Unit 5: Objectives

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FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/1

FLUID DYNAMICS



OBJECTIVES



General Objective : To understand the measurements of fluids in motion


Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you should be able to :

state and write Bernoulli Equation

state the limits of Bernoullis Equation

apply the Bernoulli Equation to calculate:
- Potential energy
- Kinetic energy
- Pressure energy
in
- horizontal pipe
- inclined pipe
- horizontal venturi meter
- inclined venturi meter
- small orifice
- simple pitot tube

sketch, label and describe fluid motion mechanism in the
horizontal venturi meter.




UNIT 5
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/2









5.1 Energy of a flowing fluid
A liquid may possess three forms of energy:

5.1.1 Potential energy
If a liquid of weight W is at a height of z above datum line
Potential energy = Wz
Potential energy per unit weight = z

The potential energy per unit weight has dimensions of Nm/N and is measured
as a length or head z and can be called the potential head.

5.1.2 Pressure energy

When a fluid flows in a continuous stream under pressure it can do work. If the
area of cross-section of the stream of fluid is a, then force due to pressure p on
cross-section is pa.

If a weight W of liquid passes the cross-section

Volume passing cross-section =

W

Distance moved by liquid =
a
W


Work done = force distance =
a
W
a p

p
W
pressure energy per unit weight =

p
=
g
p



Similarly the pressure energy per unit weight p/W is equivalent to a head and is
referred to as the pressure head.



INPUT
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/3






5.1.3 Kinetic energy

If a weight W of liquid has a velocity v,

Kinetic energy =
2
2
1
v
g
W

Kinetic energy per unit weight =
g
v
2
2

The kinetic energy per unit weight
g
v
2
2
is also measured as a length and
referred to as the velocity head.

The total energy of the liquid is the sum of these three forms of energy

Total head = potential head + pressure head + velocity head
Total energy per unit weight =
g
v p
z
2
2
+ +



5.2 Definition of Bernoullis Equation
Bernoullis Theorem states that the total energy of each particle of a body of fluid is
the same provided that no energy enters or leaves the system at any point. The division
of this energy between potential, pressure and kinetic energy may vary, but the total
remains constant. In symbols:


t cons
g
v p
z H tan
2
2
= + + =




Figure 5.1
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/4






By Bernoullis Theorem,
Total energy per unit weight at section 1 = Total energy per unit weight at section 2

g
v p
z
g
v p
z
2 2
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
+ + = + +


z = potential head

p
= pressure head

g
v
2
2
= velocity head
H = Total head


5.3 The limits of Bernoullis Equation

Bernoullis Eqution is the most important and useful equation in fluid mechanics. It
may be written,


2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
2 2
p
g
v
z
p
g
v
z + + = + +


Bernoullis Equation has some restrictions in its applicability, they are :

the flow is steady

the density is constant (which also means the fluid is compressible)

friction losses are negligible

the equation relates the state at two points along a single streamline (not
conditions on two different streamlines).












Do you know :

The Bernoulli equation is
named in honour of Daniel
Bernoulli (1700-1782).
Many phenomena
regarding the flow of
liquids and gases can be
analysed by simply using
the Bernoulli equation.
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/5






5.4 Application of Bernoullis Equation

Bernoullis equation can be applied to the following situations.

5.4.1 Horizontal Pipe

Example 5.1











Water flows through a pipe 36 m from the sea level as shown in figure 5.2. Pressure in
the pipe is 410 kN/m
2
and the velocity is 4.8 m/s. Calculate total energy of every
weight of unit water above the sea level.

Solution to Example 5.1

Total energy per unit weight
g
v p
z
2
2
+ + =


( )
81 . 9 2
8 . 4
81 . 9 1000
10 410
36
2 3

+ =
N J / 96 . 78 =














36 m
Figure 5.2
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/6






5.4.2 Inclined Pipe

Example 5.2















A bent pipe labeled MN measures 5 m and 3 m respectively above the datum line. The
diameter M and N are both 20 cm and 5 cm. The water pressure is 5 kg/cm
2
. If the
velocity at M is 1 m/s, determine the pressure at N in kg/cm
2
.

Solution to Example 5.2

Using Bernoullis Equation:

g
v p
z
g
v p
z
N N
N
M M
M
2 2
+ + = + +

(1)

Discharge at section M = Discharge at section N

N M
Q Q =

N N M M
a v a v = (2)

From (2),


N
M M
N
a
a v
v

=

( )
( )
( )
2
2
05 . 0
2 . 0
1 =
s m/ 16 =



5 m
5 m
3 m
Figure 5.3
N
M
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/7






Given
2
/ 5 cm kg p
M
=

0001 . 0
81 . 9 5
=

2
/ 5 . 490 m kN =

From (1),
( )

(
(

+ +

=
N M
M N M
N
z z
p
g
v v
p
2
2 2


( )
( ) 9810 3 5
9810
490500
81 . 9 2
2 16 1

+ +

=

2
/ 382620 m N =































FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/8








ACTIVITY 5A



TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT
INPUT!

5.1 Define and write the Bernoullis Equation.



5.2 Water is flowing along a pipe with a velocity of 7.2 m/s. Express this as a velocity
head in meters of water. What is the corresponding pressure in kN/m
2
?





























FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/9








FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 5A




5.1 Bernoullis Theorem states that the total energy of each particle of a body of
fluid is the same provided that no energy enters or leaves the system at any
point.


t cons
g
v p
z H tan
2
2
= + + =




5.2 velocity head of water =
( )
( )
m
g
v
H 64 . 2
81 . 9 2
2 . 7
2
2 2
= = =

64 . 2 = =

p
H
64 . 2 = p
( ) 9810 64 . 2 =

2
/ 4 . 25898 m N =

2
/ 9 . 25 m kN =

















FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/10










5.4.3 Horizontal Venturi Meter

Venturi meter : It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a
non-viscous, incompressible fluid in non-rotational and steady-stream lined
flow. Although venturi meters can be applied to the measurement of gas, they
are most commonly used for liquids. The following treatment is limited to
incompressible fluids.





Figure 5.4











INPUT
Entry

Converging
Cone

Throat

Diverging Section

Section
1

1

v
1

a
Section
2

2

v
2

a
Direction of
Leads
gauge
filled with
liquid in
pipeline,
spec.wt =
x
Spec.wt. of
gauge
liquid=
g

FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/11






The arrangement and mode of action of a Venturi Meter ( Figure 5.4 )
The venture meter consists of a short converging conical tube leading
to a cylindrical portion called throat which is followed by a
diverging section.
The entrance and exit diameter is the same as that of the pipe line into
which it is inserted. The angle of the convergent cone is usually 21
o
,
the length of throat is equal to the throat diameter, and the angle of the
divergent cone is 5
o
to 7
o
to ensure the minimum loss of energy.
Pressure tappings are taken at the entrance and at the throat, either
from the single holes or from a number of holes around the
circumference connecting to an annular chamber or Piezometer ring,
and the pressure difference is measured by a suitable gauge.
For continuity of flow velocity v
1
at the entry (section 1) will be less
than the velocity v
2
at the throat (section 2) since a
1
v
1
= a
2
v
2
and a
1
is
greater than a
2
. The kinetic energy in the throat will be greater than at
the entrance and since by Bernoullis theorem the total energy at the
two sections is the same, the pressure energy at the throat will be less
than that at the entrance. The pressure difference thus created is
dependent on the rate of flow through the meter.




























Description: The Venturi tube consists of a plain tube
with a smooth constriction in its bore at the middle. It is
found in carburetors, fluid flow meters, and aircraft
airspeed indicators. This version is made of glass and has
three side tubes for attaching a manometer. When high
pressure air is applied from the air tank, the water level in
the three manometer legs is clearly different.

Adapted from :

http://demoroom.physics.ncsu.edu:8770/html/demos/353.
html

FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/12






Derivation for the theoretical discharge through a horizontal venture meter and
modification to obtain the actual discharge.

From Figure 5.4

Putting ;






















Bernoullis Equation for section 1 and 2 gives :


2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
2 2
p
g
v
z
p
g
v
z + + = + +

Ignoring losses for horizontal meter z
1
= z
2

2 1
2
1
2
2
2
p p
g
v v
=

(1)

For continuity of flow,
2 2 1 1
v A v A = , giving
1
2
1
2
v
A
A
v =
where
4
2
d
A

=
p
1
= pressure of section 1
v
1
= velocity of section 1
A
1
= area of section 1
p
2
= pressure of section 2
v
1
= velocity of section 1
A
1
= area of section 1

1
= liquid in pipeline (specific weight, spec.wg)

g
= liquid in the gauge (specific weight, spec.wg)
g = gravity (9.81 m/s
2
)
z = height above datum
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/13







Substituting in equation (1)

|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|

2 1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2 1
p p
g
A
A
v

So,
( )
(

\
|

2 1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
p p
g
A A
A
v

Discharge, Q
theory
= ( ) gH
A A
A A
v A 2
2
2
2
1
2 1
1 1

= (2)

Where H =

2 1
p p
= pressure difference expressed as a head of the liquid
flowing in meter venturi.

If area ratio,
2
1
A
A
m = equation (2) becomes,

1
2
2
1

=
m
gH
A Q
theory


The theoretical discharge Q can be converted to actual discharge by
multiplying by the coefficient of discharge C
d
found experimentally.

Actual discharge,
1
2
2
1

= =
m
gH
A C Q C Q
d theory d actual
(3)

If the leads of U-tube are filled with water,

( ) =
g
x p p
2 1

H =
|
|

\
|
=

1
2 1

g
x
p p







FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/14






Example 5.3

A venture tube tapers from 300 mm in diameter at the entrance to 100 mm in diameter
at the throat; the discharge coefficient is 0.98. A differential mercury U-tube gauge is
connected between pressure tapping at the entrance at throat. If the meter is used to
measure the flow of water and the water fills the leads to the U-tube and is in contact
with the mercury, calculate the discharge when the difference of level in the U-tube is
55 mm.


Solution to Example 5.3


Using Equation (3),


1
2
2
1

=
m
gH
A c Q
d actual

So,

















Actual discharge, Q
actual
=
1 81
693 . 0 81 . 9 2
0706 . 0 98 . 0



Q
actual
= s m / 0285 . 0
3







x = 55 mm

g


= 13.6
H = 0.055 12.6 = 0.0706 m
2

C
d
= 0.98

A
1

( )
2
2
0706 . 0
4
3 . 0 142 . 3
m = =

m
9
4
12
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
= |

\
|
= = =
d
d
A
A

FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/15






Example 5.4

A horizontal venturi meter measures the flow of oil of specific gravity 0.9 in a 75 mm
diameter pipe line. If the difference of pressure between the full bore and the throat
tapping is 34.5 kN/m
2
and the area ratio, m is 4, calculate the rate of flow, assuming a
coefficient of discharge is 0.97.

Solution to Example 5.4

From Equation (3),

1
2
2
1

=
m
gH
A c Q
d actual


The difference of pressure head, H must be expressed in terms of the liquid
following through the meter,

H =

p

=
3
3
10 81 . 9 9 . 0
10 5 . 34


= oil of m 92 . 3

A
1

( )
2
2
00441 . 0
4
075 . 0 142 . 3
m = =

m = 4

C
d
= 0.97

So,
Actual discharge, Q
actual
=
1 16
92 . 3 81 . 9 2
00441 . 0 97 . 0



Q
actual
= s m / 0106 . 0
3










FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/16






5.4.4 Inclined Venturi Meter

Derivation is an expression for the rate of flow through an inclined
venturi meter. This will show that the U-type of gauge is used to measure the
pressure difference. The gauge reading will be the same for a given discharge
irrespective of the inclination of the meter.

In Figure 5.5, at the entrance to the meter; the area, velocity, pressure
and elevation are A
1
, v
1
, p
1
and z
1
respectively and at the throat, the
corresponding values are A
2
, v
2
, p
2
and z
2
.
























From Bernoullis Equation,



2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
2 2
p
g
v
z
p
g
v
z + + = + +

( )
)
`

+ |

\
|
=
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
2
2 z z
p p
g v v

(1)



Figure 5.5
Z
2

Z
1

X

y
( z
1
-y )
P

Q
A
1
, v
1
,
p
1
and
z
1

A
2
, v
2
,
p
2
and
z
2

= spec. wt of
liquid in pipeline
Spec.wt =
g

FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/17






For continuity of flow,


2 2 1 1
v A v A =
or

1 1
2
1
2
mv v
A
A
v = =
where
m = area ratio =
2
1
A
A


Substituting in equation (1) and solving for v
1

( )
)
`

+ |

\
|
=
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
2
2 z z
p p
g v v




( )
( )
(

)
`

+ |

\
|

=
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
1
1
z z
p p
g
m
v




Actual discharge, Q
actual
=
1 1
v A C
d



( )
( )
(

)
`

+ |

\
|

=
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
1
z z
p p
g
m
A C
Q
d
actual

(2)

Where C
d
= coefficient of discharge.

Considering the U-tube gauge and assuming that the connections are
filled with the liquid in the pipe line, pressures at level PQ are the same in both
limbs,

For left limb,
( ) y z w p p
z
+ =
1 2


For right limb,
x w x y z p p
g z
+ + = ) (
2 2





FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/18







Thus,
Pressure for left limb = Pressure for right limb

( ) = + y z p
1 2
x w x y z p
g
+ + ) (
2 2


= +
2 1 2
z z p x w x y z p
g
+ +
2 2



|
|

\
|
= +

1
2 1
2 1

g
x z z
p p


Equation (2) can therefore be written


( ) (
(

|
|

\
|

= 1 2
1
2
1

g
d
actual
gx
m
A C
Q




























FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/19






Example 5.5

A vertical venturi meter measures the flow of oil of specific gravity 0.82 and has an
entrance of 125 mm diameter and throat of 50 mm diameter. There are pressure gauges
at the entrance and at the throat, which is 300 mm above the entrance. If the coefficient
for the meter is 0.97 and pressure difference is 27.5 kN/m
2
, calculate the actual
discharge in m
3
/s.


Solution to Example 5.5





In equation (2),


( )
( )
(

)
`

+ |

\
|

=
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
1
z z
p p
g
m
A C
Q
d
actual




This is independent of z
1
and z
2
, so that the gauge reading x for a given rate of
flow, Q
actual
does not depend on the inclination of the meter.
Then,


( )
( )
(

)
`

+ |

\
|

=
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
1
z z
p p
g
m
A C
Q
d
actual






1
2
z
2
z
1

FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/20






So,

A
1
( )
2
2
01226 . 0
4
125 . 0 142 . 3
m = =


2 3
2 1
/ 10 5 . 27 m kN p p =

2 3
/ 10 81 . 9 82 . 0 m N =
m z z 3 . 0
2 1
=
m = 25 . 6
50
125
2
2
2
2
1
= |

\
|
=
d
d

C
d
= 0.97

Therefore,


( )
( )
(

)
`

+ |

\
|

=
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
1
z z
p p
g
m
A C
Q
d
actual




( ) ( )
(

|
|

\
|

= 3 . 0
10 81 . 9 82 . 0
10 5 . 27
81 . 9 2
1 25 . 6
01226 . 0 97 . 0
3
3
2
actual
Q = s m / 01535 . 0
3























FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/21






Example 5.6

The water supply to a gas water heater contracts from 10mm in diameter at A (Figure
5.6) to 7 mm in diameter at B. If the pipe is horizontal, calculate the difference in
pressure between A and B when the velocity of water at A is 4.5 m/s.

The pressure difference operates the gas control through connections which is taken to
a horizontal cylinder in which a piston of 20 mm diameter moves. Ignoring friction
and the area of the piston connecting rod, what is the force on the piston?

















Solution to Example 5.6

In the Figure 5.6 the diameter, pressure and velocity at A are d
1
, p
1
and v
1
; and at B
are d
2
, p
2
and v
2.

By Bernoullis theorem, for horizontal pipe,


2
2
2 1
2
1
2 2
p
g
v p
g
v
+ = +

This equation can therefore be written,

g
v v p p
2
2
1
2
2 2 1

=








d
1
d
2



A B

p
1
,v
1
p
2
v
2

Figure 5.6
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/22






For continuity of flow,

2 2 1 1
v A v A =
or
2
2
2
1
2
1
4 4
v
d
v
d
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|


then,
2
2
2 1
2
1
v d v d =
So,

2
2
1
1 2
|
|

\
|
=
d
d
v v



Putting s m v / 5 . 4
1
= , mm d 10
1
= , mm d 7
2
=

2
2
7
10
5 . 4
|

\
|
= v

s m/ 18 . 9 =
and

g
v v p p
2
2
1
2
2 2 1

=



81 . 9 2
5 . 4 18 . 9
2 2
2 1

p p

2
26 . 3 m =


2 1
p p

2
26 . 3 m =


2 1
p p =
2
26 . 3 m


Pressure difference,
2 3
2 1
/ 10 81 . 9 26 . 3 m N p p =

3
/ 9 . 31 m kN =



FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/23






Area of piston =
3
2
/
4
m kN
d



( )
2
2
000314 . 0
4
020 . 0
m = =


We all know that,

Force, F = p A
Where,
p = pressure and A = area

So,
Force on piston = N 1 . 10 000314 . 0 10 9 . 31
3
=































FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/24








ACTIVITY 5B




TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT
INPUT!


5.3 To get through the Green Alien you should be able to answer his puzzles !


1. What does a Venturi Meter measure ?

2. Name me two types of Venturi Meter that you have
learnt in this unit.

3. Sketch a Horizontal Venturi Meter for me. (Label the
thoat, entry, diverging section and converging cone)

4. What is denoted by and
g
?





If you get all the answers right, you will be sent to earth
immediately on the next space shuttle. Only smart people
can go and stay on the earth!











FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/25








FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 5B






I think I got it all right !

5.3

1. What does a Venturi Meter measure ?
It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a non-viscous, incompressible
fluid in non-rotational and steady-stream lined flow.

2. Name me two types of Venturi Meter that you have learnt in this unit.
Horizontal Venturi Meter and Inclined Venturi Meter.

3. Sketch a Horizontal Venturi Meter for me. (Label the throat, entry, diverging section
and converging cone)




4. What is denoted by and
g
?
denotes the specific weight of lead gauge filled with liquid in pipeline and
g

denotes the specific weight of gauge liquid.

Just Kidding !
You are already on earth, your answers are correct,
Just sit there and continue your studies.

Converging
cone
Diverging
section
throat
entry
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/26










5.4.5 Small Orifice
The Venturi Meter described earlier is a reliable flow measuring
device. Furthermore, it causes little pressure loss. For these reasons it is widely
used, particularly for large-volume liquid and gas flows. However this meter is
relatively complex to construct and hence expensive especially for small
pipelines. The cost of the Venturi Meter seems prohibitive, so simpler device
such as Orifice Meter is used.
The Orifice Meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular hole
drilled in it. There is a pressure tap upstream from the orifice plate and another
just downstream. There are three recognized methods of placing the taps and
the coefficient of the meter will depend upon the position of the taps.

The principle of the orifice meter is identical with that of the venturi
meter. The reduction at the cross section of the flowing stream in passing
through the orifice increases the velocity head at the expense of the pressure
head, and the reduction in pressure between the taps is measured by a
manometer. Bernoulli's equation provides a basis for correlating the increase in
velocity head with the decrease in pressure head.

From Figure 5.7 the orifice meter is attached to the manometer. There
are Section 1 (entrance of the orifice) and Section 2 (exit of the orifice also
known as vena contracta).





INPUT
X
Section 1 :
A
1
, v
1
, p
1

Section 2 :
A
2
, v
2
, p
2

Figure 5.7
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/27







Section 1, given :







Section 2, given :









From Bernoullis Equation,

Total energy at section 1 = Total energy at section 2

g
v p
g
v p
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
+ = +

(1)

2 1
2
1
2
2
2
p p
g
v v
=

(2)

z
1
= z
2
because the two parts are at the same level

We know that,
v A Q =

For continuity of flow, Q
1
= Q
2


or
A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2


So,
v
2
=
2
1 1
A
v A
(3)

A
1
= area of section 1
v
1
= velocity of section 1
p
1
= pressure of section 1
A
2
= area of section 2
v
2
= velocity of section 2
p
2
= pressure of section 2
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/28







Putting (3) into (2),

2 1
2
1
2
2
2
p p
g
v v
=

(2)
v
2
=
2
1 1
A
v A
(3)
Then,

2 1
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
p p
A
A
g
v
=
(



So,

|
|

\
|

\
|
=
1
2
2
2
2
1
2 1
1
A
A
p p
g
v


But,
H =

2 1
p p


And,

m =
2
2
2
1
A
A


So,
( ) 1
2
2
1

=
m
gH
v


To determine the actual discharge, Q
actual
;


1 1
v A C Q
d actual
=
So,

( ) 1
2
2
1

=
m
gH
A C Q
d actual

Where C
d
= coefficient of discharge.
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/29






Example 5.7

A meter orifice has a 100 mm diameter rectangular hole in the pipe. Diameter of the
pipe is 250 mm. Coefficient of discharge, C
d
= 0.65 and specific gravity of oil in the
pipe is 0.9. The pressure difference that is measured by the manometer is 750 mm.
Calculate the flow rate of the oil through the pipe.

Solution to Example 5.7

Given,

d
1
= 100 mm = 0.10 m
d
2
= 250 mm = 0.25
C
d
= 0.65

oil
= 0.9
p
1 -
p
2
= 750 mm = 0.75 m
So,

4
2
1
d
A

=

( )
2
2
049 . 0
4
25 . 0 124 . 3
m = =

(

= 1
2 1
oil
Hg
oil
x
p p
H

= 1
9 . 0
6 . 13
75 . 0
m 58 . 10 =

m
2
2
2
1
d
d
= =
( )
( )
2
2
10 . 0
25 . 0


25 . 6 =
Therefore,
Q
actual
=
( ) 1
2
2
1

m
gH
A C
d


Q
actual
=
( ) 1 25 . 6
58 . 10 81 . 9 2
049 . 0 65 . 0
2



s m / 074 . 0
3
=

FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/30






5.4.5.1 Types of orifice

1. Sharp-edged orifice, C
d
= 0.62


2. Rounded orifice, C
d
= 0.97


3. Borda Orifice (running free), C
d
= 0.50

4. Borda Orifice (running full), C
d
= 0.75

FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/31






5.4.5.2 Coefficient of Velocity, Cv




Figure 5.8

From Figure 5.8 ,



x = horizontal falls = velocity time = t v
y
= vertical falls =
2
2
1
time gravity = t g
2
1

h = head of liquid above the orifice
C
v

= Coefficient of Velocity =
gH
v
C
v
2
=
t = time for particle to travel from vena contracta A to point B




Coefficient of Velocity, C
v
=
velocity l Theoretica
contacta vena at velocity Actual



gH
v
C
v
2
=







h
x
y A
B
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/32






Example 5.8

A tank 1.8 m high, standing on the ground, is kept full of water. There is an orifice in
its vertical site at depth, h m below the surface. Find the value of h in order the jet may
strike the ground at a maximum distance from the tank.

Solution to Example 5.8

x t v =
and
y = t g
2
1


Eliminating t these equation give,

g
y v
x
2
2
=

y = 1.8 h
h = head of liquid above the orifice

C
v

gH
v
2
=
t = time for particle to travel from vena contracta A to point B

Putting h y = 8 . 1 and ( ) gh C v
v
2 =

So,

( ) [ ] ( )
g
h gh C
x
v

=
8 . 1 2 2
2


( )
g
h gh C
x
v

=
8 . 1 4
2


( ) [ ] h h C
v
= 8 . 1 2

Thus x will be a maximum when ( ) h h 8 . 1 is maximum or,
( ) [ ]
0 2 8 . 1
8 . 1
= =

h
h
h h

So,
m h 9 . 0 =

FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/33






Example 5.9

An orifice meter consists of a 100 mm diameter in a 250 mm diameter pipe (Figure
5.9), and has a coefficient discharge of 0.65. The pipe conveys oil of specific gravity
0.9. The pressure difference between the two sides of the orifice plate is measured by a
mercury manometer, that leads to the gauge being filled with oil. If the difference in
mercury levels in the gauge is 760 mm, calculate the flowrate of oil in the pipeline.







Figure 5.9



Solution to Example 5.9

Let v
1
be the velocity and p
1
the pressure immediately upstream of the
orifice, and v
2
and p
2
are the corresponding values in the orifice. Then,
ignoring losses, by Bernoullis theorem,

g
v p
g
v p
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
+ = +

(1)

2 1
2
1
2
2
2
p p
g
v v
=

(2)

z
1
= z
2
because of the two parts are at the same level

We know that,
v A Q =

Pipe Area, A
1



P
1
P
2

V
1

V
2



X
Orifice area A
2
C C
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/34






For continuity of flow, Q
1
= Q
2


or
A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2


So,
v
2
=
2
1 1
A
v A
(3)

Putting (3) into (2),

2 1
2
1
2
2
2
p p
g
v v
=

(2)
v
2
=
2
1 1
A
v A
(3)
Then,

2 1
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
p p
A
A
g
v
=
(



So,

|
|

\
|

\
|
=
1
2
2
2
2
1
2 1
1
A
A
p p
g
v



This equation can therefore be written,

( )
|

\
|

2 1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
p p
g
a A
A
v (4)

So,

e disch l theoretica e disch of t coefficien e disch Actual arg arg arg =

1 1 v A Cd Q
actual
= (5)




Putting v
1
into (5)
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/35






= 1 A Cd Q
actual
( )
|

\
|


2 1
2
2
2
1
2
2
p p
g
a A
A
(6)
but,
m =
2
2
2
1
A
A


so putting m into (6),

( )
|

\
|

2 1
2
1
1
2
1
p p
g
m
A C
A Cd Q
d
actual


Considering the U-tube gauge, where pressures are equal at level CC

x p x p
q
+ = +
2 1

|

\
|
=


2 1 2 1
p p
x
p p


Putting m mm x 76 . 0 760 = = and,

1 . 15
9 . 0
6 . 13
= =

g


oil of m
p p
72 . 10 1 . 14 76 . 0
2 1
= =


65 . 0 =
d
C

2
2
1
0497 . 0
4
m
d
A = =



( )
( )
1 . 15
10 . 0
25 . 0
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
= = = =
d
d
A
A
m

17 . 6
2
= m

( ) 72 . 10 81 . 9 2
17 . 6
0497 . 0 65 . 0

=
actual
Q

s m / 0762 . 0 5 . 14 00524 . 0
3
= =

FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/36






5.4.6 Simple Pitot Tube




















Figure 5.10 Pitot Tube
a
b

- The Pitot Tube is a device used to measure the local velocity
along a streamline (Figure 5.10). The pitot tube has two
tubes: one is a static tube (b), and another is an impact
tube(a).

- The opening of the impact tube is perpendicular to the flow
direction. The opening of the static tube is parallel to the
direction of flow.

- The two legs are connected to the legs of a manometer or an
equivalent device for measuring small pressure differences.
The static tube measures the static pressure, since there is no
velocity component perpendicular to its opening.

- The impact tube measures both the static pressure and
impact pressure (due to kinetic energy).

- In terms of heads, the impact tube measures the static
pressure head plus the velocity head.
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/37







Figure 5.11 Simple Pitot Tube
Actual Velocity, V

From Figure 5.11, if the velocity of the stream at A is v, a particle moving
from A to the mouth of the tube B will be brought to rest so that v
0
at B is
zero.
By Bernoullis Theorem : Total Energy at A = Total Energy at B or
g
v p
g
v p
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
+ = +

(1)

Now

p
d = and the increased pressure at B will cause the liquid in the
vertical limb of the pitot tube to rise to a height, h above the free surface so
that

0
p
d h = + .

Thus, the equation (1) gh v or h
p p
g
v
2
0
2
2
= =



Although theoretically
( ) gh v 2 =
, pitot tubes may require calibration.
The actual velocity is then given by
( ) gh C v 2 =
where C is the
coefficient of the instrument.




A B
h
H
FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/38






Example 5.10

A Pitot Tube is used to measure air velocity in a pipe attached to a mercury
manometer. Head difference of that manometer is 6 mm water. The weight density of
air is 1.25 kg/m
3
. Calculate the air velocity if coefficient of the pitot tube, C = 0.94.

Solution to Example 5.10

gH C v
air
2 =


air water
p p =

air water
gh gh =

air air water water
h h =

25 . 1
1000
006 . 0 006 . 0 = =
air
water
water
h


m 8 . 4 =
So,

8 . 4 81 . 9 2 94 . 0 = v
s m/ 12 . 9 =























FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/39






ACTIVITY 5C




TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING BEFORE YOU CONTINUE WITH THE NEXT
INPUT!

5.4 Fill in the blanks in the following statements.

1. The Orifice Meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular hole drilled in it.
There is a _____________upstream from the orifice plate and another just
downstream.

2. The reduction of pressure in the cross section of the flowing stream when passing
through the orifice increases the __________________at the expense of the
pressure head. The reduction in pressure between the taps is measured by a
manometer.

3. The formula for Meter Orifice actual discharge, Q
actual.
=_______________

4. The Pitot Tube is a device used to measure the local velocity along a streamline.
The pitot tube has two tubes which are the_______________and the
____________.
5. Although theoretically ( ) gh v 2 = , pitot tubes may require______________.

6. The actual velocity is given by __________ where C is the coefficient of the
instrument.








FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/40







FEEDBACK ON ACTIVITY 5C





5.4

1. The Orifice Meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular hole drilled in it. There
is a pressure tap upstream from the orifice plate and another just downstream.

2. The reduction pressure in the cross section of the flowing stream when passing
through the orifice increases the velocity head at the expense of the pressure head.
The reduction in pressure between the taps is measured by a manometer.

3. The formula for Meter Orifice actual discharge, Q
actual.
=

1 1
v A C Q
d actual
= and Q
actual
=
( ) 1
2
2
1

m
gH
A C
d


4. The Pitot Tube is a device used to measure the local velocity along a streamline. The
pitot tube has two tubes which are the static tube and the impact tube.

5. Although theoretically ( ) gh v 2 = , pitot tubes may require calibration.

6. The actual velocity is given by ( ) gh C v 2 = where C is the coefficient of the
instrument.










FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/41







SELF-ASSESSMENT



You are approaching success. Try all the questions in this self-assessment section
and check your answers with those given in the Feedback on Self-Assessment. If you
face any problems, discuss it with your lecturer. Good luck.

5.1 A venturi meter measures the flow of water in a 75 mm diameter pipe. The
difference between the throat and the entrance of the meter is measured by the
U-tube containing mercury which is being in contact with the water. What
should be the diameter of the throat of the meter in order that the difference in
the level of mercury is 250 mm when the quantity of water flowing in the pipe
is 620 dm
3
/min? Assume coefficient of discharge is 0.97.


5.2 A pitot-static tube placed in the centre of a 200 pipe line conveying water has
one orifice pointing upstream and the other perpendicular to it. If the pressure
difference between the two orifices is 38 mm of water when the discharge
through the pipe is 22 dm
3
/s, calculate the meter coefficient. Take the mean
velocity in the pipe to be 0.83 of the central velocity.


5.3 A sharp-edged orifice, of 50 mm diameter, in the vertical side of a large tank,
discharges under a head of 4.8 m. If C
c
= 0.62 and C
v
= 0.98, determine;
(a) the diameter of the jet,
(b) the velocity of the jet at the vena contracta,
(c) the discharge in dm
3
/s.








FLUID DYNAMICS J3008/5/42







FEEDBACK ON SELF-ASSESSMENT



Answers :
5.1 40.7 mm
5.2 0.977
5.3 (a) 40.3 mm
(b) 9.5 m/s
(c) 12.15 dm
3
/s

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