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2.1 Definitions
Fluid Dynamics
Static Pressure
The pressure at a given point exerted by the static head of the fluid present directly above that point. Static pressure is
related to motion on a molecular scale.
Dynamic pressure is related to fluid motion on a large scale i.e. fluid velocity.
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The sum of the static pressure plus the dynamic pressure of a fluid at a point.
Streamline
An imaginary line in a moving fluid across which, at any instant, no fluid is flowing. ie it indicates the instantaneous
direction of the flow.
Stream tube
A ‘bundle’ of neighbouring streamlines may be imagined to form a stream tube (not necessarily circular) through which
the fluid flows.
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Control volume
A fixed volume in space through which a fluid is continuously flowing. The boundary of a control volume is termed the
control surface. The size and shape is entirely arbitrary and normally chosen such that it encloses part of the flow of
particular interest.
a) Steady or unsteady
A flow is termed steady if its properties do not vary with time.
A flow is termed unsteady if properties at a given point vary with time.
Quasi-steady flow is essentially unsteady but its properties change sufficiently slowly with respect to time, at a
given point, that a series of steady state solutions will approximately represent the flow.
b) Uniform or Non-uniform
A uniform flow is one in which properties do not vary from point to point over a given cross-section.
Non-uniform flow has its properties changing with respect to space in a given cross-section.
c) One-dimensional or Multi-dimensional
One-dimensional flow, is one in which the direction and magnitude of the velocity at all points are identical.
Variation of velocity in other directions is so small that they can be neglected. eg. flow of water in small bore
pipe at low flow rates.
Two-dimensional flow is one in which the velocity has two main components.
Three-dimensional flow is one in which the flow velocity has significant components in all three directions.
d) Viscid or Inviscid
This some time distinguished as Viscid and inviscid flow in relation to the viscous forces whether they are
neglected or taken into account
e) Compressible or Incompressible
If the changes in density are relatively small, the fluid is said to be incompressible. If the changes in density
are appreciable, in case of the fluid being subjected to relatively high pressures, the fluid has to be treated as
Compressible.
f) Ideal or Real
An ideal fluid is both inviscid and incompressible. This definition is useful in forming analytical solution to
fluid flow problems.
Fluids in reality are viscous and compressible. Thus, the effect of compressibility and viscosity must be considered
for accurate analysis. It must be stressed that in most common engineering applications at standard pressure
and temperature, water can be assumed incompressible and inviscid. The assumption of ideal fluid can help to
formulate a solution, an approximate solution, still better than no solution.
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If the flow is steady i.e no accumulation of fluid within the tank, then the rate of fluid flow at entry must be equal to the
rate of fluid flow at exit for mass conservation. If, at entry (or exit) having a cross-sectional area A (m2), a fluid parcel
travels a distance dL in time dt, then the volume flow rate (V, m3/s) is given by: V = (A . dL)/∆t
but since dL/∆t is the fluid velocity (v, m/s) we can write: Q=VxA
The mass flow rate (m, kg/s) is given by the product of density and volume flow rate
Between two points in flowing fluid for mass conservation we can write: m1 = m 2
or ρ1 V1 A1 = ρ2 V2 A2(2.1)
V1A1 = V2A2(2.2)
Hence an incompressible flow in a constant cross-section will have a constant velocity. For branched systems the continuity
equation implies that the sum of the incoming fluid mass (or volume) flow rates must equal the sum of the outgoing mass
(or volume) flow rates.
Air enters a compressor with a density of 1.2 kg/m3 at a mean velocity of 4 m/s in the 6 cm x 6 cm square inlet duct. Air
is discharged from the compressor with a mean velocity of 3 m/s in a 5 cm diameter circular pipe. Determine the mass
flow rate and the density at outlet.
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Solution:
πD 2 3142
. × 0.052
A2 = = = 0.00196m 2
4 4
The mass flow rate is:
m = ρ1A1V1
= 1.2 x 0.0036 x 4
ρ1A1V1 = ρ2 A2V2
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P u
U NJ P
$ [9 [
Conservation of energy necessitates that the total energy of the fluid remains constant, however, there can be transformation
from one form to another.
If all energy terms are written in the form of the head (potential energy), ie in metres of the fluid, then:
p
represents the pressure head (sometimes known as ‘flow work’)
ρg
9
represents the velocity head (also known as kinetic energy)
J
The energy conservation, thus, implies that between any two points in a fluid
§ S 9 · § S 9 ·
¨¨ ] ¸¸ ¨¨ ] ¸¸ (2.3a)
© UJ J ¹ © UJ J ¹
This equation is known as the Bernoulli equation and is valid if the two points of interest 1 & 2 are very close to each
other and there is no loss of energy.
In a real situation, the flow will suffer a loss of energy due to friction and obstruction between stations 1 & 2, hence
§ S 9 · § S 9 ·
¨¨ ] ¸¸ ¨¨ ] ¸¸ K/ (2.3b)
© UJ J ¹ © UJ J ¹
where hL is the loss of energy between the two stations.
When the flow between stations 1 & 2 is caused by a pump situated between the two stations, the energy equation becomes:
§ S 9 · § S 9 ·
¨¨ ] ¸¸ K S ¨¨ ] ¸¸ K/ (2.3c)
© UJ J ¹ © UJ J ¹
Where hp is the head gain due to the pump.
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A jet of water of 20 mm in diameter exits a nozzle directed vertically upwards at a velocity of 10 m/s. Assuming the jet
retains a circular cross - section, determine the diameter (m) of the jet at a point 4.5 m above the nozzle exit. Take ρwater
= 1000 kg/m3.
Solution:
S Y S Y
Bernoulli equation: ] ]
UJ J UJ J
Given: v, z1 = 0 (Datum) z2 = 4.5 m. p1 = p2 (both atmospheric). The energy equation reduces to:
9 9
] ]
J J
KHQFH
9 9 JK [ P V
$ [Y S[[
From continuity equation: $ [ P
9
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Hence
S '
$
[ [
' P
Restriction methods of fluid flow are based on the acceleration or deceleration of the fluid through some kind of nozzle,
throat or vena contracta.
The theoretical analysis applies the continuity and Bernoulli equations to an ideal fluid flow between points 1 and 2 thus:-
2 2
p1 v 1 p v2
Start with Bernoulli equation: + + z1 = 2 + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Rearranging U9
S S > 9 9 @
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Substituting into the rearranged Bernoulli equation and solving for V2 we have:-
S S
Y (2.4)
U > $ $ @
The theoretical volume flow rate is Q = A2 V2
The above values are theoretical because ideal fluid flow conditions were assumed. Actual flow rate values are obtained
by multiplying the theoretical values by a meter discharge coefficient Cd to account for frictional and obstruction losses
encountered by the fluid in its passage through the meter. The energy losses manifest themselves as a greater pressure
drop (P1 - P2) then that predicted by the theory.
The Venturi meter has a converging section from the initial pipe diameter down to a throat, followed by a diverging
section back to the original pipe diameter. See figure.
Differential pressure measurements are taken between the inlet (1) and throat (2) positions. The geometry of the meter
is designed to minimize energy losses (Cd > 0.95).
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An orifice meter is a flat plate, with a hole which may be square edged or bevelled, inserted between two flanges in a pipe
line. In this instance positions (1) and (2) are as shown below. Orifice plates have a simple construction and are therefore
inexpensive but they suffer from high energy losses (Cd = 0.6).
A slender concentric tube arrangement, aligned with the flow, used to measure flow velocity by means of a pressure
difference. See figure below. The outer tube is closed in the flow direction but has sidewall holes to enable the measurement
of static pressure. The inner tube is open in the direction of the fluid flow and is thus experiencing the total (static +
dynamic) pressure of the fluid flow. It is assumed that the fluid velocity is rapidly brought to zero upon entry to the inner
tube with negligible friction (Cd ~1). The pressure difference between the tubes is applied to a U tube manometer which
will therefore indicate the velocity pressure.
2 2
p1 v 1 p v2
Start with Bernoulli equation: + + z1 = 2 + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Since the Pitot-static tube is mounted horizontally, the z-terms will cancel out, and the static end is motionless, ie V2 =
0. It can be shown that the duct velocity V1 is given by:-
3W 3V U P JK
Y (2.6)
UI UI
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A Venturi meter fitted in a 15 cm pipeline has a throat diameter of 7.5 cm. The pipe carries water, and a U-tube manometer
mounted across the Venturi has a reading of 95.2 mm of mercury. Determine:
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Solution:
(i) p1 - p2 = ρm x g x h
2( p1 − p 2 ) 2(12701)
(ii) v2 = = = 5.206 m / s
ρ [1 − ( A2 / A1 ) ]
2
1000[1 − (0.0629)]
(iii) Q = Cd V2 A2
When the flow rate of the fluid stream is high, the velocity distribution had a much flatter shape and this type of flow is
known as TURBULENT.
The average velocity producing turbulent flow is greater than that for a laminar flow of a given fluid in a given duct.
For both flows, the build-up of velocity is along the radius of the pipe, and the maximum velocity occurs at the centre line.
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Osborne Reynolds demonstrated experimentally in 1883 (Manchester) that under laminar flow, the fluid streamlines remain
parallel. This was shown with the aid of a dye filament injected in the flow which remained intact at low flow velocities
in the tube. As the flow velocity was increased (via a control valve), a point was reached at which the dye filament at first
began to oscillate then broke up so that the colour was diffused over the whole cross-section indicating that particles of fluid
no longer moved in an orderly manner but occupied different relative positions in successive cross-sections downstream.
Reynolds also found that it was not only the average pipe velocity V which determined whether the flow was laminar
or turbulent, but that the density (ρ) and viscosity (µ) of the fluid and the pipe diameter (D), also determined the flow
regime. He proposed that the criterion which determined the type of regime was the dimensionless group (ρvD/µ). This
group has been named the Reynolds number (Re) as a tribute to his contribution to Fluid Mechanics.
Re = ρ V D/µ (2.7)
Based on Reynolds number the flow can be distinguished into three regimes for pipe flow:
∑F = 0
The force due to pressure on either side of the section is equal to the friction force resisting the flow:
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Where the pressures act normal to the flow direction on the area of cross-section Ac, and the frictional force acts on the
circumferential wall area As, separating the fluid and the pipe’s surface.
Let hf denote the head lost (m) due to friction over a duct length L,
ie p1 - p2 = ρ g hf
Substituting we get
hf = f. (As/Ac). V2/2g
hf = (4 fL/D).V2/2g(2.8)
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For laminar flow (ie Re < 2000), the value of the friction factor is given by the following equation irrespective of the
nature of the surface:
I (2.9)
5H
While for a smooth pipe with turbulent (i.e. Re > 4000) flow, the friction factor is given by:
I (Blasius equation)(2.10)
5H
For Re > 2000 and Re < 4000, this region is known as the critical zone and the value of the friction factor is uncertain
and not quoted on the Moody diagram (Figure 2.5).
In the turbulent zone, if the surface of the pipe is not perfectly smooth, then the value of the friction factor has to be
determined from the Moody diagram.
The relative roughness (k/d) is the ratio of the average height of the surface projections on the inside of the pipe (k) to
the pipe diameter (D). In common with Reynolds number and friction factor this parameter is dimensionless. Values of
k are tabled on the Moody chart for a sample of materials.
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Water flows in a 40mm diameter commercial steel pipe (k = 0.045 x 10-3 m) at a rate of 1 litre/s. Determine the friction
factor and head loss per metre length of pipe using:
Solution:
Re = ρ V D/µ
1. Moody diagram
k/D = 0.045 x 10-3/0.04 = 0.0011
From intersection of k/D and Re values on Moody diagram read off f = 0.0065
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Therefore
/ Y
KI [I[
' J
[ [ [
P P SLSH
I 5H
KI [ [ [
P P SLSH
Note that if the pipe is assumed smooth, the friction factor from the Moody diagram would be f = 0.0058 which is closer
to the Blasius value.
9
KR .
J (2.11)
Where V is the mean velocity at entry to the fitting and K is an empirically determined factor. Typical values of K for
different fittings are given in the table below:
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Obstruction K
P = ρ. g. Q.htot(2.12a)
For a pump, htot represents the head required to overcome pipe friction (hf ), obstruction losses (ho) and to raise the fluid
to any elevation required (hz).
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ie htot = hz + hf + ho(2.13a)
Note: If the delivery tank operates at pressure in excess of the supply tank an additional term (hp) must be added to the
required head equation as this pressure rise must also be supplied by the pump.
If the pump efficiency ηp is introduced, the actual pump head requirement is:
P = ρ. g. Q.htot / ηp(2.12b)
For a turbine with efficiency ηt, the power output is given by:
P = ρ. g. Q.htot xηt(2.12c)
Determine the input power to an electric motor (ηm = 90%) supplying a pump (ηp = 80%) delivering 50 l/s of water (ρ
= 1000 kg/m3, µ = 0.001 kg/ms) from tank1 to tank 2 as shown below if the pipeline length is 200m long, of 150 mm
diameter galvanised steel ( assumed surface roughness k=0.15mm).
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Solution:
Three bends (each K=0.9), tank entry (k=0.5), exit loss (k=1) and one valve (k=5)
Y
KR ¦ . L [> J @ [ [ [ P
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Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity, and represents the energy of motion stored in the system.
Momentum is a vector quantity and can only be defined by specifying its direction as well as magnitude.
“The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the net force acting, and takes place in the direction of that force”.
dM
i.e. ∑F = dt
(2.14)
Since M = m. V
G9 GP
¦) GW
9
GW
“To every action there is a reaction equal in magnitude and opposite in direction”.
G9 GP GP
¦) [ P
GW
9
GW
P
G9 9
GW
GP
)[ P 9 FRVT 9 VLQFH VWHDG\ IORZ
GW
)\ P
9 VLQT
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The resultant force acting on the solid surface due to the jet is given by
)5 ) [ ) \
DFWLQJ WKURXJK
§ )\ ·
T5 WDQ ¨¨ ¸¸
© )[ ¹
Special cases:
The angle of the striking jet has a very important effect on the force, 3 different angles are illustrated below:
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A jet of water having a diameter of 7.5 cm and a velocity of 30 m/s strikes a stationary a flat plate at angle θ = 30o as
shown below.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the plate assuming there is no friction between the jet
and the plate. Take ρwater = 1000 kg/m3.
Solution:
A = 0.00442 m2
Fx = ρAV12 (1 - cos θ)
= 1000 x 0.00442 x 302 (1 - cos 30)
= 533 N
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Fy = ρA V12 sin θ
= 1000 x 0.00442 x 302 x sin 30
= 1989 N
)5 )5 )[ )\ 1
)\
T 5 WDQ ^ ` WDQ ^ ` R
)[
The change of momentum of a fluid flowing through a pipe bend induces a force on the pipe.
The pressures are to be considered in this case since the reducer bend is part of flowing system which is not subjected to
atmospheric conditions.
x - Momentum
y - Momentum
) )[ )\
$ $ $
U4 9 FRVT U9 >S S 3 HWF@
$ $ $
A1
From continuity equation: V2 = V1 x
A2
For A1 = A2 and θ = 90o
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2
p 1/ 2
F = (2 ρ Q (ρ V1 + p1 + p2) + p1 A1 [1 - 1 ])
2 2 2 2
p2
Fy
The force acting at an angle θR = tan-1 with the x - axis
Fx
A bend in a horizontal pipeline reduces from 600 mm to 300 mm whilst being deflected through 60o. If the pressure at the larger
section is 250 kPa, for a water flow rate of 800 l/s determine the magnitude and direction of the resulting force on the pipe.
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Solution:
From Continuity
ª º
«¬ 3 U 9 9 »¼
3 [ [ [ N3D
§ )\ · § ·
T5 WDQ ¨¨ ¸¸ WDQ ¨ ¸
R
© )[ ¹ © ¹
A siphon has a uniform circular bore of 75 mm diameter and consists of a bent pipe with its crest 1.4 m above water
level and a discharge to the atmosphere at a level 2 m below water level. Find the velocity of flow, the discharge and the
absolute pressure at crest level if the atmospheric pressure is 98.1 kN/m2. Neglect losses due to friction.
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Solution:
2 2
Bernoulli equation between 1-3: p1 v1 p v3
+ + z1 = 3 + + z3
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
z1 = 2, z3 = 0 (level 3 is assumed datum). p1 = p3 (both atmospheric). And V1 = 0
Y
J
KHQFH o 9 [ [ P V
S
4 $[9 [ [ P V
[ S
[ UJ
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2.2 Water at 36 m above sea level has a velocity of 18 m/s and a pressure of 350 kN/m2. Determine the potential,
kinetic and pressure energy of the water in metres of head. Also determine the total head.
2.3 The air supply to an engine on a test bed passes down a 180 mm diameter pipe fitted with an orifice plate 90 mm
diameter. The pressure drop across the orifice is 80 mm of paraffin. The coefficient of discharge of the orifice is
0.62 and the densities of air and paraffin are 1.2 kg/m3 and 830 kg/m3 respectively. Calculate the mass flow rate
of air to the engine.
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2.4 Determine the pressure loss in a 100 m long, 10 mm diameter smooth pipe if the flow velocity is 1 m/s for:
a) air whose density 1.0 kg/m3 and dynamic viscosity 1 x 10-5 Ns/m2.
b) water whose density 10003 kg/m3 and dynamic viscosity 1 x 10-3 Ns/m2.
2.5 Determine the input power to an electric motor (ηm = 90%) supplying a pump (ηp = 90%) delivering 50 l/s of
water (ρ = 1000 kg/m3, µ = 0.001 kg/ms) between two tanks with a difference in elevation of 50m if the pipeline
length is 100m long in total of 150 mm diameter, assume a friction factor of 0.008 and neglect minor losses.
2.6 A jet of water strikes a stationary flat plate “perpendicularly”, if the jet diameter is 7.5 cm and its velocity upon
impact is 30 m/s, determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the plate, neglect frictional
effect and take water density as 1000 kg.m3.
Ans (3970 N)
2.7 A horizontally laid pipe carrying water has a sudden contraction in diameter from 0.4m to 0.2m respectively.
The pressure across the reducer reads 300 kPa and 200 kPa respectively when the flow rate is 0.5 m3/s. Determine
the force exerted on the section due to the flow, assuming that friction losses are negligible.
2.8 A siphon has a uniform circular bore of 75 mm diameter and consists of a bent pipe with its crest 1.8 m above
water level and a discharge to the atmosphere at a level 3.6 m below water level. Find the velocity of flow, the
discharge and the absolute pressure at crest level if the atmospheric pressure is 98.1 kN/m2. Neglect losses due
to friction.
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