Electrical and Electronics Engineering

EE-42 Electrical Machines-I

Prepared By H. Vennila Sr.Lect/ EEE

FOURTH SEMESTER ELECTRICAL MACHINES 1

1. Mention the difference between core and shell type transformers. In core type , the windings surround the core considerably and in shell type the core surround the winding.

2. What is the purpose of laminating the core in a transformers ? To reduce eddy current loss.

3. Give the emf equation of a transformer and define each term Emf induced in primary coil E1 = 4.44 f N1 volt Emf induced in secondary coil E2 = 4.44f N2 volt Where f is the frequency of AC input F m is the maximum value of flux in the core N1, N2 are the number of primary and secondary turns.

4. Does the transformer draw any current when secondary is open ? Why ? Yes,it (primary) will draw the current from the main supply in order to magnetise the core and to supply iron and copper losses on no load . There will not be any current in the secondary since secondary is open.

5. Define voltage regulation of a transformer When a transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage , the secondary voltage decreases for lagging power factor load, and increases for leading pf load because of its internal resistance and leakage reactance . The change in secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load expressed as a percentage of no load or full load voltage is termed as regulation .

% regulation down = (oV2-V2) x 100/oV2 % regulation up = (oV2-V2) x 100/V2

6. Full load copper loss in a transformer is 1600 watts. What will be the loss at half load ? If x is the ratio of actual load to full load then copper loss = x2(full load copper loss) Here Wc = (0.5)2 x 1600 = 400 watts

7. Define all day efficiency of a transformer . It is the computed on the basis of energy consumed during a certain period , usually a day of 24 hrs. all day efficiency = output in kWh /input in kWh for 24 hrs. 8. Why transformers are rated in kVA ? Copper loss of a transformer depends on current and iron loss on voltage . Hence total losses depends on Volt- Ampere and not on the power factor. That is why the rating of transformers are in kVA and not in kW. 9. What are the typical uses of auto transformer ? (i)To give small boost to a distribution cable to correct for the voltage drop. (ii)As induction motor starters. (iii)As furnace transformers (iv)As interconnecting transformers (v)In control equipment for single phase and 3 phase elective locomotives.

10. What are the applications of a step-up and step-down transformers ? Step-up transformers are used in generating stations. Normally the generated voltage will be either 11 kV or 22 kV. This voltage is stepped up to 110 kV or 220 kV or 400 kV and transmitted through transmission lines. (In short it may Be called as sending end).

Step-down transformers are used in receiving stations. The voltage are again stepped down to 11 kV or 22 kV and transmitted through feeders.(In short it may be called as receiving end). Further these 11 kV or 22kV are stepped down to 3 phase 400 V by means of a distribution transformer and made available at consumer premises. The transformers used at generating stations and receiving stations are called power transformers.

11. How transformers are classified according to their construction ? Transformers are classified according to their construction as , (i)Core type (ii)Shell type (iii)Spirakore type. Spirakore type is a latest transformer and is used in big transformers. In core type, the windings(primary and secondary)surround the core and in shell type, the core surround the windings.

12. Explain on the material used for core construction. The core is constructed of transformer sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with a minimum of air gap included. The steel used is of high silicon content sometimes heat treated to produce a high permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux densities.the eddy current loss is minimized by laminating the core, the laminations being insulated from each other by light coat of coreplate vanish or by an oxide layer on the surface .the thickness of laminations varies from 0.35 mm for a frequency of 59 Hz and 0.5 mm for a frequency of 25 Hz.

13. When will a Bucholz relay operate in a transformer ? Bucholz rely is a protective device in a transformer. If the temperature of the coil exceeds its limit, Bucholz relay operates and gives an alarm.

14. How does change in frequency affect the operation of a given transformer ? With a change in frequency, iron loss, copper loss, regulation, efficiency and heating varies and thereby the Operation of the transformer is affected.

15. What is the angle by which no-load current will lag the ideal applied voltage ? In an ideal transformer , there are no copper loss and no core loss,(i.e. loss free core). The no load current is only magnetizing current. Therefore the no-load current lags behind by an angke of 90. However the windings possess resistance and leakage reactance and therefore the no-load current lags the applied voltage slightly less than 90.
16. List the advantages of stepped core arrangement in a transformer . (i) To reduce the space effectively. (ii) To obtain reduced length of mean turn of the windings. (iii) To reduce I2R loss.

17. Why are breathers used in transformers ? Breathers are used to entrap the atmospheric moisture and thereby not allowing it to pass on to the transformer oil. Also to permit the oil inside the tank to expand and contract as its temperature increases and decreases.Also to avoid sledging of oil i.e. decomposition of oil. Addition of 8 parts of water in 1000000 reduces the insulations quantity of oil. Normally silica gel is filled in the breather having pink colour. This colour will be changed to white due to continuous use, which is an indication of bad silica gel, it is normally heated and reused.

18. What is the function of transformer oil in a transformer ? Nowadays instead of natural mineral oil, synthetic oils known as ASKRELS (trade name ) are used. They are noninflammable, under an electric arc do not decompose to produce inflammable gases. PYROCOLOR oil possess high dielectric strength. Hence it can be said that transformer oil provides , (i)good insulation and (ii)cooling .

19. A 1100/400 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has 100 turns on the secondary winding. Calculate the number of turns on its primary. We know V1 / V2 = k = N2 / N1 Substituting 400/1100 = 100/N1 N1 = 100/400 x 1100 = 275 turns.

20. What are the functions of no-load current in a transformer ? No-load current produces flux and supplies iron loss and copper loss on no-load

21. How will you transfer the quantities from one circuit to another circuit in a transformer ?

1.Secondary to primary2.Primary to secondary

22. Define voltage regulation of a transformer. When a transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage , the secondary voltage decreases for lagging factor load, and increases for leading power factor load because of its internal resistance and leakage reactance. Let oV2 = secondary terminal voltage at no load = E2 = kE = kV because of no load the impedence drop is negligible V2 = secondary terminal voltage on full load. The change in secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load is = oV2 V2.This change divided by oV2 is known regulation down. If this chane is divided by V(i.e full load secondary terminal voltage ) then it is called as regulation up. %regulation down =[(oV2 V2)/oV2 ]*100 and %regulation up =[(oV2 V2)/V2]*100

23. Can the voltage regulation of a transformer go to negative? If so under what condition? Yes. If the load has leading power factor.

24. Distinguish between power transformer and distribution transformer . Power transformers have very high power ratings in the order of mVa. They are used in generating and receiving stations. Sophisticated controls are required. Voltage ranges will be very high. *** Distribution transformers are used in consumer side. Voltage levels will be medium. Power ranging will be small in order of kVA. Complicated controls are not needed.

25. What is the purpose of providing taps in transformer and where these are provided? In order to attain the required voltage , taps are provided. Normally it will be provided at low voltage side.

26. What is prime mover? The basic source of mechanical power which drives the armature of the generator is called prime mover.

27. Give the materials used in machine manufacturing Three materials are used in machine manufacturing. (i)steel to conduct magnetic flux (ii)copper to conduct electric current (iii)Insulation

28. What is MMF? Give its expression MMF is the work done in moving a unit magnetic pole once around the magnetic circuit. MMF=N I ampere turns Where N=no of turns I =current in amp

29. Define magnetic field intensity . It is the MMF per unit length. Ampturn/metre H=N I/l where N=no of turns;I=current in amp;l=length in metre

30. What is reluctance? It is the property of the magnetic material to oppose the magnetic lines of flux S=F/F where F=MMF ; F=flux ;S=reluctance in amp turns per weber

31. What is stacking factor?

It is the ratio between the net cross sectional area of the core to the cross section occupied by the magnetic material

32. What is quasi static field? It is the field pattern which is fixed in space but field intencity at every point varies as a replica of time variation of current.

33. What is leakage flux? The flux which takes a path which is not intended for it is called leakage flux..

34. What is fringing effect? While passing through the non magnetic medium the magnetic lines of force try to bulge out because the lines of force repel each other.this is fringing effect.

35. Compare electric and magnetic circuits

Magnetic circuit

Electric circuit

Closed path of magnetic flux Flux = mmf/reluctance Reluctance=1/aor

Closed path for electric current current=emf/resistance ResistanceR=v/a

Magnetic flux dencity B=f/a

current dencity J=I/a

MMF drop=f S

Voltage drop= I R

Magnetic field intencity H=N I/l

Electric field intencity E=V/d

36. How is the direction of induced e.m.f determined? Direction of induced e.m.f is determined by using (i) right hand gripprng rule and (ii) Right hand cork screw rule.

37. State Lenzes law. Any induced e.m.f will circulate a current in such a direction as to oppose the cause producing it. e= -N dF/dt

38. What is self inductance? The e.m.f induced in a coil due to change of flux in the same coil is known as self inductance.

39. Give the expression for magnetizing force F = B I l sin Newton, Where I is the current carried by the conductor l is the effective length of the conductor B is the flux density in Wb/m2

40. Derive an equation for energy density for a magnetic circuit. Energy stored in the magnetic circuit = LI2 L = Nao r / l Energy Density = I2 N2 ao r / l = B2 H2 aor since H =NI/l

= B2 la / 0 r = Ba2 /S = F2 /R Joules 41. What are the factors on which hysteresis loss depends ? The hysteresis loss depends on the magnetic flux density , frequency f and the volume of the material V.

42. What is core loss? What is its significance in electric machines? When a magnetic material undergoes cyclic magnetization , two kinds of power losses occur on it hysteresis and eddy current loss which together are known as core loss. It is important in determining heating, temparature rise , rating and efficiency of transformers, machines and other a.c run magnetic devices. 43. What is eddy current loss? When a magnetic core carries a time varying flux voltages are induced in all possible paths enclosing flux. Result is the production of circulating current in core. These induced currents do no useful work are known as eddy current and have power loss known as eddy current loss.

44. How are hysteresis and eddy current losses minimized? Hysteresis loss can be minimized by selecting materials for core such as silicon steel & steel alloys with low hysteresis coefficient and electrical resistivity. Eddy current losses are minimized by laminating the core.

45. What is coupling coefficient? k = M sqr root of L1 L2 Coupling coefficient is defined as the ratio of mutual inductance to the square root of the product of two self inductances.

46. Write an expression for energy stored in magnetic field. Wf =B1 /B2 Hc dB, Where Hc = Magnetic field intensity in the core

47. How does electromechanical energy conversion occurs? It occurs through the medium of the magnetic stored energy.

48. Write the equation for energy transfer. Energy input from electric sources = mechanical energy output + increase in energy stored in magnetic field + energy converted into heat. For motors : electric and mechanical energy terms have positive values For generators: they have negative values.

49. What is the energy conversion medium in a singly-excited magnetic field system The magnetic circuits have air gap between stationary and moving members in which considerable energy is stored in the magnetic field. This field acts as the energy conversion medium and its energy is the reservoir between electric and mechanical system. 50. What is the basic feature of an electro magnetic energy conversion devices? They contain air gaps in their magnetic circuits in their moving parts. 51. Why does the energy storage in a magnetic material occurs mainly in the air gap? The reluctance of the air gap is much larger than the magetic material . hence the predominant energy storage occurs in the air gap and the properties of the air gap are determined by the dimension of the air gap.

52. What is multiply excited magnetic field system? If the electromechanical devices have more than one set of exciting system it is called multiply excited magnetic field system.

53. Give the relation between energy and co-energy for linear system. They are numerically equal in linear system.

54. Why is a magnetic energy storage system conservative? Since it is loss less.

55. How is voltage generated in rotating machines? In rotating machines voltage is generated in windings or group of coils by rotating them through a magnetic field or by mechanically rotating a magnetic field past the winding or by designing the magnetic circuit so that the reluctance varies with rotation of the rotor.

56. Why are magnetic coils wound on iron cores? To maximize the coupling between the coils, to increase the magnetic energy density associated with the electromechanical interaction and to shape and distribute the magnetic fields according to the machine design.

57. Why salient pole construction is a characteristic of hydroelectric generators ? Because hydraulic turbines operate at relatively low speeds and a large number of poles are required to produce the required frequency.

58. What are distributed windings? Windings which are spread over a number of slots around the air gap periphery.

59. Write the equation for total co-energy density. Wfld = Average co-energy density x volume of air gap = o / 4 [Fsr / g]2 /Dlg = o/ Dl / 4 g Where D = Average diameter of air gap. l = Axial length of air gap. o= Permeability of free space.

60. What is the expression for torque in terms of the resultant mmf wave Fsr? T = -P/2 . ?/2. 0 Dl / g . Fr Fsr sind

61. What is torque proportional to? Torque is proportional to the interacting fields and to the sine of the electrical space angle between their magnetic axes.

62. How will you find the direction of emf using Flemings Right Hand Rule? The thumb, the forefinger and the middle finger of the right hand are held so that these fingers are mutually perpendicular, then Forefinger - Field ThuMb - Motion Middle finger- I,current

63. How will you find the direction of force produced using Flemings Left Hand Rule? The thumb , forefinger and middle finger of the left hand are held so that those fingers are mutually perpendicular then

Forefinger - Field Thumb - Motion(due to force) Middle finger - I,current

64. Which type of d.c armature winding requires equalizer rings? Lap winding

65. How are armature windings classified based on the placement of the coil inside the armature slots? Single layer winding and Double layer winding

66. Write down the emf equation for d.c generator. E = (NZ / 60)(P/A) V Where P= number of poles Z= Total number of conductors A= number of parallel paths = flux per pole N= speed in rpm

67. Why the armature core in d.c machines is constructed with laminated steel sheets instead of solid steel steel? Steel sheets offer low relutance path for the magnetic field , laminated sheets reduce eddy current loss. 68. Why is commutator employed in d.c machines? Conduct electricity between armature and fixed brushes Converts altenating emf into unidirectional emf and vice versa

69. What is meant by selective commutation? The use of more than one pair of brushes in wave winding does not divide the armature coil sides into more than two parallel paths, but current collected from the armature i divided between the brushes of like polarity. In case of slight differences in contact resistance the current collected by individual brushes may be different and is called selective commutation.

70. Distinguish between shunt and series field coil constructions. Shunt field coils are wound with wires of small cross section and have more number of turns. Series field coils are wound with wires of larger cross section and have less number of turns.

71. How does a d.c motor differ from d.c generator in construction? Generators are normally placed in closed room , accessible only to skilled operators. Therefore on ventilation point of view they may be constructed with large opening in the frame. Motors on the other hand , have to be installed right in the place of use which may have dust, dampness, inflammable gases, chemical fumes etc . To protect the motors against these elements , the motor frames are made either partly closed or totally closed or flame proof etc.

72. How will you change the direction of rotation of a d.c motor? Either the direction of the main field or the direction of current through the armature conductors is to be reserved.

73. What is back emf in d.c motors ? As the motor armature rotates , the system of conductor come across alternate North and South pole magnetic fields causing an emf induced in the conductors. The direction of the emf induced in the conductors is in the direction opposite to the current .As this emf always opposes the flow of current in motor operation it is called back emf.

74. Under what condition the mechanical power developed in a dc motor will be maximum? Condition for mechanical power developed to be maximum is Eb = Va /2 or I a= Va / 2Ra

75. What is the function of a no-voltage release coil provided in a dc motor starter? As long as the supply voltage is on healthy condition the current through the NVR coil produce enough magnetic force of attraction and retain the starter handle in the ON position
against spring force. When the supply voltage fails or becomes lower than a prescribed value the electromagnet may not have enough force and the handle will come back to OFF position due to spring force automatically. Thus a no-voltage or under voltage protections given to the motor.

76. Name the two types of automatic starters used for dc motors. Back emf type starter Time delay type starter

77. Enumerate the factors on which the speed of a dc motor depends. N = 1/CE (Ua-IaRm)/? The speed of dc motor depends on three factors. Flux in the air gap Resistance of the armature circuit Voltage applied to the armature

78. List the different methods of speed control employed for dc series motor Field diverter method Regrouping of field coil d\s Tapped field control Armature resistance control Armature voltage control for single motor Series parallel control for multiple identical motors

79. Name the different methods of electrical breaking of dc motors. (i) Dynamic braking (ii) Regenerating braking (iii) Counter current braking or plugging

80. Under what circumstances does a dc shunt generator fail to build up? Absence of residual flux. Initial flux set up by the field winding may be in opposite direction to residual flux Shunt filed circuit resistance may be higher than its critical field resistance Load circuit resistance may be less than its critical load resistance.

81. Define critical field resistance in dc shunt generator Critical field resistance is defined as the resistance of the field circuit which will cause the shunt generator just to build up its emf at a specified field.

82. How can one differentiate between long shunt compound generator and short shunt compound generator? In a short shunt compound generator the shunt field circuit is shorter i.e. across the armature terminals. In a long shunt compound generator the shunt field circuit is connected across the load terminals.

83. Why is the emf not zero when the field current is reduced to zero in a dc generator ? Even after the field current/magnetizing force is reduced to zero the machine is left out

with some flux as residue. Emf due to this residual flux is available when field current is zero.

84. Define the term critical speed in dc shunt generator. Critical sped is defined as the speed at which the generator is to be driven to cause selfexcited generator to Build up its emf for the given field circuit resistance.

85. On what occasions dc generators may not have residual flux? The generator may be put for its first operation after its construction. In previous operation the generator would have been fully demagnetized.

86. What are the conditions to be fulfilled for a dc shunt generator to build up emf? The generator should have residual flux The field winding should be connected in such a manner that the flux set up by the field winding should be in the same direction as that of residual flux The field circuit resistance should be less than critical field resistance Load circuit resistance should be above its critical load resistance

87. How the critical field resistance of a dc shunt generator is estimated from its OCC? Critical field resistance can be obtained from OCC by drawing a straight line passing through the origin and tangent to the initial straight line portion of OCC. The slope of this line gives the value of critical field resistance for the given speed at which OCC is obtained.

88. Define the term armature reaction in dc machines. The interaction between the flux set up by the current carrying armature conductors with the main field flux is defined as armature reaction.

89. What are the two unwanted effects of armature reaction? Cross magnetizing effect / Distorting effect Demagnetising effect

90. Differentiate between geometric neutral axis (GNA) and magnetic neutral axis (MNA). GNA is the axis which is situated geometrically or physically in the mid way between adjacent main poles. MNA is the axis which passes through the zero crossing of the resultant magnetic field waveform in the air gap.

91. In which part of the dc machine is the compensating winding situated? In the slots provided in the main pole phases .

92. What are the various types of commutation? Linear commutation Sinusoidal commutation

93. Name the two methods of improving commutation. (i) Emf commutation. (ii) Resistance commutation

94. What is reactance emf in dc machine? The self induced emf in the coil undergoing commutation which opposes the reversal of current is known as reactance emf.

95. Define the term commutation in dc machines. The changes that take place in winding elements during the period of short circuit by a brush is called commutation.

96. How and why the compensating winding in dc machine excited? As the compensation required is proportional to the armature current the compensating winding is excited by the armature current.

97. How is the interpole winding in dc machine excited? Interpole winding is connected in series with the armature circuit and is excited by the armature current.

98. To what polarity are the interpoles excited in dc generators? The polarity of the interpoles must be that of the next main pole along the direction of rotation in the case of generator.

99. To what polarity the interpoles excited in dc motors? For motor operation the polarity of the interpoles must be that of the previous main pole along the direction of Rotation.

100. Why are carbon brushes preferred for dc machines? The high contact resistance carbon brushes help the current in the coil undergoing commutation to attain its full value in the reverse direction at the end of commutation. The carbon brushes also lubricate and give less wear and tear on commutator surface.

7.Explain the following terms related to magnetic circuits.

Magneto motive force, Magnetic flux, Hopkinson's law, Reluctance, Microscopic origins of reluctance A magnetic circuit is made up of one or more closed loop paths containing a magnetic flux. The flux is usually generated by permanent magnets or electromagnets and confined to the path by magnetic cores consisting of ferromagnetic materials like iron, although there may be air gaps or other materials in the path. Magnetic circuits are employed to efficiently channel magnetic fields in many devices such as electric motors, generators, transformers, relays, lifting electromagnets, Squids, galvanometers, and magnetic recording heads. The concept of a "magnetic circuit" exploits a one-to-one correspondence between the equations of the magnetic field in a non-hysteretic material to that of an electrical circuit. Using this concept the magnetic fields of complex devices such as transformers can be quickly solved using the methods and techniques developed for electrical circuits. Some examples of magnetic circuits are:

horseshoe magnet with iron keeper (low-reluctance circuit) horseshoe magnet with no keeper (high-reluctance circuit) electric motor (variable-reluctance circuit)

1. Magnetomotive force (MMF)

EMF drives a current of electrical charge in electrical circuits, magneto motive force (MMF) 'drives' magnetic flux through magnetic circuits. The term 'magneto motive force', though, is a misnomer since it is not a force nor is anything moving. It is perhaps better to call it simply MMF. In analogy to the definition of EMF, the magneto motive force around a closed loop is defined as: The MMF represents the potential that a hypothetical magnetic charge would gain by completing the loop. The magnetic flux that is driven is not a current of magnetic charge; it merely has the same relationship to MMF that electrical current has to EMF. (See microscopic origins of reluctance below for a further description.) The unit of magneto motive force is the ampere-turn (At), represented by a steady, direct electric current of one ampere flowing in a single-turn loop of electrically conducting material in a vacuum. The magneto motive force can often be quickly calculated using Ampere's law. For example, the magneto motive force of long coil is:, where N is the number of turns and I is the current in the coil. In practice this equation is used for the MMF of real inductors with N being the winding number of the inducting coil.

2. Magnetic flux
An applied MMF 'drives' magnetic flux through the magnetic components of the system. The magnetic flux through a magnetic component is proportional to the number of magnetic field lines that pass through the cross sectional area of that component. This is the net number, i.e. the number passing through in one direction, minus the number passing through in the other direction. The direction of the magnetic field vector B is by definition from the south to the North Pole of a magnet inside the magnet; outside the field lines go from north to south. The flux through an element of area perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field is given by the product of the magnetic field and the area element. More generally, magnetic flux is defined by a scalar product of the magnetic field and the area element vector. Quantitatively, the magnetic flux through a surface S is defined as the integral of the magnetic field over the area of the surface For a magnetic component the area S used to calculate the magnetic flux is usually chosen to be the cross-sectional area of the component. The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (in derived units: volt-seconds), and the unit of magnetic field is the Weber per square meter, or tesla.

3. Hopkinsons law: the magnetic analogy to Ohm's law

In electronic circuits, Ohm's law is an empirical relation between the EMF applied across an element and the current I it generates through that element. It is written as: Where R is the electrical resistance of that material. Hopkinson's law is a counterpart to Ohm's law used in magnetic circuits. The law is named after the British electrical engineer, John Hopkinson. It states that where is the magneto motive force (MMF) across a magnetic element, is the magnetic flux through the magnetic element, and is the magnetic reluctance of that element. (It shall be shown later that this relationship is due to the empirical relationship between the H-field and the magnetic field B, B=H, where is the permeability of the material.) Like Ohm's law, Hopkinson's law can be interpreted either as an empirical equation that works for some materials, or it may serve as a definition of reluctance.

4.Reluctance
Magnetic reluctance, or magnetic resistance, is analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit (although it does not dissipate magnetic energy). In likeness to the way an electric

field causes an electric current to follow the path of least resistance, a magnetic field causes magnetic flux to follow the path of least magnetic reluctance. It is a scalar, extensive quantity, akin to electrical resistance. The total reluctance is equal to the ratio of the (MMF) in a passive magnetic circuit and the magnetic flux in this circuit. In an AC field, the reluctance is the ratio of the amplitude values for a sinusoidal MMF and magnetic flux. (see phasors) The definition can be expressed as: where is the reluctance in ampere-turns per weber (a unit that is equivalent to turns per henry). Magnetic flux always forms a closed loop, as described by Maxwell's equations, but the path of the loop depends on the reluctance of the surrounding materials. It is concentrated around the path of least reluctance. Air and vacuum have high reluctance, while easily magnetized materials such as soft iron have low reluctance. The concentration of flux in low-reluctance materials forms strong temporary poles and causes mechanical forces that tend to move the materials towards regions of higher flux so it is always an attractive force(pull). The inverse of reluctance is called permeance. Its SI derived unit is the henry (the same as the unit of inductance, although the two concepts are distinct).

5.Microscopic origins of reluctance

The reluctance of a magnetically uniform magnetic circuit element can be calculated as: where l is the length of the element in metres = r0 is the permeability of the material (r is the relative permeability of the material (dimensionless), and 0 is the permeability of free space) A is the cross-sectional area of the circuit in square metres

8.Explain the analogy between magnetic circuits and electrical circuits

The following table summarizes the mathematical analogy between electrical circuit theory and magnetic circuit theory. This is mathematical analogy and not a physical one. Objects in the same row have the same mathematical role; the physics of the two theories are very different. For example, current is the flow of electrical charge, while magnetic flux is not the flow of any quantity. Analogy between 'magnetic circuits' and electrical circuits Magnetic equivalent Symbol Units Electric equivalent Symbol Magneto motive force (MMF) ampere-turn Definition of EMF H-field ampere/meter Electric field H E Magnetic flux Weber Electric Current I Hopkinson's Law Ohm's Law Reluctance Henry Electrical resistance R Microscopic Ohm's Law relation between B and H Magnetic field B tesla Current density B J permeability Henry/meter Electrical conductivity

Limitations of the analogy

When using the analogy between magnetic circuits and electric circuits, the limitations of this analogy must be kept in mind. Electric and magnetic circuits are only superficially similar because of the similarity between Hopkinson's law and Ohm's law. Magnetic circuits have significant differences, which must be taken into account in their construction:

Electric currents represent the flow of particles (electrons) and carry power, which is dissipated as heat in resistances. Magnetic fields don't represent the "flow" of anything, and no power is dissipated in reluctances. The current in typical electric circuits is confined to the circuit, with very little "leakage". In typical magnetic circuits not all of the magnetic field is confined to the magnetic circuit; there is significant "leakage flux" in the space outside the magnetic cores, which must be taken into account but is difficult to calculate. Most importantly, magnetic circuits are nonlinear; the reluctance in a magnetic circuit is not constant, as resistance is, but varies depending on the magnetic field. At high magnetic fluxes the ferromagnetic materials used for the cores of magnetic circuits saturate, limiting the magnetic flux, so above this level the reluctance increases rapidly. The reluctance also increases at low fluxes. In

addition, ferromagnetic materials suffer from hysteresis so the flux in them depends not just on the instantaneous MMF but also on the past history of MMF. After the source of the magnetic flux is turned off, permanent magnetism is left in ferromagnetic circuits, creating a flux with no MMF.

9.State the magnetic Circuit Laws.

Magnetic circuits obey other laws that are similar to electrical circuit laws. For example, the total reluctance of reluctances in series is: Rt=R1+R2 This also follows from Ampre's law and is analogous to Kirchhoff's voltage law for adding resistances in series. Also, the sum of magnetic fluxes into any node is always zero: This follows from Gauss's law and is analogous to Kirchhoff's current law for analyzing electrical circuits. Together, the three laws above form a complete system for analysing magnetic circuits, in a manner similar to electric circuits. Comparing the two types of circuits shows that:

The equivalent to resistance R is the reluctance Rm The equivalent to current I is the magnetic flux The equivalent to voltage V is the magnetomotive Force F

Magnetic circuits can be solved for the flux in each branch by application of the magnetic equivalent of Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) for pure source/resistance circuits. Specifically, whereas KVL states that the voltage excitation applied to a loop is equal to the sum of the voltage drops (resistance times current) around the loop, the magnetic analogue states that the magnetomotive force (achieved from ampere-turn excitation) is equal to the sum of MMF drops (product of flux and reluctance) across the rest of the loop. (If there are multiple loops, the current in each branch can be solved through a matrix equationmuch as a matrix solution for mesh circuit branch currents is obtained in loop analysisafter which the individual branch currents are obtained by adding and/or subtracting the constituent loop currents as indicated by the adopted sign convention and loop orientations.) Per Ampre's law, the excitation is the product of the current and the number of complete loops made and is measured in ampere-turns. Stated more generally: Stokes's theorem, the closed line integral of H dot dl around a contour is equal to the open surface integral of curl H dot dA across the surface bounded by the closed contour. Since, from Maxwell's equations, curl H = J, the closed line integral of H dot dl evaluates to the total current passing through the surface. This is equal to the excitation, NI, which also measures current passing through the surface, thereby verifying that the net current flow through a surface is zero ampere-turns in a closed system that conserves energy.

More complex magnetic systems, where the flux is not confined to a simple loop, must be analysed from first principles by using Maxwell's equations.

Applications

Air gaps can be created in the cores of certain transformers to reduce the effects of saturation. This increases the reluctance of the magnetic circuit, and enables it to store more energy before core saturation. This effect is also used in the flyback transformer. Variation of reluctance is the principle behind the reluctance motor (or the variable reluctance generator) and the Alexanderson alternator. Multimedia loudspeakers are typically shielded magnetically, in order to reduce magnetic interference caused to televisions and other CRTs. The speaker magnet is covered with a material such as soft iron to minimize the stray magnetic field.

Reluctance can also be applied to:

Reluctance motors Variable reluctance (magnetic) pickups

10.Explain the constructional details of transformers.

The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction was discovered independently by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry. However, Faraday was the first to publish the results of his experiments and thus receive credit for the discovery. The relationship between electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" and magnetic flux was formalized in an equation now referred to as "Faraday's law of induction": . where: Eis the magnitude of the EMF in volts B is the magnetic flux through the circuit Faraday's experiments included winding a pair of coils around an iron ring, thus creating the first toroidal closed-core transformer.

Induction coils
The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil, invented by Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College,. He was one of the first researchers to realize that the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding, the larger is

the increase in EMF. Induction coils evolved from scientists' and inventors' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries. Since batteries produce direct current (DC) rather than alternating current (AC), induction coils relied upon vibrating electrical contacts that regularly interrupted the current in the primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction. Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented a lighting system based on a set of induction coils where the primary windings were connected to a source of alternating current and the secondary windings could be connected to several "electric candles" (arc lamps) of his own design. The coils Yablochkov employed functioned essentially as transformers. Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient for transfer of power to loads. Until about 1880 the paradigm for AC power transmission from a high voltage supply to a low voltage load was a series circuit. Open-core transformers with a ratio near 1:1 were connected with their primaries in series to allow use of a high voltage for transmission while presenting a low voltage to the lamps. The inherent flaw in this method was that turning off a single lamp affected the voltage supplied to all others on the same circuit. Many adjustable transformer designs were introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of the series circuit, including those employing methods of adjusting the core or bypassing the magnetic flux around part of a coil. Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs first exhibited a device with an open iron core called a "secondary generator" then sold the idea to the Westinghouse company in the United States. They also exhibited the invention in Turin, Italy, where it was adopted for an electric lighting system.] However, the efficiency of their open-core bipolar apparatus remained low. Efficient, practical transformer designs did not appear until the 1880s, but within a decade the transformer would be instrumental in the "War of Currents", and in seeing AC distribution systems triumph over their DC counterparts, a position in which they have remained dominant ever since.

Closed-core lighting transformers

11.Explain the various Energy losses in transformer

An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In practical transformers energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. Larger transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for electricity distribution usually perform better than 98%. Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of 99.85%. While the increase in efficiency is small, when applied to large heavily loaded transformers the annual savings in energy losses are significant. A small transformer, such as a plug-in "wall wart" power adapter commonly used for low-power consumer electronics devices, may be as low as 20% efficient, with considerable energy loss even when not supplying any power to the device. Though individual losses may be only a few watts, it has been estimated that the cumulative loss from such transformers in the United States alone exceeded 32 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) in 2002. The losses vary with load current, and may be expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss. Winding resistance dominates load losses, whereas hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. The no-load loss can be significant, meaning that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on an electrical supply, which encourages development of low-loss transformers (also see energy efficient transformer). Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from: Winding resistance Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses.

Hysteresis losses Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux density to which it is subjected. Eddy currents Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core made from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness.

Magnetostriction Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with transformers,and in turn causes losses due to frictional heating in susceptible cores. Mechanical losses In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of power. Stray losses Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat. There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field, but these are usually small.

12.Principles of Electromechanical Energy Conversion

15.Explain doubly excited magnetic field systems

1.Construction Details of DC Generator

The DC Generator has five important components. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Yoke or Magnetic frame Magnetic poles Field coils Armature Commutator Brushes earings and End cover 1.Yoke or Magnetic Frame: It provide two functions It provide Mechanical support for the machine and act as a cover for the machine. It forms the portion of the Magnetic circuit. The Yoke is made of cast iron for smaller machines. For larger machines it is always made of fabricated steel either in one or more number of pieces. For smaller machines the poles and Yokes are forged into a single piece ,but for a larger machines poles are made separately and fitted with the inner periphery of the Yoke. 2. Magnetic poles: The field Magnet consists of pole cores and pole shoes. They spread out the flux in the air gap. They support the field coils. The pole cores and pole shoes are built with thin laminations of steel. These laminations are held together with Rivets. The cores are laminated to reduce eddy current loss. The magnetic poles are fitted to Yoke by means of screws.

3. Field coils:
The function of the field coils is to produce uniform magnetic field within which armature rotates. It consists of a number of salient poles bolted to inside of circular frame. The magnetic field strength depends upon current flowing through the coil. The field coils are mounted on the poles and carry DC exciting current. The North and South Pole depend upon direction of current flowing through the coil.

4. Armature winding:
The armature core is keyed to machine shaft and rotates between the field poles. It consists of slotted soft iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) These are stacked to form a cylindrical core. The laminations are insulated with each other by thin coating of varnish. The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy current loss. The Armature winding is wound in two ways. 1. 2. Lap winding Wave winding. Ventilating ducts are provided for reducing the heat of the armature winding.

5. Commutator:
The emf induced in the armature is AC in nature. Commutator converts AC to DC. The commutator is made up of a copper segments insulated from each other by mica sheets and mounted on the shaft.

6.Brushes:
The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating commutator and external load circuit. The brush are made of carbon and rest in commutator. The Brushes are put inside the Brush holders. The Brush holders are kept pressed against commutator by spring. Bearings and End cover: 1.End covers are made of cast iron or fabricated steel. 2.They are fitted to both sides of Yoke. 3.The ball Bearings (or) Roller Bearings are fitted inside the End cover.

2 .Explain the working principle of DC generators.

An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical into electrical energy . An electric generator is based on the principle that whenever conductor cuts the magnetic flux is cut by the conductor ,an emf is induced in it according to Faradays law of electro magnetic induction. The direction of induced emf is given by the Flemings Right hand rule.The essential components of a generator is Magnetic field andConductor or group of conductors Motion of conductor with respect to the magnetic field.

In DC generators, a stationary magnetic field is produced by field magnet. The Armature consisting of conductors is rotated inside the magnetic field by a prime mover.The prime mover may be a turbine (or) diesel engine(or)

Petrol engine. The nature of emf induced in the armature is AC current.The AC emf is convered into unidirectional emf by means of commutator.The commutator is Rotated along with the Armature.

Simple loop generator:

Consider a single turn loop ABCD rotating clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a constant speed. As the loop rotates ,the flux linking the coil sides AB and CD changes continuously. When the loop is in position no.1, the generated emf is zero. Because coil sides cutting no flux When loop is in position no.2 ,the coil sides are moving at an angle to the flux and so low emf is generated. When the loop is in position no.3 ,the coil sides are at right angle to the flux and cutting the flux are at maximum rate.so the maximum emf is generated. At position 4, the generated emf is less because the coil sides are cutting the flux at an angle. At position 5 ,No magnetic flux lines are cut ,so induced emf is zero. .At position no.6 ,the coil sides move under the pole of opposite polarity.and direction of emf is reversed. The emf generated in the loop is in Alternating nature .If the load connected across the loop ,the AC current will flow through the load.This AC current converts into DC current by commutator.

Action of Commutator:
It consists of a cylindrical metal ring cut into two segments C1 and C2. C1 and C2 are separated by a thin sheet of mica sheet. The ends of coil sides AB and CD are connected to the Two commutators C1 and C2.The two carbon brushes are placed on the commutator.The commutator at all times connects the coil side under Spole to +ve Brush and that under N pole to ve Brush.

1.In the first half cycle, AB coil sides placed under N -pole.and CD coil side placed under S-pole. 2.The Commutator C1 connect the coil side AB to point P of the load resistance and Commutator C2 connects the coil side CD to point Q of the load.The C1 is now contact with -ve Brush and C2 is in contact with +ve Brush.The direction of current flow is from Q to P. 3.In next half cycle (after 180 Rotation),the coil side AB is placed under S- pole and the coil CD is placed under N-pole. The current direction is also reversed.Now C1 is in contact with +ve Brush and C2 is in contact with -ve Brush. Thus DC appear across Brushes

3.Explain the types of DC generators.

Depending upon method of excitation DC generators are classified as : 1.seperatly excited DC generators 2.Self excited Dc generators. Separatly excited DC Generator: A dc generator whose field magnet is supplied from an independent external dc source(eg.Battery) is called Separatly excited DC Generator.The voltage output depends upon rotation speed of the Armature and Field current.when the speed and field current is maximum ,the generated emf is also maximum. Self excited DC Generator: In self excited generator the emf induced in the armature supplies the exciting field current. The classifications are, 1.DC Series Generator 2.DC Shunt Generator 3.DC Compound Generator.

DC Series Generator:
In this, the field winding is connected in series with the armature and the external load circuit.In series Generator ,the Armature current (Ia),field current(If),and Load current are same. Ia = Ise = I. Since the field winding carries the whole load current and it has a few turns of thick wire having low resistance.

Compound Generator:
In DC compound generator, there are two sets field windings on each pole. One is in series and other is in parallel with the armature. The classifications are, 1.Long shunt Compound generator 2.Short shunt compound generator

Long shunt compound generator:

In long shunt compound generator, the shunt field windings is in parallel with both series field and armature windings

Short shunt compound generator:

In short shunt compound generator in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with armature winding. DC compound generators are classified as, Cumulative compound DC Generator Differentially compound DC Generator

a.Cumulative compound DC Generator:

In these Generators ,the flux produced by the shunt field winding acts in same direction to the series field flux.Therefore total field flux acting in this type of generator is the sum of two fluxes.

b.Differentially compound DC generators:

In this type of generators,the flux produced by the shunt field winding and the flux produced by the series field winding acts in opposite direction.Therefore total field flux acting in this type of generators is the difference of these two fluxes.

4.State the applications of DC generators. Applications of DC Generators: 1. DC shunt Generator

The terminal voltage of DC shunt generator is more or less constant from no load to full load .Therefore these generators are used where constant voltage is required. For electro plating Battery charging For excitation of Alternators.

2. Series Generators:
The terminal voltage of series generator increases with load current from no load to full load .Therefore these generators are, Used as Boosters Used for supply to arc Lamps

3. Compound Generator:
Differential Compound generators are used to supply dc welding machines. Level compound generators are used to supply power for offices ,hostels and Lodges etc. Over compound generators are used to compensate the voltage drop in Feeders.

4. Separately Exited Generator:

As a supply source to DC Motors ,whose speed is to be controlled for certain applications. Where a wide range of voltage is required for the testing purposes.

5. Derive the EMF equation of DC generator.

E.M.F Equation of a DC Generator: We shall now derive an expression for emf generated in a d.c generator. Let = flux or pole in weber Z = Total number of Armature conductors P = number of poles A = number of parallel paths. N = speed of Armature in R.P.M Eg = e.m.f of Generator Flux cut by one conductor in one Revolution of the Armature d = P webers. Time taken to complete one Revolution dt = 60/N second emf generated /conductor = d = P = P N volts. dt = 60/N e.m.f of generator Eg = emf per parallel path = PN/ z 60 A Eg = P z N/ 60 A

A = 2 for wave winding A = P for lap winding .

6. Explain the principle and operation of Dc Motor.

A machine that converts dc power to mechanical power is known as d.c. motor.

Working Principle of D.C. Motor:

Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences

the mechanical force. The direction of force given by Flemings right hand rule The magnitude of force is given by.

F = BIl Newtons.

Where, F = force produced in conductor in Newtons. B = Magnetic flux density in Web / m2. L = Length of conductor in the magnetic field. I = The current flowing through the conductor in ampere.

Back e.m.f (or) counter e.m.f:

When a D.C supply is given to dc motor its armature starts rotating. The armature rotates and cuts the static magnetic flux produced by the field magnets. Therefore emf is induced in the armature conductors (Faradays law of electromagnetic induction ).As per Lens law this induced emf opposes the supply voltage. Hence the emf induced in the armature is called Back emf (or)counter emf(Eb). Back emf induced in the armature of the dc motor Eg = 60 A Where = flux or pole in Weber Z = Total number of Armature conductors P = number of poles A = number of parallel paths V = supply voltage to motors Ia = armature current Ra = armature resistance in ohms IaRa = voltage drop in the armature circuit. Eb = v IaRa. PzN