar is based on a chord shape.
This article will show you how to recognise the key, and what chords are likely to be found in the piece as a result.
Recognising the key
My Key Signature article will reduce the key signature to a choice of two keys. If the music has occasional accidentals -
sharps throughout the piece - it is probably in the minor key, not the major, but in the unlikely event that you get the
initial analysis wrong, it will get discovered when you start tting chords.
What chords?
The three chords in the 3-chord trick are the chords on the tonic, the dominant (5 notes up) and the subdominant (5 notes
down). These terms are explained in my Degrees of the Scale article.
How does the trick work?
The trick only really works when the music is made up primarily of the diatonic notes of the scale. Music thats chromatic
or that changes key wont let the trick work.
Heres an explanation for the key of C, and the chords on the tonic (C), the dominant (G) and the subdominant (F).
These chords contain the following notes...
C : C E G G : G B D F(*) F : F A C
(*) The F is the seventh degree of the scale, and so the chord is the Dominant Seventh (in this case G
7
)
Between them, these 3 chords are consonant with any note in the scale of C (every note in the key of C is in one or two of
those chords), and any note in the piece that's not a chromatic note will be harmonised by one or two of the above chords.
There is a pleasing symmetry, because the actual notes of the Tonic, Subdominant and Dominant gure in two chords
each, and all other notes gure once. Ill present a more detailed description further down the page.
The inventory of chords for the common Major Keys
The inventory of chords for the common Minor Keys
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Key Signature Key The Three Chords Subdominant Chord Tonic Chord Dominant 7
th
Chord
1b F Bb F C Bb - BbD F F - F A C C - C E G Bb
none C F C G F - F A C C - C E G G - G B D F
1# G C G D C - C E G G - G B D D - D F# A C
2# D G D A G - G B D D - D F# A A - A C# E G
3# A D A E D - D F# A A - A C# E E - E G# B D
4# E A E B A - A C# E E - E G# B B - B D# F# A
Key Signature Key The Three Chords Subdominant Chord Tonic Chord Dominant 7
th
Chord
1b Dm Gm Dm A Gm - G Bb D Dm - D F A A - A C# E G
none Am Dm Am E Dm - D F A Am - A C E E - E G# B D
1# Em Am Em B Am - A C E Em - E G B B - B D# F# A
2# Bm Em Bm F# Em - E G B Bm - B D F# F# - F# A# C# E
3# F#m Bm F#m C# Bm - B D F# F#m - F# A C# C# - C#E#G# B
There are patterns in these tables...
See how descending the table (adding a sharp) keeps two of the chords and replaces the third
See how the chords in the Major key table (look at column 3) appear in the same order as the sharps in a key signature.
Working the trick
Suppose that we have a piece in the key of 1# and that we have determined that it is in the key of G major, rather than E
minor (* - see below)
Suppose that we have a bar that reads G B D.
Looking at the 1# row in the rst table, we can see that this is a perfect match for the chord of G.
There is a good chance that the whole bar, tune, bass and accompaniment, can be accomplished with minimal left hand
ngering changes.
Suppose we have a bar that reads E D C.
In the 1# row there is no perfect match, but the C chord hits the spot in two out of three notes. This, then, is likely to be
the building block for this bar, and the D is a passing note.
There is a good chance that we'll start and end the bar in a familiar shape. Some nger movement will be needed during
the bar, though the basic shape may have a familiar feel.
Suppose we have a bar that reads C E B D.
Here, there is no good match, but the rst part of the bar is a good match for the chord of C, and the second part for the
chord of G.
There is a good chance that we need a substantial change of hand position halfway through the bar.
(*)
Some double checks
Nothing is certain except death and taxes, but there is a very high probability that the last notes in a piece will be based
around notes in the chord of the dominant followed by notes in chord of the tonic (the perfect cadence), and there is a
high (but not quite as high) probability that the last note will be the tonic.
But what"s the point?
What does this tell us as classical guitarists? As you grow your experience, you will realise that bars based on the chords
above are built out of a few basic shapes. These shapes are tailored as the bar progresses to include passing notes. A little
knowledge of the musical intent of the composer will help you read more accurately and help you get the right ngers in
the right places.
See also my Cadence article, my Degrees of the Scale article and my Key Signature article
erek
haste
Time Signatures
What is a time signature?
The most straightforward denition is that it tells you how many beats in the bar (bar
is "measure" in some countries).
But what does that mean?
Primitive music includes a lot of untuned percussion, and it's the beat or the pulse as
we sometimes call it, that denes the character of the music. A slow beat is relaxing. A fast beat is exciting.
But the grouping of the beats also denes something about the music - let's make some categories of music - it's not an
exhaustive list, but it will get us started.
The March - Left-Right-Left-Right - the theme from Indiana Jones for example
The Waltz - think of The Blue Danube for example
The Jig - curiously, a ne example is the Carol We Three Kings, though there is no biblical evidence that the camels
actually danced... Or the nursery rhyme Pop Goes the Weasel
Irregular - everything that doesn't seem to t these categories

The bar lines show where each March, Waltz or Jig step recurs.
Why do we need a time signature?
Arguably the regular occurrence of bar lines is enough to show where the steps recur, but there is the matter of how notes
are grouped inside each bar.
The format of the time signature
As with so many logical systems, there are some illogical warts on the smooth and clear surface, but lets deal with the
basics...
The top number is the number of beats in the bar - for beat read step in the examples above.
The bottom number says what those beats are

2 = minim or half-note, 4 = crotchet or quarter-note, 8 = quaver or eighth-note
Its the bottom number that lets the confusion well up, and its the bottom number where the rst illogical things start to
happen.
Some posh words
Lets take a leaf out of my Degrees of the scale article and try to dene our categories of beat using different words...
First, let's make a distinction between Simple - the steady feel or a March of Waltz - and Compound - the skip or jig-
step which gives the music an underlying long-short-long-short feel.
A March is Simple Duple or Simple Quadruple (when you rst learn music, the distinction is unclear and its not
wrong to lump them together for now)
A Waltz is Simple Triple"
A Jig is Compound Duple or Compound Quadruple

So what is "Compound Triple? Its rare, thats what it is! The Irish know it as a slip-jig, but little famous music is in
Compound Triple.
A simple beat is actually nothing more than a beat that breaks into two halves, four quarters or a mix thereof.
A compound beat, though, breaks into three equal units. Think of the word evenly. A skip is a compound beat that is
broken into a long piece (2 units) and a short piece (1 unit).
Some examples
2/2 is Simple Duple - take a march step every minim.
3/4 is Simple Triple - take a complete waltz step every bar.
4/4 is Simple Quadruple - any bar of 4/4 looks like a bar of 2/2 and vice versa (because 4 crotchets or their equivalent
adds up to the same amount of music - a semibreve - as 2 minims or their equivalent), but 4/4 has four steps per bar and
2/2 has two steps.
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$
$
$
?
@
A common misconception
A common misconception is that all time signatures with an 8 at the bottom are compound.
But no, the denition of a compound time is that the top number is divisible by 3.
It just so happens that the common signatures with an 8 underneath - the ones you nearly always see - are 6/8, 9/8 & 12/8.
A table of common time signatures
Signatures marked - are not illegal, they are simply rare.
A point of confusion
So is 3/8 a waltz step (3 beats in the bar), or a jig step (1 compound beat in the bar)?
Given that any piece in 6/8 can be turned into 3/8 by adding extra bar-lines, its clearly a jig
Given that any piece in 3/4 can be turned into 3/8 by halving the note lengths, its clearly a waltz
The distinction between jig and waltz is actually one of tempo
Usually a bar in 3/4 is slower than a bar in 3/8, but it is not always the case.
So usually, 3/4 is the waltz and 3/8 the jig. But not always.
See also my Key Signatures Article and my Degrees of the Scale Article
erek
haste
Signature Counting Minims Counting Crotchets Counting Quavers
Simple
Duple
2/2 2/4 -
Simple
Triple
3/2 3/4 3/8
Simple
Quadruple
4/2 4/4 4/8
Compound
Duple
- 6/4 6/8
Compound
Triple
- - 9/8
Compound
Quadruple
- - 12/8
Irregular virtually all others virtually all others virtually all others
Tone Production
Terminology
A string vibrates at a rate we call its frequency - for example the open A string vibrates 110 times a second - 110Hz.
But in addition to this fundamental, the vibration contains a mix of the individual harmonics or overtones that we can nd
over the 12th, 7th, 5th (and more) frets. For a string vibrating at 100Hz, the harmonics are 200, 300, 400... Hz.
Because of the logarithmic way that frequencies work, the harmonic sequence is a set of consonant tones, each higher
than the previous by an octave, then a fth, a fourth, a third... becoming ever closer, like the notes on a bugle.
We can't hear the harmonics, but their total blend is what makes a guitar
strident & metallic (many harmonics)
mellow & sweet (few harmonics)

One way to change the harmonic content
Plucking near the bridge (sul ponti) gives the string an angular, asymmetrical shape when it is released - this promotes
lots of harmonics
Plucking nearer the ngerboard (sul tasto) gives the string a gentle shape when it is released and this produces a smaller
harmonic content
Plucking right in the centre suppresses all the even harmonics, making the sound sweet and hollow, like a clarinet
Another way to change the harmonic content is to change how the string is actually plucked - more later!
A picture"s worth a thousand words
Here's a graphical representation (exaggerated for clarity) showing the fundamental & overtones for both a mellow and
metallic sound.
The graphs show volume (upwards) against pitch (to the right)
Metallic sound Mellow sound
Unlike orchestral instruments, a guitar is not a sustaining instrument - every note dies away. The higher harmonics tend to
die away faster, but its a well-known phenomenon that its the start of a note - the transient - that denes the character
of the note. A note with high harmonic content can seem more punchy - a stronger start and (apparently) a faster decay,
as the harmonics die away. A rounded sound has a less imposing start but can seem more sustained, as it does not evolve
much as it decays.
Tone and Timing
In an orchestra, every instrument except harp & percussion has a soft start. The guitar, by contrast, has a percussive start.
Weve seen that a metallic tone makes the sound even more percussive.
Now let's see how it is affected by the tightness of an ensembles timing.
Let's look at two graphs
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The graphs show volume (upwards) against time (to the right)
Metallic sound
Most of the energy is dissipated quickly - the note doesnt
carry
Mellow sound
The energy is released more evenly for a pleasing sound
The metallic sound has a forceful beginning. It also has an unsatisfying thinness that permeates the whole sound.
Because of the way the human ear reacts to different frequencies, a metallic sound can seem louder, but it is tiring to
listen to in quantity.
Timing issues
Now see what happens if 3 players play the same note, but they are not quite together...
Metallic sound - 3 players playing not quite together
Timing problems (like those here) really notice!
Mellow sound - 3 players playing not quite together
The total sound builds & decays pleasantly - the glitches
don't notice
Tone and Tuning
When two guitars are out of tune (or playing in unison, as the old joke goes), the two notes beat against each other.
If one player is playing a note at 200Hz and his partners string vibrates at 200.5 Hz, there will be a beat note (the
difference between the two fundamentals) of 0.5Hz - once every 2 seconds. In music of a moderate tempo, notes will be
despatched much faster than this, and the tuning problem will not be heard.
However, if the two notes have a metallic sound (because they have a rich harmonic content) then the harmonics will beat
against each other as well. The 800Hz harmonics, for example will beat twice a second, and this will be much more
apparent.
Furthermore, metallic notes that are slightly out of tune have a honky-tonk sound thats even more apparent than the
beating sensation.
In ensemble, in particular, a more rounded tone will not only conceal any beat notes, but kills off any tendency for the
overall sound to have a honky-tonk quality that sounds so amateurish.
erek
haste
Tone and Texture
This is where things get more complicated and a little more controversial, and this page denitely skates round some of
the real issues in a Niibori orchestra.
For example, I dont talk about thickening the bass line by doubling it an octave up, which deliberately adds extra
harmonics.
Clarity
What makes for a glorious listening experience is when an ensemble has that clarity that lets you hear each and every line
weaving amongst the others. How can we achieve that?
Take note
Many guitarists are familiar with the concept of spacing the notes in a chord so that the bass notes are more widely spread
than the top.
Here are two chords - play them and hear how close bass notes and spaced treble notes sounds gruff and hollow, and
how spaced bass notes and close treble notes sounds full and satisfying...
A gruff chord A clearer sounding chord
Don't worry about the barr in the second example - in the world of ensemble guitar, we share out the hard bits!
The soundscape
Here are the frequencies that make up the chords - high notes to the right. Its an exaggerated picture and I have
emphasised the tune note a little.
A gruff chord A clearer sounding chord
A metallic sound...
Because every note has harmonics, we need to add them into the picture as well. And here they are, added in.
A gruff chord with a metallic sound
The tune note is still clearly audible
A clearer sounding chord with a metallic sound
The tune note is no longer loudest
You can see that what was a clean sound, easy on the ear, is gaining a complexity that makes it hard to pick out which are
notes inside the chord and which is the tune note.
A mellow sound
Heres the same picture but with a rounded tone - so much easier to hear all the notes. In an ensemble, each note is a part,
and so a rounded tone makes it easier to hear all the parts. It gives the orchestra clarity of sound.
A gruff chord with a mellow sound
The tune note is still clearly audible
A clearer sounding chord with a mellow sound
The tune note is still the loudest
Tone and Technique
Onto the nal section in this little teach-in on tone production.
We have seen that playing away from the bridge will give a rounded tone, and that it is important not to seek volume at
the expense of tone.
There are 2 more aspects of technique that will ensure a rounded tone.
Plucking Angle
The rst applies particularly if you have slender ngers and nails, as opposed to broad ngers and nails. If the nger is
applied to the string exactly at right angles (pointing towards your nose), then as the nger starts to pluck, the string will
leave the tip and roll into the gap between tip and nail, giving a spurious click just as the string departs. This, coupled
with the tiny plucking surface afforded by the tip of the nail, gives a high harmonic content to the sound.
This is the metallic sound were trying to avoid

By contrast, if the wrist follows the line of the forearm, the ngers will point towards the right shoulder. As the stroke is
made, the string cannot roll into the gap between nger and nail, because the nger is angled. There is no click and the
string is released by sliding from the nail, not by jumping over the tip of it.
Provided the nails are rounded and polished, the string will release cleanly and without trauma.
This is the rounded sound we're trying to achieve

String Release
The second is to understand that the front of the guitar works by pumping air in and out of the guitar, and therefore the
bridge moves in and out too.
That means that the direction of vibration of the string that couples most effectively to the bridge will be the one where
the string vibrates (at least initially) towards and away from the soundhole.
When the string moves in this direction, the fundamental will be louder and the harmonics less so.
This is the rounded sound we're trying to achieve

This can be achieved simply by pushing the strings into the soundhole as part of the plucking stroke, instead of just
dragging them towards the next lower string. As the string is released, it has a large vertical component of vibration,
making the sound rounded and considerably louder at the same time.
And so...
We've seen how a rounded tone is a real boon to any ensemble, concealing timing and tuning issues and promoting clarity
and sustain.
Time to go and put all this into practice...
Tuning Problems
There wont be a guitarist who hasnt sat in a guitar concert in which there has been endless ddling with the tuning pegs.
There will be quite a lot, and Im one of them, whos sat in a guitar concert and positively willed the performer to stop
and tune up!
One of the emphases of these teach-ins is to include ensemble playing, and one of the most debilitating problems to affect
any large ensemble is that of keeping in tune.
Why does it notice?
In any consonant chord, there is a very simple relationship between the frequencies of the component notes. For example,
notes an octave apart vibrate at nHz and 2nHz. Notes a perfect fth apart vibrate at nHz and 1.5nHz (yes, I know that
equi-temperament corrects the latter a tiny bit, but the correction is tiny). If this exact relationship is broken by more than
a minute margin, the effects become very audible and very uncomfortable on the ear.
Why does it notice so much?
On a solo guitar, one string can sometimes be a long way out before tuning problems notice. Try a chord of E on a well-
tuned guitar, and then see just how far at you can tune the G string and it still seems ne.
By contrast, in an ensemble, 2 unison strings on different guitars have to be very accurately in tune for them not to sound
honky-tonk.
Does an electronic tuner help?
Yes it does, but it only tells you what is wrong if you use it! It doesnt replace a musical ear, which will tell you what is
wrong during the piece - a tuner tells you afterwards...
Why is it hard to tune by ear in an ensemble?
When two guitars in unison have a tuning problem, its much harder than on a solo to determine what is wrong - the fault
may be on the other guitar, or this guitar, or both can be out in opposite directions.
I vividly remember a (nameless) professional trio tuning frantically to each other and often correcting the wrong guitar, so
that as the evening wore on, the guitars got lower and lower in pitch!
I recommend Intellitouch electronic tuners so that players can retune at the same time. I use them in the Hampshire Guitar
Orchestra, and the different tuners on different guitars are always dead in step.
Why does a string go out?
Variations of pitch with temperature are well-known, and so is the drooping of pitch on new strings. But there are factors
that make different guitars drift in different ways.
1. Makes of string
I prefer DAddario, which are very stable under changes of temperature. Other strings Ive tried, such as La Bella,
have a more open tone but require constant attention.
2. The state of the nut
Rough nuts, pardon the expression, make wound strings jump suddenly in pitch as they re-seat. Graphite from a
pencil improves this, and ensures all the wound strings on all the guitars change smoothly with temperature.
3. The amount of string on the peg-box rollers.
Minimising the amount of string here will improve tuning stability under changes of temperature. See a neat knot to
help with this in my Restringing article.
Why do strings go out more often in a guitar orchestra?
They probably dont, but its easier to hear tuning problems because a guitar orchestra has different sizes of guitar.
Different sizes of guitar have the same note on different strings - a note on the G string (notoriously difcult to tune - see
below) of a prime will be on the D string of an alto (much more stable) - changes in temperature affect one more than the
other, leading to that honky-tonk sound again.
erek
haste
A perennial problem
Its quite common for guitarists to have particular problems tuning the G string and there are a couple of reasons why ...
1. A lot of guitarists check their tuning by playing the chords of C and E. A guitar that is perfectly in tune will not sound
"out" playing the E chord, even if the G string is attened a massive amount. But a attened G string will sound
dreadful playing the C chord. Playing two chords is not enough to check that a guitar is in tune.
Some professionals nd that playing D and A is a good way to check string 3 (A) against string 4 (D) and string 1 (A)
2. In most string sets, the G string is one of the least taut strings, as well as being the least exible. These two attributes
combine to make the G string go sharper and sharper the higher up the neck one plays, because the edge effects of a
stiff, thick string, get larger (in proportion to the active length of the string) higher up, making the active part of the
string disproportionally short.
More recent string sets, such as the DAddario Composite set, have a high-tech G string that is thinner and tauter, and the
problem is not only solved but there is often a greater stability against changes in temperature too.
See also my Equal Temperament article
erek
haste
Vibrato
What is it?
It's a wavering of pitch, brought about as follows...
Play the note high up the neck
Take the left-hand thumb off the back of the neck
Keeping the nger-tip anchored on the string, wiggle the hand up and down the length of the neck a little
This wiggling tightens and slackens the vibrating half of the string a tiny bit
Youll nd that when you're doing it properly, the wrist and the elbow go in opposite directions, so its as if your arm is
swivelling back and forth and theres a spot in your forearm thats staying still
Dont go too fast - your guitar will sound like Edit Piaf!
What is it for?
It will add life to an otherwise plain note.
The ear is equipped to detect change - we are all aware, perhaps, of when the washing machine nishes. The ear starts to
ignore constant noise and only perks up when there are changes - its not suprising, because in primitive times a change of
noise often heralded danger.
Vibrato creates the illusion of extra sustain because the constant change keeps the ear interested for longer.
How do I start practising it?
Vibrato is easiest up the neck - from frets 7 to 12.
The ngertip doesnt move on the string, but by moving the hand along the line of the neck, using the nger as a pivot,
lateral forces are transmitted through the nger to the string that alter its tension enough to create vibrato.
But I can't do it in lower positions
Low down the neck, its not possible to do vibrato
effectively, because the two halves of the string are
very different lengths and the short half resists, rather
than helps, the nger change the tension of the long
(sounding) half.
Thats because the change in pitch is caused by
changing the tension of the string (the vibrating length
is xed by the fret wire).
In the centre region of the string, its easy to pull the
string tighter, because the non-vibrating half helps
you.
Down near the rst rst fret, as soon as you pull the
string a little tighter, the non-vibrating part loses
tension. As soon as you try to push the string towards
the bridge to lower its tension, the tiny non-vibrating
part is having none of it - it cant stretch by enough millimetres.
We can still do vibrato though...
On a note low down the neck, wiggle the nger side to side (pull the string towards the higher string, and push towards
the lower one)
Don't overdo it (especially on steel strings)
This type of vibrato raises the pitch both ways (youre stretching the string whether you push or pull), and so if done to
excess, it creates the illusion the entire note is slightly sharp
A word of caution
If you're nervous and its a hot day, watch out - the 4th string will require some intense digging in to make the vibrato
sing, and if youre not careful, then the rst note you attempt on the 3rd (monolament) string will be greeted with a very
slippery string. You might nd your nger actually sliding and possibly missing the fret.
erek
haste
For a nice touch...
For classy vibrato, start it just after the note sounds and build
it up, like a ute player or singer does on a long note
When to restring
So when's a good time to replace strings?
Thats actually two questions in one...
When do they need replacing?
Whens the best time to replace them so theyre OK to perform on them?

When do they need replacing?
Beginners dont want the expense of changing strings that are still doing their job. The tell-tale sign that strings have to be
replaced is when the D string shows distress at fret 2, so much so that the metal winding might cut through, leaving the
string unprotected and days away from snapping.
A more seasoned guitarist knows that the bass strings go woolly - the higher harmonics disappear and the sound lacks
volume and sustain. The degradation is caused by
Corrosion
D'Addario use "Corrosion Intercept Technology" packaging (it's a plastic bag!) to ensure strings are still new when
tted)
The accumulation of detritus in the windings - natural greases from the ngers, hand cream, skin cells and other
unpleasantries.
For a performer, its obvious when the sound has lost its punch.
So how long do strings last?
Its like asking how long car tyres last - with average mileage, perhaps 2 years. On a Formula 1 race car, just one race. A
beginner might not care about the woolly sound - his strings will last a year. A professional might change the strings on
his practice guitar more often than once a month.
But surely the top strings last forever?
Well, they do outlast the basses. I nd that DAddario composites can tolerate 3 sets of basses per set of tops, so the tops
last 9-12 weeks and the basses 3-4 weeks. Although the top strings don't seem to degrade, the impact on the frets stresses
the strings and they may stretch non-uniformly, bringing poor intonation.
When"s the best time to replace them so they're OK to perform on them?
Top strings settle the slowest (DAddarios composite 3rd is a notable exception). When I change strings, I do it about 12
days before a concert (a week if only the basses are changed) so that the guitar needs only one tune-up in a concert (any
more is distracting for the audience). Other makes of string need different times - the Hampshire Guitar Orchestras alto
guitar strings are a real nuisance, for example - the top string takes about 6 weeks to settle enough to be reliable in
concert, but hagos alto players practise mostly on a prime guitar as its less stress to the nails, so the strings stay bright
for that length of time.
The secret of getting strings to settle isnt magic, and it isnt overtightening them or pulling them away from the front of
the guitar. Its much more simple - tune the guitar before breakfast, after breakfast, when you get in from work, after
youve eaten and before you go to bed. By keeping the strings at the right tension, they settle faster.
And some more questions
What's the best make of string?
Thats purely personal. I love DAddario for their intonation and life, but I used to use Hannabach on my alto guitar. The
DAddario present a slightly cloudy treble, and there are other strings (e.g. La Bella) that have a much clearer sound, but
its at the expense of stability over temperature - some strings seem to require endless tuning.
How often do strings break?
Only once is the humorous answer, but the real answer is about as often as a car tyre punctures. If youre unlucky, once
in the life of the car; if you're lucky, once in 20 years. Its true that rough edges on the nut or bridge bone can cause
failure, but the most common causes of broken strings are
Mechanical wear (for example at fret 2 of string 4)
Overtightening the knot at the bridge.

A string breakage is a sign that somethings wrong or worn-out, its not simply bad luck.
See also my How to Restring article
erek
haste

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What topics do the mini masterclasses cover?

What topics do the mini masterclasses cover?

What don't the mini masterclasses cover?

What don't the mini masterclasses cover?

Technical Teach-ins

Derek Hasted MA (Cantab) DipABRSM

On all the above instruments, the note is cut short simply by

On a piano or organ, the key is released

On a wind instrument, the breath is stopped

On a bowed instrument, the bow stops

Legato using slurs

Legato by shaping the phrase

Now listen. The B is still sounding.

Moveable Doh (where the rst note of a scale is Doh)

Fixed Doh (Doh = C)

Being able to play at six noticeably different volumes

Bringing those volumes to bear in performance

Do I need to pass a Graded Exam?

So whats in it for me?

Practical - show you have mastered your instrument

Theory - show you understand how music works

Musicianship - show you can apply musical techniques on the y

If a player is musical, theyll hear and repair technical problems.

The Interval Name becomes (9-The Interval Name)

Augmented becomes Diminished and vice versa

Major becomes Minor and vice versa

Perfect stays perfect

A key signature can have up to 7 ats or up to 7 sharps

A key signature will never contain both sharps and ats

From relative minor to relative major - signature stays the same

The tone - how the note is wrapped up - its appearance

Repeats often benet from mellowing of tone and/or volume

Phrase ends often benet from a slight pause or breath

There are new notes on the rst string

We lose some of the bass notes

A more experienced footballer kicks the ball while its in motion

Learning fast passages by heart can cure this.

The Waltz - think of The Blue Danube for example

Irregular - everything that doesn't seem to t these categories

The bottom number says what those beats are

A Waltz is Simple Triple"

A Jig is Compound Duple or Compound Quadruple

strident & metallic (many harmonics)

mellow & sweet (few harmonics)

This is the metallic sound were trying to avoid

This is the rounded sound we're trying to achieve

This is the rounded sound we're trying to achieve

Don't overdo it (especially on steel strings)

When do they need replacing?

Whens the best time to replace them so theyre OK to perform on them?

Mechanical wear (for example at fret 2 of string 4)

Overtightening the knot at the bridge.

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