UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN KIMIA

PROCESS ENGINEERING LABORATORY (CPE453)

NAME : MELLISA ANASTASHIA ABRAHAM

GROUP : EH 220 2
EXPERIMENT : LAB 1: BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION
DATE PERFORMED : 19 OCTOBER 2015
SEMESTER :2
PROGRAMME / CODE : EH220
SUBMIT TO : DR. ZULFIKLI ABDUL RASHID

No. Title Allocated Marks (%) Marks

1 Abstract/Summary 5
2 Introduction 5
3 Aims 5
4 Theory 10
5 Apparatus 5
6 Methodology/Procedure 10
7 Results 10
8 Calculations 10
9 Discussion 20
10 Conclusion 5
11 Recommendations 5
12 Reference / Appendix 10
TOTAL MARKS 100

Remarks:

Checked by :

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Date :
1.1 ABSTRACT
Objective of this experiment is to demonstrate and verify Bernoulli’s equation for fluid
flow in a tapered duct and to measure flow rates and both static and total pressure
heads in a rigid convergent or divergent tube of known geometry for a range of steady
flow rates. The combination of venturi meter complete with manometer and the hydraulic
bench were used. The experiment was conducted in order to find the time taken to
collect 3 L of water, the volumetric flow rates of the water, the pressure difference at all
manometer tube (static head), velocity, dynamic head and also the total head. The
experiment was run based on the Bernoulli’s principle. In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli’s
principle states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs
simulatenously with a decrease in pressure. This statement can be proven that for area
0.00053m3/s, 0.00037m3/s, 0.00020m3/s, 0.00031m3/s, 0.00038m3/s, and 0.00045m3/s and
the velocity is 0.396m/s, 0.443m/s, 0.686m/s, 0.505m/s, 0.443m/s, 0.343m/s respectively.
The velocity of the converging flow is increasing as the water flows from narrow area to
larger area while the diverging section, its velocity is decreasing since the water flow
from larger area to narrow area. As a result, the experiment is obey Bernoulli’s principle.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

Fluid mechanics is the study of the fluids in a motion or at rest and the subsequent
effects of the fluid, on the boundaries which may be either solid surfaces or other fluids.
The practicle aspect of these studies especially dealing with water as a fluid is known as
hydraulics. Bernoulli’s principle can be explained as an inviscid flow, an increase in the
speed of the fluid or air occurs simulatenously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease
in the fluid potential energy. Swiss scientist, Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), demonstrated
that, in most cases, the pressure in a liquid or gas decreases as the liquid or gas move
faster. In various types of fluid flow, Bernoulli’s principle usually relates to Bernoulli’s
equation. Technically, different types of fluid flow involve different forms of Bernoulli’s
equation. Suppose that a fluid is moving in a horizontal direction and encounters a
pressure difference. This pressure difference is called net force which introduced by Sir
Issac Newton that is Newton’s Second Law will cause an acceleration of the fluid.
Bernoulli’s principle can be demonstrate in any type streamline such as orifice meter,
venturi meter, the nozzle and so on. But, the best way of appication of Bernoulli’s
principle is demonstrate in venturi meter. Venturi meter is a device for determining the
flow rate of a fluid passes through it. The structure in the venturi can be seen as figure
below:

At the middle of the venturi meter, there has a throat where the surface area is
decreasing gradually. Fluid is flow from inlet to outlet of the venturi by gradually
accelerated to a throat and gradually slowly when flow channel is suddenly expended. If
a fluid is flowing horizontally and along a section of a streamline, where the speed
increases it can only be because the fluid on that section has moved from a region of
higher pressure to a region of lower pressure; and if its speed decreases, it can only be
because it has moved from region of lower pressure to a region of higher pressure.
Consequently, within a fluid flowing horizontally, the highest speed occurs where the
pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs where the pressure is highest.
Bernoulli’s principle can be explained in terms of the law of conversation of energy. As a
fluid moves from a wider pipe into a narrower pipe or a constriction, a corresponding
volume must move a greater distance forward in the narrower pipe and thus have a
greater speed. At a same time, the work done by corresponding volumes in the wider
and narrower pipes will be expressed by the product of the pressure and the volume.
Since the speed is greater in the narrower pipe, the kinetic energy of that volume is
greater. Then, by the law of conversation of energy, this increase in kinetic energy must
be balanced by a decrease in the pressure-volume product or since the volumes are
equal, by a decrease in pressure.

1.3 OBJECTIVE

I. To demonstrate Bernoulli’s Theorem.

 II. To compare velocity by using Bernoulli’s equation and continuity equation.
III. To measure the flow rate of fluid.

1.4 THEORY

The bernoulli theorem is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and

elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional
forces are negligible. The equation is obtained when the Euler’s equation is integrated
along the streamline for a constant density (incompressible) fluid. The constant of
integration (called the Bernoulli’s constant) varies from one streamline to another but
remains constant along a streamline in steady, frictionless, incompressible flow. Despite
its simplicity, it has been proven to be very powerful tool for fluid mechanics. The specific
hydraulic model used in this experiment is Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration
Apparatus, FM 24.

Before starting
the experiment,
water is added
to the apparatus
to the all
component.
Make sure there
is no air
bubbles. If
bubble consists,
use air bleed
screw to leave it.
The venturi tube is to be test section which provided a number of hole-sided pressure
taping that connected to manometer tube on the rig to measure the height of fluid based
on its velocity and static pressure. A flow of fluid is controlled by control valve to increase
or decrease flowing of fluid. Hypodermic probe is used to measure the total head by
referring the height of the fluid in manometer. Hypodermic probe construct with push it to
the half of the hole-sided pressure taping that connect to manometer. Different hole is at
different diameter of stream and different velocity. There are consists of 6 hole that is #A,
#B, #C, #D, #E, and #F. Use different flow rate for every reading.

The well known Bernoulli’s equation is derived under the following assumptions:

1. Fluid is compressible (density is constant);

2. Flow is steady : d
0
dt
3. Flow is frictionless ( = 0 );
4. Along a streamline;

Then, it is expressed with the following equation:

(P / ρg) + (v2 / 2g) + z = h* = constant

Where (in SI units);

P = fluid static pressure at the cross section in N/m2
ρ = density of the flowing fluid in Kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 (its value is 9.81 m/s2 = 9810 mm/s2)
v = mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section in m/s
h* = total (stagnation) head in m

The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head (h),
velocity head (hv), and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these terms is known
as the total head (h*). According to the Bernoulli’s theorem of fluid flow through a pipe,
the total head h* at any cross section is constant (based on the assumptions given
above). In a real flow due to friction and other imperfections, as well as measurement
uncertainties, the results will deviate from the theoretical ones.
In the experiment setup, the centerline of all the cross sections we considering lie on the
same horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum, z=0), and thus, all the ‘z’
values are zeros so that the above equation reduces to:
(P / ρg) + (v2 / 2g) + z = h* = constant
(this is the total head at a cross section).
(P1 / ρg) + [(u1)2 / 2g] + z1 = (P2 / ρg) + [(u2)2 / 2g] + z2
at horizontal, z1 = z2, at stagnation point, u2 = 0
 (P1 / ρg) + [(u1)2 / 2g] + z1 = P2 / ρg
P2 = P1 + ρ(u1)2 / 2
ρgh2 = ρgh1 + ρ(u1)2 / 2
u1 = 2 g (h  hi )

The equation shows that the deviation of Bernoulli’s equation.

Continuity Equation
The velocity of the flow is measured by measuring the volume of the flow, V, over a
time period, t. This gives the rate of volume flow which in turn gives the velocity of flow
through a defined area, A,
Velocity = vi = Qav / Ai
For an incompressible fluid, conversation of mass requires that volume is also
conserved,
A1u1 = A2u2
Volume flowrate of the water flow should be taken for every 3 L of water is filled in
tank over time taken (s).
Q = 3L of water / time taken (s)

1.5 APPARATUS
1. Venture meter
2. Pad of manometer tubes
3. Hydraulic bench
4. Stop watch
5. Water
6. Water tank equipped with valves water controller
7. Water host and tubes
1.6

PROCEDURE / METHODOLOGY

1. The main switch and the pump was switched on .

2. venturi for the convergent flow position was set up. To let the water flow into the
venturi and manometer tubes the flow control valve was fully open.
3. Then the air bleed screw was adjusted.
4. Control valve and valve 1 was closed.
5. The hypodermic tube that connected to manometer #H was gently slide, so that its

end reaches the cross section of the venturi tube at #A. After waited for a few
second to stabilize,the reading was recorded for both #A and #H .
6. Step 5 was repeated for cross section (#B, #C, #D, #E, and #F).
7. Step 3 to 6 was repeated once more for decreasing flow rates by regulating the

venturi discharged valve.

 8. Velocity, ViB using the Bernoulli’s 2 g (h  hi ) equation was calculated where ViB =.
Velocity, ViC using continuity equation was calculated where ViC = Qav / Ai
9. Difference between two calculated velocities was determined.

1.7 RESULTS
In this experiment, consists of 2 reading with different flow rate of water. Two equation is
use to quantitative velocity value.

1st Reading

0.003m3of , water
Flowrate   1.186  10  4 m 3 / s
25.295s
Cross Using Bernouli’s Equation Using Continuity Difference
section equation

i h* = hH hi ViB = 2 g (h  hi ) Ai = ViC = Qav / ViB - ViC

πDi2 /4
(mm) (mm) (m/s) Ai (m/s) (m/s)
(m2)

A 166 160 0.343 0.00053 0.2264 0.1166

B 164 156 0.396 0.00037 0.3243 0.0717

C 163 142 0.642 0.00020 0.6000 0.0420

D 162 151 0.465 0.00031 0.3871 0.0779

E 161 153 0.396 0.00038 0.3158 0.0802

F 160 156 0.280 0.00045 0.2667 0.0133

2nd Reading
Flow rate =
0.003m 3of , water
 8.591  10 5 m 3 / s
Cross Using Bernouli’s Equation
34.92s Using Continuity Difference
section equation
 i h* = hH hi ViB = 2 g (h  hi ) Ai = ViC = Qav / ViB - ViC
πDi2 /4
(mm) (mm) (m/s) Ai (m/s) (m/s)
(m2)

A 160 158 0.198 0.00053 0.1623 0.0357

B 159 155 0.280 0.00037 0.2324 0.0476

C 159 147 0.485 0.00020 0.4300 0.0550

D 158 151 0.371 0.00031 0.2774 0.0936

E 158 153 0.313 0.00038 0.2263 0.0867

F 157 154 0.243 0.00045 0.1911 0.0519

1.8 CALCULATIONS
i. Cross sectional area of the tubes.

Area = πDi2 /4
If Di = 26, then,
Area = π(0.026)2 / 4 = 0.00053 m2
Same method applied for the rest with different diameter, Di.

Di (diameter in mm) Ai (area in m2)

26.0 0.00053

21.6 0.00037

16.0 0.00020

20.0 0.00031

22.0 0.00038

24.0 0.00045

ii. Velocity by using Bernouli’s equation, ViB.

ViB = 2 g (h  hi )

Where the value of h* and hi can be found from the table of result for the experiment.

iii. Velocity using Continuity Equation, ViC.

 ViC = Qav / Ai

Qav = 0.003 m3 / time taken

Reading Qav (m3/s)

1 0.00012
2 0.000086

1st Reading
t = 25.295 s
Qav = 0.00012

Qav  m 3 s 
Vic   
i Di (mm) Ai  m 2 
 
A 26.0 0.2264
B 21.6 0.3243
C 16.0 0.6000
D 20.0 0.3871
E 22.0 0.3158
F 24.0 0.2667

2nd Reading
t = 34.92 s
Qav = 0.000086
Qav  m 3 s 
Vic   
i Di (mm) Ai  m 2 
 
A 26.0 0.1623
B 21.6 0.2324
C 16.0 0.4300
D 20.0 0.2774
E 22.0 0.2263
F 24.0 0.1911

1.9 DISCUSSIONS

The experiment was conducted properly proportional to the aim that is to demonstrate

the Bernoulli’s theorem. Bernoulli’s say that the velocity and pressure exerted on the

moving fluid is described by Bernoulli’s principle where, as the velocity of moving fluid

increase, the pressure exerted in the fluid is decrease. Its means that, when we
increased the flow of water there are no pressure that produced in water or no friction

produced. This application can be seen by using the Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration

(model: FM 24) and connection to the hydraulic Bench (model: FM110). Roughly, this

apparatus contain inlet valve functioning control the velocity of fluid flow, venturi meter

and the pad of manometer tubes which indicate the pressure of hA until hH but for this

experiment only the pressure in manometer hA until hF being measured. A venturi is

basically a converging-diverging section (like an hourglass), typically placed between

tube or duct sections with fixed cross-sectional are. The flow rates through the venturi

meter can be related to pressure measurement by using Bernoulli’s equation.

Based on the data recorded, the value of hi is actually the pressure head of that

point because it is connected to the Venturi tube pressure tap, which does not obstruct

the flow, thus measuring the flow static pressure. While the hH is the sum of the pressure

and velocity head which is the total (or stagnation) head, because the Pitot tube is held

against the flow of fluid forcing it to a stop (zero velocity, u2 = 0)

Firstly, based on the table, there are two equation to find velocity that is by using

Bernoulli’s equation and continuity equation. From data calculated, quantitatively velocity

value for Bernoulli’s is more than continuity. For example, in reading 1, fluid flow for

cross sectional section A with a static head of 0.160 has a velocity value of 0.343 m/s

from Bernoulli’s equation and 0.226 m/s from continuity equation. An the differences is

Bernoulli’s is 0.117 m/s exactly or more precise because it proportional to the gravity.

Another assumption is fluid is incompressible, the flow is steady and no friction along the

streamline. But it may contribute friction in the fluid itself. Fluid is disrupt because of any

change of velocity, pressure or streamline at particular point and change within time.
Venturi meter has particular diameter streamline and not a straight line. Friction

losses occurring as a result of a sudden enlargement or contraction in the cross section

of the pipe. In diverging section, the diameter is sudden enlargement from 0.016m,

0.020m, 0.022m, and 0.024m. For example, in reading 1, 0.642m/s (hC), 0.465m/s (hD),
0.396m/s (hE) and 0.280m/s (hF) respectively. From that we can see that, decreasing of

velocity when flowing through sudden enlargement streamline. If the change of cross-

section is gradual, the kinetic energy may be recovered as pressure energy. The results

also show the reading of each manometer tubes increase when the pressure difference

increases.
In converging section, the diameter decreases from 0.026m, 0.0216m, to 0.016m.

The velocity for the converging section increase as the diameter decreases from

0.343m/s, 0.396m/s, followed by 0.642m/s. Fluid is pushed to pass through small

diameter, so that, the pressure is exerted within itself to passes the streamline. The

result show a rise at each manometer tubes when the pressure difference increases.
The rate flow is taken for every 3L of water per unit time. They are 1.186 × 10-4m3/s

and 8.591 × 10-5m3/s.

From this experiment, it can be concluded that the Bernoulli’s equation is valid when

applied to steady flow of water in tapered duct and absolute velocity values increase

along the same channel. Although the experiment proved that the Bernoulli’s equation is

valid for both flow, the value obtained might be slightly differ from the actual value. This

is because there is some error maybe happen during the experiment was conducted.

While taking the reading from the manometer, there might be possibility that the eye

position of the reader is not parallel to the scale thus contribute to the inaccuracy of the

data obtained. Other than that, in order to get the accurate data, the water level must be

let to be really stable.

1.10 CONCLUSIONS
This experiment is conducted to demonstrate Bernoulli’s Theorem, to compare velocity

by using Bernoulli’s equation and contiunity equation as well as to measure the flow rate

of fluid. As this experiment end, the objectives was determined and the experiment was

considered success because the Bernoulli’s equation is only valid for fluid that is under

consumption; fluid is incompressible, flow is steady, flow is frictionless and along a

streamline. The experimental value is also quiet in range with the theoretical value and it

is proven that the velocity in Bernoulli’s equation is more than in contiunity equation.

1.11 RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Repeat the experiment for several times to get the average values I order to get more
accurate results.
2. Make sure the trap bubbles was removed first before strt running the experiment.
3. The eye level of the observer must be parallel to the water meniscus when taking the
reading at the manometers to avoid parallax error.
4. The valve must be control carefully to maintain the constant values of the pressure
difference as it is quiet difficult to control.
5. The time keeper must be alert with the rising of water volume to avoid error and must
be the only person who taking the time throughout the experiment.

1.12 REFERENCES

1. Bernoulli’s Principle and the Theory of Flight, 30 October 2015, at

www.wbabin.net/science/tombe29.pdf
2. Bernoulli’s Principle, 30 October 2015, at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli’s_principle
3. Bernoulli’s Lab Report, 30 October 2015, at
http://www.scribd.com/doc/23106099/Bernoulli-lab-report
4. Bernoulli’s Theorem, 31 October 2015, at http://www.transtutors.com/physics-
homework-help/fluid-mechanics/Bernoulli-theorem.aspx
5. Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration, 31 October 2015, at
http://www.solution.com.my/pdf/FM24(A4).pdf
6. Bernoulli’s Principle, 1 November 2015, at
http://theory.unwinnipeg.ca/mod_tech/node68.html
1.13 APPENDIX