Essential Dance Medicine

Musculoskeletal Medicine
Series Editors
Grant Cooper, M.D.
Princeton Spine and Joint Center, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
Joseph E. Herrera, D.O.
Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
For further volumes:

http://www.springer.com/series/7656
Ana Bracilovic, M.D.
Essential Dance Medicine
Foreword by Donald J. Rose, M.D.
Ana Bracilovic, M.D.

Princeton Spine and Joint Center
601 Ewing St., Suite A-1
Princeton, NJ 08540
USA
[email protected]
ISBN 978-1-934115-67-1
e-ISBN 978-1-59745-546-6
DOI 10.1007/978-1-59745-546-6
Library of Congress Control Number: 2009921122
# Humana Press, a part of Springer ScienceBusiness Media, LLC 2009
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For Lavko and Mila
Foreword
Dancers are unique, combining artistry and tremendous athletic skills. As a

result, many of the musculoskeletal injuries sustained by dancers are
unique. Recognition and subsequent management of these injuries therefore requires a special set of clinical skills, often different from those used to
treat other athletic populations.
There have been great improvements in the recent past in the diagnosis
and management of musculoskeletal injuries of dancers, which have taken
advantage of recent advances in radiology (e.g., magnetic resonance imaging), surgery (e.g., arthroscopic techniques), and rehabilitation.
Doctor Bracilovic provides an up-to-date insight for all levels of healthcare practitioners into the recognition, background, and management of
many of the common musculoskeletal injuries sustained by dancers. This is
achieved in an easily digestible form, as a typical case presentation, diagnosis, scientific background and management of the injury, grouped by
anatomic site. She approaches the text through her unique perspective as
a dancer, an engineer, a researcher, and a physician specializing in physical
medicine and rehabilitation.
It should also be mentioned that this text is not intended to be an allinclusive compendium of the musculoskeletal evaluation and management
of the injured dancer. Such knowledge can only be achieved by healthcare
practitioners combining all available valid knowledge with their own experience in the management of dancers, recognizing their often unique psychological needs, and sharing their expertise and experience with others
interested in benefiting this often underserved patient population. It is
hoped that this text provides a valuable reference and stimulus toward this
end.
Director, Harkness Center for Dance Injuries
NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases
Clinical Associate Professor
New York University School of Medicine
Donald J. Rose, M.D.
vii
Preface
When I was 8 years old, I accompanied my father to karate classes. I liked

the sensei and enjoyed memorizing the katas. Within a few months, I earned
my yellow belt. Advancing in karate meant learning the martial part of
martial arts and more advanced fighting maneuvers. When my mother came
to class one day and watched me kick, punch, and get hurled to the ground,
she feared I would get hurt. Once a serious student of ballet with great love
for the art, she offered to enroll me in ballet classes. Ballet was a magical
world of graceful, safe, and elegant movements accompanied by classical
music that I had been playing on the piano since I was 5. I became smitten
with dancing and began performing in recitals and competitions.
In high school, my goal was to become a brain surgeon, while my passion
was dance. As an undergraduate, I remember spending hours in the
bioengineering laboratory dissecting frogs spinal cords and racing across
campus to reach the studio in time for rehearsals. As artistic director of
a university dance company, I loved performing, feeling the excitement
of my fellow company members on stage and together experiencing the
rush of sheer adrenalin and physical expression. Dance pieces were to me
three-dimensional works of art, displaying beauty, athleticism, emotion,
narration, and imagination.
In medical school, I was able to combine my fascination with the human
body and its ability to display wide ranges of expression in choreography.
Dance and medicine share a common base in human anatomy, kinesiology,
and biomechanics. Dance demonstrates the bodys incredible capacity for
simultaneous strength and grace, agility and balance, stillness and fluidity.
Medicine demonstrates its contrasts of health and pathology, ability and
disability, autonomy and submission to disease.Dance displays the ultimate
beauty of the body, medicine its nadir, and the potential to heal and return
to optimal function.
In contrast to the apparent etherealness and ease of movement that ballet
dance evokes, the physical demands of common ballet positions and the
underlying principles of desired exaggerated lower extremity external rotation are entirely unnatural. Added to the requirements of dancing literally
ix
Preface
on the toes in pointe shoes, these positions and attributes are very difficult to
attain. The effortlessness of ballet is an impressive illusion.
My intent in writing this book is to help medical professionals learn the
presentations, differential diagnoses and available treatment options for
common dance injuries. Too often, the career of a dancer is short lived
and curtailed by poor injury prevention, improper dance technique, or
nonspecific treatment. Even more frequently, if and when the dancer arrives
at a doctors office, the injury is in an advanced stage. It can often cost a
professional dancer their career, and an amateur dancer their role in a
performance. These tendencies have fostered a culture of inadequate education of all parties involved, from dancer, to teacher, to company director
to medical professional. As members of a dance family, we have the responsibility and desire to make the careers of amateur and professional dancers
healthy, long, and enjoyable. I hope this book helps accomplish that goal.
Ana Bracilovic, MD
New York, 2008
Acknowledgments
To my husband Grantmy soul mate, inspiration, and MSA. My parents

Ljubica and Dragomirmy earth, air, water, and sunshine.
My brother
Viktormy role model of integrity and love.
My parents-in-law Barbara
and Joelmy support and good humor.
Donald J. Rose MDfor his
mentoring and enormous help with editing.
Boni Rietveld MD, Elly
Trepman MD, William Hamilton MD, Laurie Abramson, Lisa de Ravel,
Risa Kaplowitz, and Mary Pat Robertson, PhD.
The publishers of
Humana Press Springer for making this book possible.
The beautiful
members of Princeton Ballet School, Princeton Dance, and Theater Studio,
my family, and colleagues who volunteered their time and creativity with
this project: Jillian Brinberg, Christopher Costantini, Rachel Anne Costin,
Jillian Davis, Lauren Elson MD, Allison, Emma, Robin and John Fleming,
Francesca Forcella, Gretchen LaMotte, Aditi Menon MD, Drew Nelson,
and Abigail Wohl.
Thank you.
xi
Contents
Foot Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ankle Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
Knee and Shin Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
Hip Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
Spine Injuries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Shoulder Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Elbow, Wrist, and Hand Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Dance Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
xiii
Introduction
From the 14th to 16th centuries, the Italian Renaissance fostered the art of
Michelangelo, the political theories of Machiavelli, the architecture of
Brunelleschi, and the art of ballet. Beginning in the 15th-century Italian
court of the Medici family, classical ballet was brought by Catherine de
Medici to France, where it further flourished during the 17th-century reign
of Louis XIV.
Worldwide, ethnic and folk dance styles evolved with emphasis on dances
of historical relevance. As choreographers introduced individual nuances
and interpretations of traditional forms, classically trained dancers began
exploring less restrictive technique, more expressive styles of free dance and
theories of movement, from which early modern dance began. Neoclassical
and contemporary ballet arose in the 20th century with faster tempos, more
intricate jumps, oblique positions, flexed extremities, and more expansive
use of stage space.
The classical ballet patterns described in this book characterize the seven
commonly used training styles, including the Russian Vaganova method
after Agrippina Vaganova, the Italian Cecchetti method after Enrico Cecchetti, the English Royal method after the Royal Academy of Dance, and
the American Balanchine method after George Balanchine. The basic
vocabulary of ballet positions and movements is similar across different
training forms and is defined in this text to familiarize the reader. Specific
figures depicting the most frequently used positions in classical ballet,
modern and certain types of ethnic dance are illustrated.
As different types of dance have evolved, so have the injuries they keep.
This text explains the underlying principles associated with correct ballet
and modern dance movements in order to better understand the pathophysiology and mechanism of action for the injuries described. It also elucidates
common errors and compensations dancers make in an effort to achieve
correct positioning and technique.
As a field, dance medicine has continued to evolve over the past 20 years
with increasing participation of former dancers, dance students, teachers,
choreographers, and dance enthusiasts in the study of medicine, osteopathy,
physical and occupational therapy, chiropractic, athletic training,
xv
xvi
Introduction
acupuncture, and nutrition. Many factors contribute to the development of

dance injuries, in addition to the physical demands of the art. Poor nutrition,
eating disorders, stress and anxiety, inadequate dance floor surfaces, and
footwear are all important factors contributing to the health of a dancer.
Furthermore, injuries are often underreported as many dancers tend to
work through their pain.
This text describes different types of dance injuries according to body
region, including an initial case report that depicts a typical patient, followed by the epidemiology and pathophysiology associated with each
injury. The history, physical examination findings, imaging, and diagnostic
evaluation follow. Treatment describes options available for degrees of
injury, according to chronicity and stages of severity. Non-operative and
operative management is discussed. Relevant studies are cited as often as
possible to provide evidence behind the algorithms of treatment and to
highlight applicable research. Classic texts are also referenced to provide
more in-depth information. May the dance begin.
1
Foot Injuries
Case Report A 14-year-old modern jazz dancer who frequently dances

barefoot comes to your office complaining of pain along the plantar aspect
of her first metatarsal on both of her feet, right greater than left as well as
deviation of her big toes toward her other toes making her feet look
crooked. She also complains of flat feet and calluses along the medial
aspects of both first metatarsals.
Diagnosis
Hallux valgus
Epidemiology Most common osteoarthritic joint of the foot. Most common pathologic condition of the great toe.
Pathophysiology With increased valgus stress as seen in certain repetitive
modern dance and ballet sequences, the head of the first metatarsal gradually moves medially, off of the sesamoid bones. The sesamoid bones remain
attached to the proximal phalanx, and move in conjunction with it. As the
valgus position worsens, the hallux pronates and rotates, typically forming a
callus at the plantar aspect of the interphalangeal joint. Hallux valgus
describes the deviation laterally from midline of the hallux by more than
15 degrees. Bunions represent a bony and soft-tissue first MTP joint
deformity.
Dancers typically present with hallux valgus and bunions at a younger
age than the general population, often as a result of repetitive pronation in
the turned out or externally rotated positions required in ballet dance.
The bunion and hallux valgus result from incorrect posture and biomechanics while attempting to achieve the often unnatural turned out position.
The dancer will attempt to reach an externally rotated position of both hips
with both feet directed laterally away from midline as much as possible. The
total degree of turnout involves a combination of femoral neck anteversion,
femoral torsion, knee alignment, tibial torsion, and foot alignment.
From: Musculoskeletal Medicine: Essential Dance Medicine
By A. Bracilovic, DOI 10.1007/978-1-59745-546-6_1,
Humana Press, a part of Springer ScienceBusiness Media, LLC 2009
1
The five basic positions of ballet demonstrate this degree of alignment

(Figures 1-1). Ideal turnout in ballet would involve 180 degree external rotation through the hip joints with alignment of the patellae over the second toes
while maintaining elevation of the medial longitudinal arch. A straight plumb
line would pass through the hip joint, bisect the patella, and fall over the
second toe without hyperlordosis of the lumbar spine or pronation of the feet.
Very few people possess this degree of ideal or perfect turnout. Humans
are typically not built this way. Normally, the degree of femoral anteversion
determining the amount of external rotation at the hip is 10 degrees. Femoral
anteversion is measured by the angle formed by the plane of the femoral neck
at the hip in relation to the plane of the femoral condyles at the knee.
FIGURE 1-1. (A) Ideal turnout alignment.
FIGURE 1-1. (B) First position.
FIGURE 1-1. (C) Second position.
1. Foot Injuries
FIGURE 1-1. (D) Third position.
FIGURE 1-1. (E) Fourth position.
FIGURE 1-1. (F) Fifth position.
Dancers who do not have a significant degree of external rotation at

the hips tend to compensate by trying to force external rotation at the
knees, ankles, and feet with abnormal wrenching of the joints. Forcing
external rotation at the hips increases femoral torsion. Forcing external
rotation at the knees increases tibial torsion as the tibia rotates externally relative to the femur. Forcing external rotation at the hips and
knees increases pronation of the foot at the subtalar joint in order to
maintain neutral foot position. Bunions gradually form as a result of
repetitive torquing of the feet in a turned out position with accompanying increased pronation.
History Dancers typically present with gradual onset of foot pain over the
ball of the foot and/or over the medial aspect of the first metatarsal head.
Often, the bunions develop well before pain becomes a significant factor.
When bunions do become painful, the pain is usually worse with weight
bearing, jumping and at the end of rehearsals and/or classes. The pain is
exacerbated with increased pressure over the tender area, which may
include even direct palpation when the pain is severe.
PE First, assess the range of motion of the MTP joint in the hallux valgus
position as well as the normal anatomic position of the joint with passive
correction. Also, note whether there is decreased range of motion when the
hallux is placed in the correct position and whether there is hypermobility of
the first metatarsal-cuneiform joint. Assess for degree of pronation of the
hallux and presence of ligamentous laxity, which may be seen in young
dancers. Pain may be elicited with the toe-off position during gait and
tenderness may be present over the medial aspect of the MTP joint.
It is essential that the dancer be examined for alignment in the basic
technical dance positions at the hip, knee, and ankle joints. Often, hallux valgus
and bunions are manifestations of faulty underlying technique and biomechanics that a young dancer is unaware of when trying to reach the aesthetic
appearance of the dance positions. It is also important to examine the dancers
technique in jumping, plie, and releve and to assess any limitations in mobility.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP, lateral, lateral oblique, and sesamoid
axial radiographs should be obtained in weight-bearing positions. The
bunion may be best visualized on a lateral oblique view because of its
location on the dorsomedial aspect of the metatarsal head.
Treatment Patients with symptomatic hallux valgus should be identified
early to potentially obtain the most benefit from conservative treatment.
Patients with no evidence of degenerative joint disease of the MTP joint
may find pain relief with a wide toe box. A stiff sole shoe, functional
orthotics, and a toe spacer between the first and second toes can help with
proper alignment and prevent progression of the injury. Lambs wool placed
around the tender area may alleviate the pain. The importance of changing
pointe shoes approximately every 68 months in young, growing dancers
and otherwise at least once a year should be emphasized. Additional modifications that may help reestablish normal alignment and biomechanics
include insertion of a metatarsal pad underneath the second metatarsal to
reduce excess load, adding to the height of the heel cup for increased
control, and making a wider medial arch for a pronated or flat foot.
Surgery is to be considered only as a last resort and if the individual is
unable to return to dance, as subsequent stiffness of the MTP joint may
occur, precluding dancers full range of motion. Never operate on a dancers
bunion. An injury (if inevitable) should curtail the dancers career and never
the surgery.
1. Foot Injuries
Case Report A 60-year-old retired prima ballerina presents to your office

complaining of burning pain in both of her great toes. The pain started
gradually over the past year, worse with walking in high heels, and standing
for long periods of time. She also complains of stiffness and decreased
motion of both of her great toes.
Diagnosis
Hallux rigidus
Epidemiology Most common osteoarthritic joint of the foot. Second most

common pathologic condition of the great toe. Incidence of 1 in 40 individuals over the age of 50 [1]. Female to male ratio is 2:1.
Pathophysiology Hallux rigidus typically arises in dancers who have
decreased mobility in the first MTP joint. To achieve a full demi pointe
position, the MTP joint reaches beyond 90 degrees of dorsiflexion. Dancers
who either naturally lack this mobility or cannot gradually achieve it typically
force the demi pointe position and subsequently jam the bones in the joint,
causing impingement. Repeated forced dorsiflexion of the MTP joint in the
demi pointe position as well as plantarflexion in the en pointe position can result
in the formation of bone spurs, leading to even further reduced motion in the
joint, accompanied by inflammation and worsening pain. Excessive pronation
at the hallux in an attempt to force turnout of the feet can also add to the
degenerative process.
History The patient often presents with gradual onset of pain and
decreased AROM around the hallux, worse with toe-off while walking,
wearing high heels and standing. The pain is relieved with rest, associated
with burning pain and/or paresthesias.
PE On observation of gait, the patient will typically walk on the lateral border
of the foot in a supinated position to avoid pressure on the painful area.
Tenderness is typically elicited over the dorsal aspect of the hallux. On examination of the foot, decreased AROM of the hallux at the first MTP joint is
observed, especially in dorsiflexion along with decreased PROM in dorsiflexion and often adequate ROM in plantarflexion. Normally, the hallux should
have approximately 45 degrees of plantarflexion and 70 degrees of dorsiflexion.
The patient will typically sickle the foot in response to their lack of mobility,
by inverting the foot at the ankle joint while rising in releve to the demi pointe
position. This relieves pressure off the first metatarsal and reduces the amount
of impingement in the first MTP joint, however, increases the risk of ankle
sprains and peroneal tendonitis in the long term and is neither technically nor
aesthetically acceptable as a dance position (Figures 1-2).
Instead of sickling, the patient should be taught how to correctly achieve
and maintain the demi pointe position. This is an anatomically safe and
technically correct position that requires diligent practice to obtain. To
avoid further injury and maintain correct alignment, it is imperative that
the patient be instructed on this proper technique.

FIGURE 1-2. (A) Sickling rising in releve
to demi-pointe.
FIGURE 1-2. (B) Sickling anterior view.
FIGURE 1-2. (C) Sickling corrected.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP, oblique, and lateral weight bearing

radiographs typically show non-uniform joint space narrowing, widening and/
or flattening of the first metatarsal head and the base of the proximal phalanx.
As the degenerative nature of the disease progresses, subchondral sclerosis or
cysts may be seen, as well as sesamoid hypertrophy and osteophytes.
Treatment In the acute phase, PRICE is recommended along with stretching of the foot in a pain-free range and non-weight bearing position
(Figure 1-3) [2]. Physical therapy exercises should focus on stretching the
hallux and sole of the foot within the patients pain-free range of motion.
Taping the hallux in a slightly plantarflexed position to avoid full demi
1. Foot Injuries
FIGURE 1-3. Stretching hallux.
pointe can help restrict the painful extremes of motion. A molded stiff insert
with a rigid bar or rocker bottom shoe may also be helpful.
Surgery is typically reserved for cases in which all attempts at nonoperative management have failed. Specific procedures depend on the
extent of deformity. Mild to moderate deformity typically is repaired with
an uncomplicated cheilectomy. This procedure involves excision of dorsal
and lateral osteophytes as well as the dorsal third of the metatarsal head. For
dancers, it is especially important to initiate passive and active range of
motion exercises soon after surgery to restore adequate mobility of the
joint.
According to a study by Mulier et al. in 1999, excision of the osteophyte
alone typically does not result in long-term pain relief [3]. Results from
surgery and the ability to return to dance are variable and therefore operative management should be restricted only to those dancers who are unable
to dance as a result of their injury.
Arthrodesis involves fusion of the first metatarsophalangeal joint and is
reserved for cases in which cheilectomy has failed or where degeneration of
the bone is severe. This procedure is restricted for dancers who have
completed their dance career.
Case Report A 19-year-old female ballet dancer presents to your office

complaining of significant foot pain after rehearsing a pointe combination
and abruptly rolling over onto the lateral border of her foot from demi
pointe(Figures 1-4 and 1-5). She states that her foot buckled and she experienced immediate pain, swelling, and difficulty ambulating.
Diagnosis Acute fracture of fifth metatarsal distal shaft, commonly known
as dancers fracture
Epidemiology
Most common acute fracture in ballet dancers.
Pathophysiology A dancers fracture usually occurs via an indirect

mechanism, involving twisting of the forefoot in a fixed position. This can
occur either as a result of rolling over and falling from the demi pointe
position (on the ball of the foot with the ankle fully plantar flexed)
(Figure 1-6) or from landing incorrectly onto an inverted and dorsiflexed
foot. This results in a spiral, oblique fracture that originates distally and
laterally and progresses proximally and medially. The fracture can often be
displaced and occasionally comminuted. Peroneal weakness and/or a history of ankle instability can also predispose a dancer to this type of injury.
FIGURE 1-4. Demi pointe position.
FIGURE 1-5. Demi

alignment.
pointe
proper
1. Foot Injuries
FIGURE 1-6. Acute fifth metatarsal fracture mechanism of injury.
History In dancers, this fracture most often occurs either during a performance or rehearsal and the patient will seek medical attention within 24
hours of injury. The patient will typically report pain and swelling over the
lateral forefoot as a result of losing balance from the demi pointe position or
landing incorrectly from a jump.
PE Pain and bony point tenderness are elicited over the lateralaspect of
the forefoot and along the fifth metatarsal, however, can be more generalized and often associated with swelling, ecchymosis, decreased active range
of motion and difficulty, weight bearing.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP, lateral, and oblique radiographs of
the foot should be obtained. Assessment of sagittal displacement of a
fracture is important for appropriate management. If there is suspicion of
a fracture and radiographs are negative, a bone scan can yield more information. It is more sensitive than plain radiographs, however, not specific.
CT scan is helpful to determine intra-articular extension if the fracture is
comminuted.
Treatment Dancers fractures are common injuries that can usually be
treated non-operatively. Initially, protection, relative rest, ice to the injured
area, compression to help prevent or reduce swelling, and elevation of the
foot above the level of the heart (PRICE) form the mainstay of treatment.
For dancers, rest and time off from rehearsals and/or performing are difficult doctors orders to hear; however, the importance of preventing further
injury to the already damaged area should be emphasized.
Initial rest and limitation of AROM to less than 10 degrees of angulation in
any plane are usually recommended [4]. If the fracture is minimally displaced
or non-displaced, a hard sole shoe or removable walker boot can initially
be worn, with progression to full weight bearing in a hard sole shoe over
34 weeks. If the area of the fracture site is associated with significant swelling
in the dancer, ankle range of motion is encouraged. Do not immobilize the
dancers ankle joint. If the fracture is mild-moderately displaced (35 mm), a
short leg walker with weight bearing for 68 weeks is recommended. If the
10
fracture is grossly displaced (> 5 mm) and/or significantly angulated, consider

possible surgical reduction and internal fixation. Surgical intervention is rare.
Closed reduction and percutaneous fixation may be necessary only when
adequate reduction cannot be obtained, followed by gradual return to full
weight bearing over 46 weeks.
OMalley et al. in 1996 found that dancers with displaced fractures took
longer to return to performance, with an average of 23 weeks, however did
not find a correlation between the amount of displacement and final outcome, including residual pain or return to performance. Further, they
reported a high rate of union and minimal long-term morbidity [5].
Rehabilitation following PRICE and any cast immobilization should
include a full course of physical therapy for complete recovery and return
to class and/or performance. Initially, the acute phase of physical therapy
should include a training program with non-weight bearing activity, i.e.
stationary biking or swimming. Following surgery, manipulation may be
an option to restore AROM after a prolonged period of immobilization.
The recovery phase of therapy focuses on PROM and AROM exercises,
followed by stretching, strengthening, balance exercises, and restoration of
proprioception.
1. Foot Injuries
11
Case Report A 21-year-old modern dancer collides with another dancer

while balancing barefoot on demi pointe. She falls to the ground and experiences immediate pain and swelling over the lateral aspect of her left foot.
Diagnosis
Acute fracture of fifth metatarsal base: avulsion fracture
Epidemiology
Most common fracture of base of fifth metatarsal.
Pathophysiology An acute fifth metatarsal base fracture is more specifically defined as a fracture occurring in the first of three previously
classified fracture zones of the proximal fifth metatarsal [6]. Acute avulsion fractures typically occur in the first zone, which includes the insertion of the peroneus brevis tendon, the metatarsocuboid articulation, and
the lateral plantar aponeurosis. Most often, the avulsion fracture is extraarticular and may extend intra-articularly. The avulsion fracture occurs
through the tuberosity of the proximal metatarsal, perpendicular to the
long axis and within the most proximal centimeter of the metatarsal.
Similar to acute fifth metatarsal shaft fractures, acute fifth metatarsal
base fractures occur most commonly via an indirect mechanism, involving acute inversion of the foot.
History The dancer will usually report an acute injury after forced inversion while on demi pointe, with the foot and ankle plantarflexed. It is often
associated with acute onset of pain at the base of the fifth metatarsal.
PE Pain and bony point tenderness are elicited over the lateral aspect of
the foot, worse with weight bearing. There is often focal tenderness to
palpation over the proximal fifth metatarsal. The distal fibula and lateral
ligamentous structures should also be examined to rule out any associated
fracture and/or sprain, respectively.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP, lateral, and oblique radiographs
should be obtained to assess fracture location, possible displacement,
intra-articular involvement and to distinguish acute avulsion and chronic
stress fractures from Jones fractures.
Treatment Treatment is primarily symptomatic, for both non-displaced intra-articular and displaced fractures. Non-operative treatment
following PRICE typically includes a hard sole shoe followed by a
walker boot or short-leg walking cast for comfort for 46 weeks, with
weight bearing as tolerated. A stirrup ankle brace may be helpful to
limit the pull of the peroneus brevis on the metatarsal. Fractures
typically heal by 68 weeks.
Operative treatment is rarely indicated for significantly large fractures
that extend into the metatarsocuboid joint, involve greater than 30% of the
articular surface or for symptomatic non-union. Typically, the small fragment is excised, followed by ORIF, closed reduction, and Kirschner wire
fixation or tension band wiring.
12
Avulsion fractures typically heal with symptomatic care and progressive weight bearing and have a good prognosis for return to class and
performance. Poor prognosis may be associated with posttraumatic
arthritis.
1. Foot Injuries
13
Case Report A 24-year-old professional dancer presents to your office

complaining of pain over the lateral side of her foot with difficulty bearing
weight for the past 2 days. She has been actively rehearsing an African dance
piece that involves many jumps, leaps, and pivot turns on bare feet. She first
felt the pain after an abrupt pivot turn while on demi pointe.
Diagnosis
Acute fracture of fifth metatarsal base: Jones fracture
Epidemiology Occurs more frequently in ballet dancers and gymnasts [7].

Higher rate of delayed union and non-union.
Pathophysiology True Jones fractures occur acutely at the metaphysealdiaphyseal junction proximal to the metatarsocuboidal joint, classified previously as a Zone 2 injury by Dameron [3]. They are located slightly more
distally than the aforementioned tuberosity avulsion fractures and are typically found 11.5 cm from the proximal metatarsal origin. This type of
fracture tends to occur when the ankle is in a plantarflexed position and a
large adduction force is applied to the forefoot, overloading the plantar
aspect of the fifth metatarsal head. This in turn causes a significant bending
stress with fracture of the bone occurring at the junction of the metaphysis
and proximal diaphysis.
History Many patients with true Jones fractures do not recall history of
symptoms prior to the injury. Most commonly, the mechanism of injury is
via adductionof the fifth metatarsal via a laterally directed force on the
forefoot, with the foot in a plantarflexed position and the metatarsophalangeal joint hyperextended. Dance movements involving abrupt pivoting and
change of direction on demi pointe mimic this mechanism of injury.
PE Pain and tenderness are elicited over the fifth metatarsal base or
proximal shaft. It is also important to examine the distal fibula, which may
infrequently reveal an associated fracture.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP, lateral, and oblique radiographs
should be obtained to assess fracture location, possible displacement,
intra-articular involvement and to distinguish acute avulsion and chronic
stress fractures from Jones fractures.
Treatment Non-displaced Jones fractures can be treated in a non-weight
bearing cast for 812 weeks in amateur or recreational performers; however,
elite and professional dancers may opt for early operative intervention to
avoid prolonged immobilization and the associated loss of strength and
flexibility. Non-operative treatment is usually reserved for less than 3
month old, minimally displaced fractures without evidence of non-union
on radiograph.
Displaced Jones fractures typically are treated with ORIF with intramedullary screw, followed by a non-weight bearing splint for one week, with
progression to weight bearing using a walker boot for 23 weeks [8, 9].
14
Studies have reported that radiographic union typically occurs between 6

and 10 weeks and that return to full activity prior to complete radiographic
union is predictive of failure. Since the diaphysealmetaphyseal junction is a
vascular watershed area, acute fractures are prone to delayed union or nonunion. Dancers are generally recommended safe return to activity at about
1012 weeks following the injury as risk of refracture is high. An adequate
period of immobilization, shoe modification, functional bracing, orthoses,
and additional imaging are recommended to reduce the incidence of refracture [10].
1. Foot Injuries
15
Case Report A 19-year-old ballet dancer with history of anorexia nervosa

comes to your office complaining of pain on the outside of her left foot for
the past 3 weeks. She does not remember exactly when the pain started, but
states that it has not improved and is now interfering with classes, rehearsals,
and occasionally wakes her up at night.
Diagnosis
Stress fracture of fifth metatarsal base
Epidemiology Higher frequency in modern dancers, gymnasts and with

high impact aerobic activities.
Pathophysiology Stress fractures of the fifth metatarsal base can occur as a
result of excessive, repetitive, submaximal loading onto a bone. Anatomic
causes include insufficient muscular, ligamentous, and/or tendinous support, improper biomechanical alignment and a suboptimal vascular supply.
The mechanism of injury for a fifth metatarsal base fracture in a dancer
typically occurs from repetitive adduction forces such as pivoting with the
ankle plantarflexed as in most types of turns on one leg in releve.
It has been reported that women have a greater disposition to stress
fractures than men, and in particular dancers who exhibit the female athlete
triad are at a higher risk for stress fractures and premature osteoporotic
fractures. The female athlete triad consists of disordered eating, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis. Nutritional risk factors include inadequate calcium
intake and hormonal factors include low circulating levels of estrogen in
females associated with increased bone mineral density loss. Both oligomenorrheic and amenorrheic dancers have been shown in studies to have
higher risk of bone loss, predisposing them to stress fractures [11].
History In contrast to acute fractures, stress fractures are usually not
associated with a traumatic history, rather by insidious onset of progressively worsening pain, localized to the bone and/or surrounding area
involved. The patient may or may not report dance activity immediately
prior to the pain, but as the pain progresses, it will occur more frequently
during and following dance activity, then may interfere with activities of
daily living and with sleeping at night. It typically improves with rest and is
worse with ambulation, which is when the dancer typically takes note of it.
PE Pain is elicited over the lateral aspect of the foot; however, may be
difficult to localize. There may be associated edema and ecchymosis. It is
also important to evaluate for ankle instability, limitation in subtalar joint
motion, and presence of hindfoot varus, all of which can increase stress on
the ankle and the fifth metatarsal [12].
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Anteroposterior, lateral, and oblique xrays of the foot should be obtained. Initially, radiographs of stress fractures
may be negative despite evident clinical symptoms, typically from 2 to 12
weeks following the injury. If there is suspicion of a fracture and x-rays are
negative, serial radiographs, a bone scan, or MRI can be obtained.
16
Approximately 50% of stress fractures do not become evident on radiographs. Stress fracture findings on radiograph can include [2]:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Longitudinal cortical hypertrophy or lateral margin callus

Radiolucent widened fracture line
Medullary canal narrowing
Periosteal reaction
A convenient classification system of proximal diaphyseal fifth metatarsal fractures by Torg et al. arranges them according to healing potential [13].
Acute (type I) injuries are characterized by injury and onset of pain that are
both acute. Radiographic findings include sharp fracture margins and minimal cortical hypertrophy and periosteal reaction. Delayed union (type II)
fractures are characterized by a history of prior injury and persistent pain.
Radiographic findings include mild fracture widening, new periosteal bone
formation, and presence of intramedullary canal sclerosis. Non-union (type
III) fractures are characterized by multiple prior injuries with recurrent
symptoms. On radiograph, significant periosteal bone formation and complete intramedullary canal obliteration are seen.
Treatment PRICE. For acute (type I) stress fractures, non-weight bearing
ambulation is typically recommended for 68 weeks with progression to
ambulation. For delayed union (type II) fractures in amateur dancers or
those who do not require urgent return to high level activity, non-operative
management with prolonged immobilization until union is achieved is typically adequate. Operative management is usually recommended for nonunion (type III) and acute displaced fractures that have failed non-operative
management as well as elite dancers with type II stress fractures who prefer
surgical treatment and/or need to return to rehearsing or performing. Surgical intervention usually involves ORIF, closed reduction with intramedullary screw or Kirschner wire fixation, bone graft or tension band wiring.
With closed treatment, the rate of non-union is 50%; therefore, the dancer
may benefit from early intervention with ORIF.
Return to class, rehearsal, and/or performance can be introduced gradually with progressive increase in intensity and duration of activity. In general, the intensity and duration should not increase more than 10% from
week to week. Rest intervals should be frequent, and pain-inducing activities should be avoided. If pain does recur, activity should be resumed at a
lower level of difficulty and only when pain free.
1. Foot Injuries
17
Case Report A 26-year-old professional ballet dancer is rehearsing a

variation en pointe and complains of persistent pain over the middle part
of her foot worsening over the past few weeks. She does not remember an
acute injury.
Diagnosis
Stress fracture of second metatarsal base
Epidemiology
Common stress fracture in female ballet dancers.
Pathophysiology This type of fracture occurs most often with the ankle
fully plantarflexed and the forefoot plantarflexed, as in the en pointe position in female ballet dancers. Normally, when the foot is flat on the ground,
the ankle serves as an articulation between the foot and the leg, allowing
each to perform as a separate lever. In the en pointe position, however, the
foot is fully plantarflexed at the ankle and forms a single long lever arm with
a large concentrated force at the second tarsometatarsal junction
(Figure 1-7).
Lisfrancs joint is the site of articulation of the second metatarsal and
three cuneiform bones. The base of this articulation is at the proximal
middle cuneiform, with the adjacent medial and lateral cuneiform articulations securing the proximal second metatarsal head into a relatively inflexible socket. This unique anatomic configuration has three important
characteristics:
1. It predisposes Lisfrancs joint to injury.
2. It significantly reduces the mobility of the second metatarsal joint in
comparison with the other metatarsal joints.
3. It provides the locking mechanism for the tarsometatarsal complex.
Patients with a Grecian or Mortons foot, characterized by a hypermobile, short hallux and longer second toe (Figure 1-8), as well as those
with increased passive external hip rotation greater than 60 degrees have
been reported to have a higher incidence of second metatarsal stress
fractures [14]. Poor nutrition and amenorrhea have also been cited as
risk factors.
FIGURE 1-7. Foot fully plantarflexed en

pointe.
18

FIGURE 1-8. Grecian (Mortons) foot.
History The patient is most often female, as the injury nearly exclusively
occurs in ballet dancers in the en pointe position, performed only by female
dancers. The dancer will typically complain of pain in the midfoot. It is
important to diagnose this type of fracture early, as a delayed or missed
diagnosis can allow the fracture to progress, resulting in non-union and
subsequent operative intervention that could have been avoided.
PE Tenderness is elicited with palpation over the joint with associated
pain in passive abduction and pronation of the forefoot while holding the
hindfoot fixed. There may be associated localized edema.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Anteriorposterior, lateral, and oblique
radiographs of the foot should be obtained. Conventional radiographs
often will not reveal a stress fracture in the first 2 weeks following injury.
Triple phase bone scan has good sensitivity but poor specificity and can
demonstrate evidence of a stress fracture within 2472 hours from the
time of injury. MRI is more expensive but is quickly becoming the study
of choice with sensitivity comparable to a bone scan but much improved
specificity.
Treatment PRICE. If diagnosed promptly, the fracture can be expected to
heal with an initial period of immobilization in a post-operative, wooden
soled shoe or short removable walker boot. If the fracture is associated with
marked pain, swelling and/or minimal evidence of healing, this may be
followed by a short-leg (below knee) walking cast for 6 weeks.
An orthopedic surgeon should be consulted for any second metatarsal fracture that does not demonstrate evidence of radiographic healing
after 6 weeks of non-surgical treatment. The patient may gradually
return to dance with slow increase in duration and intensity of activity.
The rate of increase in dance activity should not exceed 10% per week.
Activity should be limited to pain free range of motion and frequent
rest periods included. Return to dance may be prolonged with this type
of injury. Surgery is indicated only upon evidence of stress fracture
non-union.
1. Foot Injuries
19
Case Report A 30-year-old male modern dancer presents to your office

complaining of pain in his left midfoot after being knocked over by a fellow
modern dancer while pivoting sharply on his left foot. He notes that releve
and weight bearing on his left leg are difficult.
Diagnosis
Midfoot (Lisfrancs) sprain
Epidemiology More commonly associated with Irish dancers, underdiagnosed midfoot injury [15].
Pathophysiology Whereas the bases of the second through fifth metatarsals are connected by strong plantar transverse metatarsal ligaments, Lisfrancs ligament runs obliquely from the medial cuneiform to the second
metatarsal base, providing stability to the first two toes. In dancers, proper
pointe technique involves plantarflexion at the transverse tarsal or Choparts joint (Figure 1-9). Mechanisms of injury include axial loading onto a
foot that is plantarflexed at the transverse tarsal joint on demi pointe
combined with either rotation or forced abduction of the forefoot. The
dorsal ligament complex of the tarsometatarsal joint is compromised [16].
Often, dancers will force plantarflexion at the first and second metatarsal
cuneiform joints, which can overstretch the surrounding ligaments, cause
hypermobility of the joint, and ultimately result in instability.
History The patient will typically present complaining of midfoot pain and
swelling associated with decreased ability to bear weight or releve on one
leg. The pain is usually associated with a forceful twisting of the affected foot
while on demi pointe with the ankle plantarflexed with either sharp pivoting
or being knocked over by a fellow dancer. Alternatively, a female ballet
dancer may report loss of balance while en pointe and turning, leading to an
excessively plantarflexed position of the transverse talar joint.
PE On exam, there is typically tenderness to palpation over the base of the
first and second metatarsals. Rising in releve on the affected leg in active
plantarflexion will be difficult. Provocative testing will reveal pain with
passive pronation with simultaneous abduction of the midfoot and forefoot.
FIGURE 1-9. Plantarflexion at transverse

tarsal (Choparts) joint.
20
The midfoot may be swollen and ecchymotic. It is important to identify joint

instability if present.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP, lateral, oblique, and bilateral weight
bearing films of the foot should be obtained to rule out fracture and
abnormal bony alignment. Radiographs will reveal the possible presence
of a diastasis between the first and second metatarsal bases or associated
avulsion fractures.
Treatment Once diastasis, joint instability or associated avulsion fractures
are ruled out, non-operative treatment can begin. PRICE is instituted in the
acute phase. Initially, the foot is placed in a short leg walking boot or
wooden shoe provided there is no evidence of either clinical or radiographic
instability. This is followed by progressive weight bearing as tolerated.
Depending on the patient and the degree of injury, stable sprains may
take a minimum of 68 weeks to heal. Return to rehearsals and full dance
activity may be prolonged, sometimes requiring 36 months of rehabilitation. If diastasis or joint instability is present, surgery may be indicated.
1. Foot Injuries
21
Case Report A 30-year-old modern dancer and marathon runner presents

to your office complaining of worsening pain over the dorsal aspect of her
left midfoot over the past 2 months. The pain occasionally radiates down the
inner arch of her foot. She previously had a radiograph that was normal.
Diagnosis
Tarsal navicular stress fracture
Epidemiology Uncommon and often underdiagnosed injury in dancers,

may account for approximately 29% of stress fractures in athletes [17]
Pathophysiology The navicular bone contributes to normal gait as part of
the medial longitudinal arch as well as the transverse tarsal (also known as
the midtarsal or Chopart) joint. A stress fracture in this area can have
multiple etiologies, most commonly arising from the repetitive load of
jumping on a hard surface with improper biomechanics.
History As this injury is uncommon and underdiagnosed in dancers, one
should suspect a tarsal navicular stress fracture in a patient with unexplained
midfoot pain. Often a history of frequent jumping can be elicited, although
the pain is usually not associated with a single traumatic event and may have
been present for weeks to months. The pain is typically worse with activity,
better with rest, and can be associated with mild swelling over the dorsal
midfoot. The patient can present with dorsomedial foot pain that is difficult
to localize. The pain may radiate along the dorsum of midfoot, medial
longitudinal arch, or first or second ray.
PE The patient may have tenderness to palpation over the proximal
dorsal aspect of the navicular bone or at the midmedial arch over the
navicular bone. Passive eversion and active inversion may reproduce the
pain as well as jumping with the foot inverted and the ankle plantarflexed.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation CT or MRI should be obtained to delineate treatment. Navicular stress fractures are typically not visible on plain
radiographs. A negative radiograph does not rule out a navicular stress
fracture. The lateral fragment of a navicular fracture may appear as a
separate tarsal bone on an AP radiograph and overlooked if one does not
carefully follow the continuity of the cortical bone. A technetium bone scan
is sensitive but not specific for a navicular stress fracture and will show
increased uptake at the navicular fracture site. CT is considered standard of
care for diagnosis and MRI can be helpful for grading the stress fracture
severity and guiding the course of treatment.
Treatment Presence of a cortical defect typically requires immobilization
in a non-weight bearing cast for 68 weeks to appropriately heal. Complete
or displaced fractures typically require surgical intervention with a combination of screw fixation and bone grafting. Weight bearing activity may
begin once there is no longer focal tenderness over the navicular bone.
Physical therapy should initially focus on strengthening and ROM of
22
exercises, as well as soft tissue mobilization. An orthotic with indwelling

longitudinal and transverse arch supports can be helpful and decrease
pressure on the affected area. Pain free range of motion should be emphasized with all activity.
1. Foot Injuries
23
Case Report A 27-year-old Broadway musical dancer presents to your

office complaining of pain underneath her right big toe for the past 8 weeks.
She recently returned from a traveling tour where she was performing in
character shoes in multiple venues. Many of the hardwood surfaces irritated
her feet. When taking a break from performing, she spent a significant
amount of time walking barefoot on the beach, which she states also exacerbated her pain.
Diagnosis
Sesamoiditis
Epidemiology Injury to sesamoids common following inadequate plie

upon landing from jumps.
Pathophysiology The sesamoid bones, of which there are usually two, are
unique in that they are not connected to any other bones in body. They lie
within the medial and lateral heads of the flexor hallucis brevis (FHB)
tendon, with contribution from the abductor and adductor hallucis tendons.
With weight bearing, and most often when in releve, the tibial sesamoid
receives proportionally more weight than the fibular sesamoid and thus is
injured more often. The tibial sesamoid bone is located medially and is
usually longer and larger than the more lateral fibular sesamoid. In the
push-off phase of the normal gait cycle, the sesamoids transmit forces up
to three times body weight [18]. Inflammation and swelling surrounding the
sesamoids and involving the FHB can occur as a result of trauma, stress
fracture, infection, avascular necrosis, or systemic disease.
In dancers, predisposing factors are commonly errors in technique, which
can range from hip to toe. These include sacroiliac joint dysfunction, incorrect landings from jumps, forced turnout from the feet causing overpronation and repetitive movement from flat to demi pointe or full pointe. Differences in foot and sesamoid anatomy may predispose a dancer to
sesamoiditis. For example, an excessively thick or pointed sesamoid may
result in callus formation around the area, whereas a cavus foot may result in
excess weight bearing underneath the first metatarsal.
History The patient will typically have pain with weight bearing and
dorsiflexion of the great toe. Often, the patient will compensate for the
pain on the plantar aspect of the first metatarsal by transferring weight to
the lateral plantar aspect of the foot. This is most easily accomplished by a
maneuver known as sickling, which is characterized by inversion of the foot
at the ankle joint while the dancer rises in releve to the demi pointe position
(Figure 1-10). Compensation in this position puts excessive stress on the
lateral ankle ligaments and lateral metatarsal bones, predisposing to
increased risk of ankle sprain and fifth metatarsal fractures. It is neither a
technically nor aesthetically acceptable dance position.
PE Initial evaluation of gait is important to observe in a patient with
sesamoiditis, although the acute painful area is in the foot. A tight hip
24

FIGURE 1-10. Right foot sickling en
pointe.
capsule, sacroiliac joint dysfunction, and/or increased pronation of the feet

all reflect abnormal underlying biomechanics that may be causing the
patient to overload the sesamoid bones. Clinical exam will likely reveal
tenderness to palpation and/or swelling over the medial sesamoid, more
frequently than the lateral. Active resisted MTP flexion will often be painful, as well as passive, forced dorsiflexion of the hallux with one hand while
palpating the plantar surface of the first MTP joint with the opposite thumb.
However, if pain is not elicited, ask the patient to releve, and assess for pain
in this weight-bearing position.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP, lateral, oblique, and sesamoid view
radiographs should be obtained to rule out sesamoid and/or stress fractures.
If the fracture is not visualized on radiograph but there is high suspicion of a
stress fracture, a nuclear bone scan or MRI can be helpful. An injection of
lidocaine into the bursa beneath the sesamoids is diagnostic.
Treatment The two main goals of treatment of sesamoiditis are to minimizeweight bearing on the sesamoids and metatarsal joint flexion during
ambulation. Initially, limit the patients dance activity on demi pointe and
educate the patient on realignment of appropriate biomechanics of the hip,
sacroiliac joint, knee, ankle, and foot. Emphasize avoiding forced turnout
and working within their natural range of motion. Rehabilitation of the
patient with sesamoiditis should begin with demi pointe exercises on both
feet, followed by demi pointe exercises on one foot, followed by jumps on
both feet, then jumps onto one foot. It is also important to emphasize
stretching of both the flexor hallucis longus (FHL) and the FHB tendons.
Although the pathology may be localized to the FHB tendon, rehabilitation
should include stretching of both tendons.
It is usually appropriate to begin treatment with shoe modifications and
extra-soft shoe inserts. A J-shaped pad or dancers pad should be placed
below the affected sesamoid to relieve pressure in that area. A full length
steel shank and anterior rocker bottom are also recommended, and can be
used for other conditions, including turf toe [19]. Taping of the toe in a
1. Foot Injuries
25
slightly plantarflexed position may also be helpful. The idea is to reduce

dorsiflexion of the hallux and subsequently minimize the stress of weight
bearing on the sesamoids. If the use of physical therapy, foot pads, inserts,
and taping does not work, consider oral non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
medications (NSAIDs) in the acute painful phase. Corticosteroid injections
are not recommended.
Surgery should typically be regarded as a last resort as this may result in
the dancer being unable to return to dance. Single sesamoidectomy in
particular should be avoided, as this procedure can result in excessive stress
placed on the remaining sesamoid bone [20]. Surgery is most often reserved
for tibial sesamoid non-union, bipartite sesamoid, or for symptoms that have
not resolved despite non-operative attempts greater than 6 months. The
smaller sesamoid fragment is removed, followed by reattachment of the
FHB tendon to the remaining sesamoid. Excising both sesamoids is typically
avoided as it can lead to a cock up deformity. Excising only the tibial
sesamoid can lead to hallux valgus and excising only the fibular sesamoid
can lead to hallux varus.
26
Case Report A 22-year-old male ballet dancer reports tenderness over the
dorsal aspect of his left big toe that initially began about a year ago after
accidentally forcing the toe abruptly into plantarflexion. The initial pain
went away, but he has recently been noticing decreased range of motion in
the joint when attempting multiple pirouettes and balancing on the left foot.
Diagnosis
turf toe
First metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint sprain, also known as
Epidemiology Increased risk with foot pronation, flexible toe box,

increased friction between dance shoe and dance surface [21].
Pathophysiology The first metatarsal bears approximately one-third the
bodys weight via its two sesamoid bones beneath the metatarsal head and is
thus essential for weight-bearing activities. Normally, the hallux supports
4060% of our body weight while walking [22] with increased load during
jumps in dance. It is also an interesting joint in that unlike a typical hinge
joint the first MTP joint moves through multiple planes, including rolling
and sliding, comparable to the range of motion of a shoulder or hip joint.
The plantar complex forming the capsule of the first MTP joint is comprised
of muscles, tendons, and ligaments as well as a strong fibrous structure
called the plantar plate that loosely attaches to its origin at the metatarsal
neck and more firmly attaches to the proximal phalanx. It combines with the
flexor hallucis brevis tendons and the sesamoid bones for structural support.
The relevance of this anatomy is important when considering the
mechanism of injury of first MTP joint sprains. When a dancer catches her
first toe in a soft ballet shoe and forcefully hyperextends the first MTP joint,
the plantar complex is stressed and can potentially tear at the weaker
metarsal neck attachment or distal to the sesamoids. Also known as turf
toe in athletes who play sports on grass or artificial turf surfaces, first
metatarsophalangeal joint sprains are seen in ballet dancers wearing soft
ballet shoes. While the soft flat shoe allows for easier and wider range of
motion than the hard pointe shoe, significantly higher stresses occur across
the forefoot in a soft shoe.
History While occurring far less frequently than ankle sprains, it is important to suspect first MTP joint sprain as improper treatment can lead to
persistent pain and loss of ROM. The patient will typically report having
been positioned on demi pointe with the forefoot fixed on the ground and
havingcaught the shoe on the floor on intended push-off, forcing the first
metatarsophalangeal joint into further dorsiflexion.
PE Localized tenderness to palpation over the plantar plate, dorsal capsule,
sesamoids, and/or collateral ligaments may be noted, along with associated
minimal to mild swelling and ecchymosis. The patient will typically have
decreased AROM in dorsiflexion and plantarflexion but should be able to
continue participating in dance activities. There may be associated instability
1. Foot Injuries
27
or hypermobility that may reflect tear of the plantar plate, capsule, or associated ligaments. Instability is assessed with the dorsoplantar drawer test of
the first MTP joint (Figures 1-11). Varus and valgus stress tests assess integrity
of the collateral ligaments. Grade I injuries typically present with localized
tenderness, minimal swelling, and no ecchymosis. Grade II injuries involve
more diffuse tenderness, mild-moderate swelling, and ecchymosis. Grade III
injuries are frequently associated with diffuse tenderness, swelling, and moderate to severe ecchymosis. The patient is unable to bear weight and has
painful range of motion. Keep in mind clinical findings that may need surgical
intervention, including decreased toe flexor strength, toe clawing or misalignment, and/or instability of the hallux or foot [23].
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP weight-bearing, lateral, and sesamoid
axial views should be obtained to rule out fractures, abnormal alignment, or
diastasis. Contralateral views are often recommended to compare sesamoid-to-joint distance differences from normative values. Stress radiographs can reveal ligamentous instability. MRI is usually not needed; however, will be able to better define bony, joint, or soft tissue injury.
Treatment Similar to lateral ankle sprains, first MTP joint sprains are typically divided into grades of injury according to severity. These have been
previously characterized for turf toe injuries most commonly seen in football
players, but can be applied to a similar mechanism of injury in ballet dancers.
FIGURE 1-11. (A) Dorsoplantar drawer

test first MTP joint.
FIGURE 1-11. (B) Dorsoplantar drawer

test first MTP joint sagittal view.
28
Protocols of therapy vary depending on the severity of injury. Acutely,

however, PRICE is recommended for all grades of injury. Grade I injuries
can then be treated with figure of 8 taping around the hallux to prevent
excessive plantarflexion. The patient can typically return to dance within
pain-free range of motion activity. In street shoes, the flexible insole should
be replaced with a stiff steel or graphite footplate beneath the forefoot to
avoid excess range of motion and subsequent loss of stability.
Grade II injuries require PRICE acutely, followed by immobilization in a
hard sole shoe or removable walker boot for the first week with gradual
return of first MTP range of motion. The patient can typically return to
dance over the next 24 weeks. Grade III injuries require immobilization in
a short leg cast with a toe spica in slight plantarflexion or removable walker
boot to allow for soft tissue healing, followed by gradual ROM exercises 35
days following injury as tolerated by pain. Typically, the patient will require
26 weeks off from dance activities.
If non-operative treatment fails or if the sprain is associated with unstable
ligamentous injuries, displaced intra-articular fractures or irreducible dislocations, surgery may be considered.
Criteria for return to dance should typically include pain free passive
range of motion of the hallux in a range comparable to the contralateral
(presumably normal) side. Remember to remind the patient that compensation with weight bearing on the lateral aspect of the foot is not an acceptable
option if the patient continues to have pain as this can lead to associated
injuries on the lateral aspect of foot. It is important to give this injury
adequate time to heal as continued irritation can lead to osteophyte formation on the dorsal aspect of the MTP joint. Continued spurring can lead to
decreased range of motion, persistent pain, and eventually hallux rigidus.
1. Foot Injuries
29
Case Report A 16-year-old dancer who is the tallest student in her ballet
class presents to you complaining of forefoot pain that is worse with releve
and improves with rest.
Diagnosis
Metatarsophalangeal synovitis
Epidemiology
Most often occurs between 12 and 20 years of age.
Pathophysiology The normal range of motion in the first metatarsophalangeal joint is approximately 5070 degrees of dorsiflexion and 3050
degrees of plantarflexion. In dancers, achieving a full releve from flat foot
through demi pointe to full pointe position requires approximately 90100
degrees of dorsiflexion. Given this often unnatural required range of motion
of the joint, many young dancers will attempt to attain increased mobility
with increased stress on the growing epiphysis. Repetitive excessive dorsiflexion and plantarflexion of the joint can occasionally lead to inflammation
of the epiphysis and surrounding synovium, associated with pain and swelling. Metatarsophalangeal synovitis can also occur as a result of an acute
trauma, where a microfracture occurs at the epiphyseal plate and interrupts
its blood supply.
History The patient will typically complain of pain in the forefoot at the
level of the first metatarsal head, increased with standing, walking, and
progressing through releve to demi pointe. The pain usually subsides with
rest. The patient will often avoid pressure on the anterior arch of the foot
and place more pressure on the lateral aspect of the foot.
PE On exam, the foot itself usually has no apparent superficial pathology. There may be tenderness to palpation over the dorsal or plantar
surface of the first metatarsal head. Range of motion of the first phalanx
should be normal, unless the patient presents after several weeks of
symptoms. In this stage, there may be slight erythema and associated
swelling of the forefoot. Range of motion of the first phalanx may be
restricted and painful.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP and oblique radiographs should be
obtained. When revealing, the radiograph can show changes in the metatarsal bone at the epiphysis including irregular contours and an indented,
flattened articular surface.
Treatment This condition tends to recur in adolescents, but typically
resolves when the epiphyses fuse at maturity, at approximately 1820
years of age. Initially, PRICE is the mainstay of treatment. Dance
activity should be limited for 46 weeks until the patients symptoms
improve and gradually return to dance within pain-free range of motion.
Consider NSAIDs in the acute stage to help relieve pain. Premature
closure of the physis may occur if the injury is not appropriately
managed.
30
Case Report A 25-year-old female corps de ballet dancer presents to your

office complaining of pain over the lateral aspect of her right foot that has
gradually been worsening over the past year. She does not recall any trauma
or specific injury to her foot. She has tried oral anti-inflammatories and
physical therapy without significant relief of her symptoms.
Diagnosis
Cuboid subluxation
Epidemiology
Can occur acutely with ankle sprains [24].
Pathophysiology Cuboid subluxation can occur acutely or develop as a

chronic condition. Its existence as a condition has been disputed and is not
universally accepted. It poses a controversial issue because the subluxation
cannot be confirmed with imaging and no clinical symptoms exactly
describe it. In male dancers, it can result from incorrect jump landing.
Cuboid subluxation may also occur with lateral ankle sprains or as a result
of repetitive transition from the flat foot position with the ankle dorsiflexed
to full plantarflexion in the en pointe position. This process is seen in female
ballet dancers. Repetitively rising from flat foot to demi pointe through to
full pointe involves changing the direction of the applied force on the midfoot, leading to increased stress and decreased stability in this area. Typically, the medial aspect of the cuboid will sublux inferiorly with resultant
superior displacement of the fourth metatarsal base and inferior displacement of the fourth metatarsal head.
History If a patient presents with peroneal tendonitis, include cuboid
pathology in the differential diagnosis as cuboid pathology can result in
peroneal tendon dysfunction. The patient will typically complain of lateral
midfoot pain that has persisted for some time and may be associated with
weakness in toe-off. There may also be associated radiating pain to the
fourth ray or plantar medial foot. He or she may report a prior ankle sprain
that was resistant to conservative treatment.
PE Tenderness is typically elicited with dorsally directed pressure over
the plantar surface of the cuboid. Decreased active range of motion in the
affected foot compared to the contralateral side can be seen. Range of
motion is also reduced in passive pronation and supination. A gap may be
felt at the base of the fourth metatarsal if the cuboid is significantly subluxed. The patient may have difficulty bearing weight, depending on the
severity of injury.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Radiographs may be obtained if this
injury is associated with trauma. Minimal subluxation of the cuboid may
be present even in asymptomatic patients. Imaging studies are usually
unremarkable.
Treatment Treatment is initially aimed at mobilization of the hindfoot and
midfoot with adduction of the forefoot. Various techniques of cuboid
1. Foot Injuries
31
manipulation have also been described previously, and most have been
adapted to the cuboid squeeze described by Marshall and Hamilton
[25]. This has been identified as a safer and more controlled maneuver
that eliminates the high force transmitted to the talocrural joint from
whipping the foot as seen in the cuboid thrust technique. In the cuboid
squeeze, the ankle joint is held in slight plantarflexion with the plantar
surface of the patients foot in the examiners hands. The midfoot is stabilized by placing both thumbs on the medial plantar surface of the cuboid and
the fingers along the dorsolateral aspect of the foot. A direct dorsal force is
applied to the medial aspect of the cuboid. The examiner may or may not
feel a shift of the cuboid beneath the fingers. If the reduction is successful,
the patient will typically have symptomatic relief.
Physical therapy should focus on strengthening the peroneal muscles and
training the dancer in the flat foot position as well as en pointe. Stretching of
the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles is also important, as well as emphasizing balance and proprioception retraining. Return to dance should be
gradually introduced with exercises beginning at the barre followed by
center work. Low dye arch taping and cuboid padding are also often used.
The padding is usually inch thick and placed directly underneath the
cuboid without extension to the fifth metatarsal.
32
Case Report A 40-year-old female Broadway dancer presents complaining of a dull cramping sensation over the plantar aspect of the space in
between the third and the fourth toes of her right foot. She frequently wears
high heels and tight-fitting shoes in her role in the production of Hairspray. She states she occasionally has some numbness and burning in the
same area.
Diagnosis
Interdigital (Mortons) neuroma
Epidemiology
old.
Most commonly affects females between 15 and 50 years
Pathophysiology The interdigital nerves travel inferior to the intermetatarsal ligament and may be compressed or stretched at the level of the
metatarsal heads. The term neuroma is actually a misnomer as this condition refers to entrapment of the plantar interdigital nerve as it passes under
the transverse metatarsal ligament. In dancers, repetitive toe dorsiflexion
and plantarflexion through releve, plie, pivoting, and jumping may lead to
demyelination and/or perineural fibrosis of the involved interdigital nerves.
Dancers with tight gastrocnemius and soleus muscles as well as those who
tend to pronate their feet may compensate with metatarsal dorsiflexion and
irritate the interdigital nerve.
History The patient will typically complain of sharp, burning pain over the
plantar aspect of the forefoot. There may be associated paresthesias in the
painful area as well as cramping. The patient may describe the sensation of
walking on a marble. The pain is worse in high-heeled street shoes with a
narrow toe box and typically relieved with rest and massage of the painful
area.
PE The patient may have localized tenderness over the plantar web space.
Motor strength should be normal and sensation may or may not be affected.
Squeeze test or Mortons test is performed by firmly squeezing the first and
fifth metatarsal heads together with one hand while applying direct pressure
to the dorsal and plantar second or third intermetatarsal web space with the
other hand. The test is positive when pain is reproduced. Mulders click is a
palpable click that can be felt by the observer during the squeeze test as the
metatarsal heads are compressed and the enlarged nerve is displaced inferiorly away from the metatarsal heads.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Radiographs are unrevealing. CT has
been used; however, it may not be as sensitive as MRI.
Treatment Initially, appropriately sized, soft-soled shoes with a low heel
and wide toe box are recommended for street and dance shoes. A course of
physical therapy is generally recommended to include stretching exercises,
deep tissue massage, ultrasound, phonophoresis and cryotherapy. Ice and/or
NSAIDs may be helpful to reduce inflammation. A plantar pad made of
1. Foot Injuries
33
gel or felt can be inserted into the shoe between the affected metatarsals in
the affected webspace to aid in spreading the metatarsal heads to relieve
compression and irritation of the nerve. If physical therapy and/or padding
do not help, consider a corticosteroidanesthetic injection into the dorsal
forefoot proximal to the web space. Care should be taken not to inject the
plantar fat pad as necrosis can occur.
If non-operative measures do not adequately relieve the patients symptoms, consider surgical excision of the common digital nerve. However, risk
of surgery includes subsequent development of painful dysesthesias of the
toes following excision of the interdigital nerve and possible metatarsal
instability depending on the surgical approach.
34
Case Report A 19-year-old principal female ballet dancer presents to your

office complaining of clicking in her big toe for the past month and the
sensation that her big toe gets stuck after which she needs to manually
manipulate it. She also complains of pain and swelling posterior to the
medial malleolus at the end of jump combinations. She has difficulty rehearsing pointe variations involving allegro jumps from flat foot to pointe,
particularly echappe (Figures 1-12).
Diagnosis
saltans)
Flexor hallucis longus (FHL) tendonitis and trigger toe (hallux
Epidemiology
Occurs most commonly in female classical ballet dancers.
Pathophysiology The FHL acts to plantarflex the hallux and helps plantarflex and stabilize the foot at the subtalar joint. It also helps to prevent
pronation of the foot in the releve position. Of the three tendons that run
behind the medial malleolus (tibialis posterior (TP), flexor digitorum longus
(FDL), FHL), the FHL is the only one that runs through a discrete fibroosseous tunnel. This unique location makes it more susceptible to obstruction along its course through the tunnel.
In dancers, especially in ballet, repetitive transition from the flat foot to
the fully plantarflexed en pointe position may result in irritation of the FHL
chappe beginning
FIGURE 1-12. (A) E
position.
chappe en pointe.
FIGURE 1-12. (B) E
1. Foot Injuries
35
tendon as it passes through the entrance of the FHL tendon sheath, leading
to increased likelihood of developing chronic stenosing tenosynovitis.
Because the muscle fibers of the FHL tendon are low-lying, they may
obstruct smooth movement of the tendon. The FHL tendon may begin to
move irregularly through the tunnel, become swollen and nodular and lock
distal to the tendon canal near the hallux. This results in the getting stuck
or locking feeling that the dancer describes. In addition to irritation of the
tendon, inflammatory changes and swelling may result in pain, typically
noticed as the dancer descends from a demi pointe to flat foot position.
This starts a progressively worsening cycle as the inflamed tendon begins to
swell, which causes greater obstruction within the tunnel, which causes more
swelling, and more obstruction. Inflammatory changes may ultimately lead
to tendon fraying and partial rupture.
History The patient will typically present complaining of audible clicking in the hallux that may or may not be initially painful. This may be
accompanied by the toe getting stuck or locking prior to full dorsiflexion of the FHL. The patient may have to manually release or unlock the
toe back into normal position. Grand plie in fifth position and repetition of
plie to releve usually exacerbates the pain.
PE On exam, the patient will typically have tenderness over the posteromedial aspect of the ankle (as opposed to posterolateral ankle pain, which
is more typical of posterior impingement). The patient may have tenderness
over three areas that are normally locations of impingement of the FHL
tendonalong the course of the tendon through the tunnel posterior to the
medial malleolus (most common), either under the first metatarsal base
where the FHL and FDL tendons cross (knot of Henry) or under the first
metatarsal head where the FHL tendon passes between the medial and the
lateral sesamoid bones.
When examining the ankle, the knee should be flexed to 90 degrees to
relax the gasctrocnemius. Tomassens sign is reflective of FHL tendonitis
causing a functional hallux rigidus. This is demonstrated by decreased
passive dorsiflexion of the first MTP joint with the ankle in neutral dorsiflexion, compared to normal passive dorsiflexion of the first MTP joint with
the ankle in plantarflexion (Figures 1-13) [26]. This PROM of hallux dorsiflexion is lost when the ankle is dorsiflexed as the low-lying muscle fibers of
the FHL enter the fibro-osseous tunnel and create a temporary functional
hallux rigidus. This sign, however, may or may not correlate well with the
patients symptoms.
Pain or triggering with passive ranging of the hallux reflects trigger toe.
Resisted hallux plantarflexion may be painful and there may be associated
crepitus, triggering, or locking. The nodular thickening can typically be felt as
the tendon clicks, snaps, or gets stuck while attempting to pass through the
fibro-osseus tunnel.
36

FIGURE 1-13. (A) Tomassens sign.
FIGURE
1-13. (B)
Hallux
ROM
improved with ankle plantarflexion.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP and lateral radiographs should be

obtained to rule out an associated os trigonum, which occurs in 8% of the
population and reflects a lateral process of the talus that fails to unite. MRI
is useful to identify tendon pathology, including tendonitis, tenosynovitis,
and tendon tears. Increased fluid in the tendon is often associated with FHL
entrapment.
Treatment Initially, PRICE should help decrease the pain and inflammation around the tendon. Physical therapy should focus on soft tissue mobilization, gentle stretching exercises for the FHL prior to and following dance and
gastrocnemius strengthening exercises. Also essential is biomechanics education for appropriate rearfoot alignment. If the pain is severe, a course of
NSAIDs and immobilization in a removable walker boot may be necessary.
Steroid injections have been traditionally contraindicated secondary to proximity of the neurovascular bundle; however, recent advances using musculoskeletal ultrasound to visualize the area have allowed skilled sonographers to
inject corticosteroid into the FHL sheath as a therapeutic option.
If a course of conservative management with PRICE and physical therapy do not relieve the patients symptoms, surgery may be considered to
incise the stenosing entrance of the FHL sheath and repair or debride the
FHL tendon. Tenosynovectomy is often required. Arthroscopic release of
the FHL is currently not recommended [27].
1. Foot Injuries
37
Case Report A 30-year-old female modern dancer presents to your office

complaining of pain over the plantar aspect of her heel, especially when
walking barefoot and when she takes her first step getting out of bed in the
morning. She denies associated trauma or recent increase in dance activity.
Diagnosis
Plantar fasciitis
Epidemiology
Common injury of the hindfoot.
Pathophysiology The plantar fascia is located superficial to the intrinsic

foot muscles and deep to the plantar fat pad, providing the dense connective
tissue over the sole of the foot. It attaches to the anterior calcaneus proximally and to the plantar aspect of the phalanges distally and is involved in
distributing the forces to the plantar foot during heel strike and normal
ambulation. In dancers, repetitive jumping, inadequate shock absorption on
a poorly reinforced floor, and prolonged standing can lead to irritation of
the plantar aponeurosis with subsequent microtrauma and degenerative
changes in the fascia.
A concept known as the windlass effect was first described by Cailliet in
1980, describing the mechanism by which the plantar fascia provides static
support for the longitudinal arch of the foot during weight bearing and helps
provide shock absorption during foot strike [28]. During gait in the heel-off
phase, the plantar fascia is taut and under tension, providing a source of
potential energy. During the toe-off phase, the plantar fascia effectively
shortens with hallux dorsiflexion and provides propulsive motion as kinetic
energy. The repetitive high energy forces created during pronation and
supination during the gait cycle increase tension on the plantar fascia.
When a poorly aligned foot or one with weak supporting muscles is subject
to these high energy forces repeatedly, increased tissue stress occurs with
greater likelihood of injury [29].
History Dancers will often describe pain after a full day of rehearsals and/
or classes in which they have been jumping and/or spending a great deal of
time on their feet. Symptoms can be worse after dancing on a hardwood
floor that is not sprung, or any other hard surface not adequately reinforced
for shock absorption. They will typically report plantar heel pain when
walking or dancing following rest and/or in the morning when taking a
first step out of bed.
PE Physical examination of the foot should include palpation of the
medial heel and length of the plantar fascia, including the arch of the foot.
The patient may have an isolated point of maximal tenderness in this area or
may have more diffuse pain along the proximal attachment of the plantar
fascia to the anterior calcaneus. However, tenderness to palpation should be
specific to the plantar fascia. Tenderness at the plantar heel pad is more
indicative of heel pad inflammation and requires different treatment. Forceful dorsiflexion of the toes or standing in the demi pointe position often
38
exacerbates the pain, as these maneuvers tighten the plantar fascia. Conversely, returning the toes to neutral position or into plantarflexion, as in full
pointe, should decrease the pain.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Radiographs may be obtained to rule out
other etiologies when initial management has failed. MRI is also typically
reserved for confirmation of diagnosis in refractory cases.
Treatment Initially, PRICE should form the mainstay of therapy. If pain
persists, a course of NSAIDs may be helpful. Physical therapy should focus
on releasing tight tissue, heel cord stretching, strengthening and fascial
stretching. An overnight splint can provide gentle stretching to the plantar
aspect of the foot for a longer duration, but may not be well tolerated by
patients. A carbon footplate beneath the insole of a street or dance shoe or a
rocker bottom soled shoe can help minimize MTP joint dorsiflexion and
inadequate MTP joint dorsiflexion during push-off.
Corticosteroid injections into the plantar fascia should typically be
avoided. Injection into the plantar fat pad can result in atrophy of the area
and loss of significant normal shock absorption from the forces of regular
walking and dance activity. A rare but serious risk includes plantar fascia
rupture. Also, oral steroids are typically not recommended as local absorption of the steroid by the plantar fascia is low secondary to poor vascularization of the plantar fascia. Extracorporeal shock wave therapy has also
been used in patients with associated heel spurs although with mixed results
[30].
Surgical options should be considered only as a last resort. Operative
treatment would typically involve division of the central portion of the
plantar aponeurosis, partial fasciectomy, and/or neurolysis of the abductor
digiti quinti nerve. Surgery is only very rarely indicated, with risks including
development of a painful neuroma with severe residual pain that may be
worse than the preoperative pain.
1. Foot Injuries
39
Case Report A 25-year-old modern dancer presents to your office complaining of left foot pain that has persisted over the past 89 months. She has
history of two prior sprains on the same ankle, one mild and one severe. Her
current pain has persisted longer than her first sprains.
Diagnosis
Sinus tarsi syndrome or sinus tarsitis
Epidemiology
does not heal.
An uncommon diagnosis to suspect when a sprained ankle
Pathophysiology The sinus tarsi originates as a laterally located groove

bordered superiorly by the talus and inferiorly by the calcaneus and travels
medially to form the canalis tarsi. A number of ligaments traverse its
borders and may be involved in an ankle sprain. Biomechanically, when
the patient pronates the foot, the soft tissue within the sinus tarsi is compressed, increasing the pressure within it as well as the pressure in the
subtalar joint. When severe, hyperpronation can obliterate the sinus tarsi.
Over time, soft tissue within the sinus tarsi that may have been initially
inflamed following trauma, associated with a partially torn ligament or
chronically compressed in individuals with overpronated feet, may develop
scar tissue and associated chronic inflammation.
History When a dancer presents with history of trauma and an ankle
sprain that is not healing, suspect this diagnosis as the cause. The patient
will typically complain of deep lateral hindfoot pain, worse with passive
ankle inversion or eversion. The patient may feel that the ankle is loose or
unstable, with pain worse while standing and walking on uneven surfaces.
PE Careful examination of the foot will likely reveal tenderness over the
lateral hindfoot region overlying the tarsal sinus. There may be associated
ligamentous instability.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Standard AP and lateral radiographs of
the foot will rule out any underlying bony pathology including arthritis,
fracture, or dislocation. Injection of local anesthetic into the sinus tarsi with
subsequent relief of the patients pain is a commonly used diagnostic technique. MRI can also better visualize the presence of soft tissue inflammation
within the sinus or deep to it, within the canalis tarsi.
Treatment PRICE forms the initial mainstay of treatment. Bracing and
custom molded ankle orthotics that limit subtalar joint range of motion are
helpful. If the pain persists, a local corticosteroid injection can be used to
help reduce inflammation and pain. Procedures to ablate the nociceptive
nerve endings found in the canalis tarsi include chemical and thermal ablation. Chemical ablation has been utilized with serial injections of alcohol,
whereas thermal ablation freezes the involved nociceptive nerve endings.
Arthroscopic evaluation and debridement of the sinus tarsi is also an option
if the above treatment measures fail [31].
40
References
1. Gould N, Schneider W, Ashikaga T. Epidemiological survey of foot problems in the
continental US 197879. Foot Ankle 1980; 1(1): 810.
2. Shereff MJ, Baumhauer JF. Hallux rigidus and osteoarthrosis of the first metatarsophalangeal joint. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1998; 80(6): 898908.
3. Mulier T, Steenwerckx A, Thienpont E. Results after cheilectomy in athletes with
hallux rigidus. Foot Ankle Int 1999; 20(4): 232.
4. Fetzer GB, Wright RW. Metatarsal shaft fractures and fractures of the proximal fifth
metatarsal. Clin Sports Med 2006; 25: 13950.
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35168.
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10. Brown SR, Bennett CH. Management of proximal fifth metatarsal fractures in the
athlete. Curr Opin Ortho 2005; 16(2): 9599.
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13. Torg JS, Balduini FC, Zelko RR et al. Fractures of the base of the fifth metatarsal
distal to the tuberosity. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1984; 66(2): 20914.
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15. Harrington T, Crichton KJ, Anderson IF. Overuse ballet injury to the base of the
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topic85.htm
18. Drez D, Young JC, Waldman D et al. Nonoperative treatment of double lateral
ligament tears of the ankle. Am J Sports Med 1982; 10: 197200.
19. Rosenfield JS, Trepman E. Treatment of sesamoid disorders with a rocker sole shoe
modification. Foot Ankle Int 2000; 21(11): 91415.
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1988; 7(1): 5160.
21. Childs, SG. The pathogenesis and biomechanics of turf toe. Ortho Nurs 2006; 25(4):
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81326.
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1992; 20: 16975.
1. Foot Injuries
41
26. Tomassen E. Disease and injuries of ballet dancers 1982; Arhus, Denmark. Universitetsforlaget I Arhus.
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in dancers. Differential diagnosis and operative treatment. J Bone Joint Surg 1996;
78-A(10): 14911500.
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30. Pommering TL, Kluchurosky L, Hall SL. Ankle and foot injuries in pediatric and
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31. Kuwada GT. Long-term retrospective analysis of the treatment of sinus tarsi syndrome. J Foot Ankle Surg 1994; 33(1): 289.
2
Ankle Injuries
Case Report A 22-year-old corps de ballet dancer is rehearsing an adagio

movement and complains that she cannot fully plie on her right side. Range
of motion beyond the demi plie position is painful on the right.
Diagnosis
Anterior impingement syndrome
Epidemiology Commonly occurs in ballet dancers, more often following

severe or multiple ankle sprains.
Pathophysiology Ballet dancers commonly perform repetitive ankle dorsiflexion in the positions of demi and grand plie (Figures 2-1). Demi plie
is not only a component of the basic dance vocabulary but also forms the
beginning and ending positions of jumps or transitions from one movement
to another. Repetitive ankle dorsiflexion may lead to anterior impingement
between the tibia (anterior lip) and talus (neck), resulting in bony formation
(osteophytes) along the anterior aspect of the ankle. The bony reactive
formation can compress the soft tissue of the anterior ankle, impinge the
capsule, and subsequently cause pain. Irritation in this area is associated
with an inflammatory reaction and swelling of the anterior ankle joint.
Repetitive excessive ankle dorsiflexion causing pain can be associated
with an anterior bony spur as well as an atypically shaped talar dome.
History The patient usually recounts anterolateral ankle pain reproduced
by demi plie. He or she may complain that their ankle gets stuck, feels
awkward, or unsteady in the plie position.
PE Clicking or crepitus is common. The patient may have pain on palpation along the anterolateral joint line, although anteromedial joint line
tenderness may also be felt. There may be associated swelling and/or limited
active range of motion of the ankle. Pain will typically be elicited with active
dorsiflexion of the ankle and may be associated with pain with passive ankle
43
44
(A)
FIGURE 2-1. (A) Demi plie in second

position.
(B)
FIGURE 2-1. (B) Grand plie in second

position.
dorsiflexion. Osteophytic changes may be palpated while holding the ankle

in slight plantarflexion.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Although anterior impingement can
occur without bone spurs and/or osteophyte formation, imaging is recommended to rule out other causes of anterior ankle pain and reveal any
associated joint pathology. Standard weight bearing ankle radiographs can
demonstrate arthritis, fracture, osteochondritis dissecans lesion, mortise
disruption, and/or tibiotalar joint space narrowing. Lateral views can reveal
talar and tibial osteophytes associated with anterior impingement. On MRI,
T1 and proton density axial views can demonstrate soft tissue impingement,
including thickened synovium in the anterior lateral joint space or hypertrophy of the anterior talofibular ligament [1].
Treatment PRICE and treatment with NSAIDs can help alleviate acute
pain and reduce swelling around the ankle joint. Initially, deep plies should
be avoided. The dancer can also try using quarter to half-inch heel lifts to
decrease the amount of ankle dorsiflexion in class and normal walking
throughout the day. If non-operative intervention does not relieve the pain,
arthroscopic surgery may be considered to remove either the impinging soft
tissue and/or bony growth, including scar tissue and tibial and/or talar osteophytes [2].
2. Ankle Injuries
45
Case Report A 22-year-old principal ballet dancer presents to your office

complaining of pain and clicking when she points her foot and attempts
releve en pointe. The pain is over the posterolateral aspect of her ankle and is
worst while in full pointe.
Diagnosis
heel
Posterior impingement syndrome, also known as dancers
Epidemiology
Common in female ballet dancers dancing en pointe.
Pathophysiology An accessory bone called an os trigonum may be found

just posterior to the talus in 2.514% of normal feet. Usually, this accessory
bone causes little to no symptoms in non-dancers. In ballet dancers, however, who often utilize the fully plantarflexed position when on full pointe,
an os trigonum can cause significant pain and discomfort by compressing the
soft tissue in the posterior ankle. The os trigonum can vary in size and arises
from a separate ossification center posterior to the lateral tubercle or the
posterior talar process. It may fuse with the lateral tubercle or remain as a
separate small bone. Inflammation in and around the ossicle as well as the
FHL tendon can result. Also, if the ballet dancer has significant ligamentous
laxity and/or the pointed foot is too far forward in the pointe shoe, the talar
dome and surrounding soft tissue can be compressed between the tibia and
the calcaneus, causing posterior impingement. Overuse of positions placing
the transverse tarsal (Choparts) joint into plantarflexion in tap (double toe
stance) (Figures 2-2) can also predispose to posterior impingement.
History Often, the patient will report pain in the posterolateral aspect of
the ankle with episodes of repeated plantarflexion onto pointe and frequent
releve. The patient will typically complain of posterolateral ankle pain that is
worse with ankle plantarflexion. The pain may be associated with swelling
and/or tenderness in the posterior aspect of the ankle. The pain is worse with
forced passive plantarflexion of the ankle, known as the plantarflexion
sign, which has been characterized as the hallmark of posterior impingement [3].
PE The plantarflexion sign involves the examiner holding the heel of the
symptomatic foot in one hand and forcefully plantarflexing the forefoot
(Figure 2-3). The sign is considered positive when this motion is painful and
is indicative of posterior impingement. The sign is helpful to rule out other
conditions and should be negative with Achilles, FHL, and peroneal
tendonitis.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation On plain radiographs, an os trigonum
appears as dense cortical bone with smooth edges. It is important to rule
out a fracture of the lateral tubercle when a separate bone is seen. A lateral
radiograph with the foot in 15 degrees of internal rotation moves the fibula
anteriorly to better visualize an os trigonum, if present. This is a helpful
additional radiographic image. MRI is useful in identifying soft tissue and
46
(A)
(B)
(C)
FIGURE 2-2. (AC) Double toe stance

in tap.
FIGURE 2-3. Plantarflexion sign.
2. Ankle Injuries
47
bony pathology, including fracture of the os trigonum, FHL tenosynovitis,

talocalcaneal synovitis, or bone marrow edema. A trial intra-articular injection of lidocaine can help distinguish between ankle and subtalar pain.
Treatment Initially, PRICE should help reduce the pain and inflammation. Anti-inflammatory medications including NSAIDs may be helpful to
reduce the soft tissue swelling. Physical therapy should focus on stretching
the posterior soft tissue of the Achilles tendon and gastrocnemius and soleus
muscles. A trial intra-articular anesthetic injection into the posterior aspect
of the tibial talar joint may be helpful. If injection of intra-articular lidocaine
alleviates the pain, consider corticosteroid injection into the affected area.
If the pain does not respond to initial conservative management, surgery
may need to be considered to remove the os trigonum and impinging soft
tissues. Although both posterolateral and posteromedial approaches have
been recommended, the posteromedial approach is a safer approach to
avoid both the neurovascular bundle as well as damage to the adjacent
FHL, especially if release of an associated FHL tendonitis/tenosynovitis is
required. Although arthroscopic excision of the os trigonum has been
reported, it is not recommended at this time for the dancer.
48
Case Report A 16-year-old Riverdance performer comes to your office

complaining of pain in her lower calf and heel, especially in the morning and
after a day of dancing. She has stiffness in the morning and often has swelling
in the same area at the end of the day, worse after jump combinations.
Diagnosis
Achilles tendonitis and tendinosis
Epidemiology Higher frequency in jumpers and runners, following acute

changes in rehearsal and/or activity schedule.
Pathophysiology The Achilles tendon is the bodys longest tendon and
connects the calf muscles to the calcaneus. It allows plantarflexion of the
foot and helps the foot releve into demi pointe and full pointe positions. It
can sustain forces greater than 1000 pounds, and as a result of its frequent
use and overuse is often susceptible to inflammation in dancers, gymnasts,
runners, and cyclists. Intense training over a short period of time, lack of
natural flexibility of the calf muscles and returning to dance after an
extended absence all increase the risk of injury. Dancing, especially
jumping, on hardwood or non-sprung floors in shoes with insufficient
shock absorbance is also a risk factor. During allegro jumps, the gastrocnemius is eccentrically most active when it absorbs impact from the
ground on initial contact. This prevents forward motion of the leg on
landing from jumps.
The development of Achilles tendon pain can be attributed to processes
that have been distinguished as two entities: tendonitis and tendinosis.
Tendonitis describes a predominant process of inflammation, whereas tendinosis is associated with degenerative changes that can occur without
histologic signs of inflammation. Tendonitis involves peritendinous inflammation that does not typically progress to degenerative tendinosis. When
evaluated histologically, collagen and related fiber cells comprising the
Achilles tendon that reflect degeneration, disorganization, and scarring
are associated with tendinosis.
History The patient may present after overusing the calf muscles for a
prolonged period of time in rehearsals or during summer intensives. The
pain is typically located in the posterior heel and/or lower calf and is worse
during jumps.
PE There is often tenderness to palpation of the tendon from 1 to 5 cm
proximal to the calcaneus. It may be possible to palpate a nodule or fusiform
swelling in this area. As opposed to an Achilles tendon rupture, no defect
should be felt and Thompsons test will be negative (Figure 2-4). Active
resisted plantarflexion may be painful, as well as passive ankle dorsiflexion.
By gently palpating or squeezing the Achilles tendon while the patient
actively plantarflexes and dorsiflexes the ankle, crepitus can be felt.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Imaging is often not needed for the diagnosis of Achilles tendonitis, but may be helpful in narrowing the differential
2. Ankle Injuries
49
FIGURE 2-4. Negative Thompsons test.
diagnosis and should be ordered accordingly. Plain radiographs of the ankle

joint may show calcification of the distal Achilles in tendonitis. MRI is
useful in distinguishing tendonitis from tears within the tendon itself.
Treatment The goal of immediate treatment is to reduce pain and inflammation and involves PRICE and physical therapy. The level of patients
pain should direct the intensity of allowable exercises, with the goal of pain
free activity at all times. Dancers, especially, need to be aware of their limits
and allow only pain-free range of motion when stretching the Achilles with
active ankle dorsiflexion and calf stretching.
The intermediate phase of therapy should introduce strengthening exercises, specifically eccentric exercises for the gastrocnemius and soleus,
slowly and gradually. Cryotherapy, ultrasound, electrical stimulation, and
neuromuscular control programs are introduced as tolerated to reduce pain,
inflammation, and edema. An orthotic such as a heel lift can be placed in the
street shoe to relieve tension on the tendon or if structural imbalances are
present.
For chronic or recurrent pain, an overnight splint may help improve
ankle dorsiflexion range of motion. If the tendonitis is resistant to treatment, casting may be used as a last resort, in the form of an air cast walking
brace combined with a heel lift. Although the brace immobilizes the ankle
and reduces stretching of the Achilles tendon prior to push-off, the brace
should be removed 46 times per day to prevent stiffness from developing in
the joint.
In the maintenance phase, increasing amounts of stress are provided to
encourage collagen to form and healing to continue. Stretching and active
resistive range of motion exercises are progressively increased in intensity
and may include selected Pilates exercises and/or pool therapy. Dancers
should be trained in a structured home exercise program to maintain
strength and range of motion, as well as to reduce the risk of repeat injury.
Medical therapy for Achilles tendonitis involves the use of antiinflammatory medications, most often in the form of NSAIDs. Always
keep in mind possible side effects, including liver damage from
50
acetaminophen, gastrointestinal bleeding, and renal damage from COX-2

inhibitors. Steroid injections should typically be avoided in Achilles tendonitis secondary to risk of tendon weakening and potential rupture [4].
Surgery is rarely required for debridement of recalcitrant Achilles tendinosis and should be considered only after greater than 6 months of failed
conservative management.
2. Ankle Injuries
51

after experiencing acute pain in her posterior right ankle during a jump
combination in ballet class. She was attempting a changement de pieds
(Figure 2-5) from fifth position when she felt and heard a popping feeling
in the back of her heel, as if someone hit her in the ankle. She had immediate
difficulty with releve and walking.
Diagnosis
Achilles tendon rupture
Epidemiology
Occurs more often in older dancers, 3050 years old.
Pathophysiology It has been shown that most Achilles tendon ruptures

occur within a relatively avascular zone, approximately 26 cm proximal to
the calcaneal insertion [5]. Some patients may have history of prior injury to
the Achilles tendon and the tendon may rupture acutely in the setting of
chronically weakened fibrotic tissue.
History The patient will often report an abrupt repetitive motion such as
take-off from a jump as in an Allegro combination, where an eccentric load
was rapidly applied to a tendon in tension with a dorsiflexed ankle and
extended knee. The patient will often report feeling and/or hearing a pop
or feeling that they were struck in the posterior ankle from behind. The
patient will often experience acute pain that may subside, but loss of function will persist.
PE There is often acute pain and the patient cannot adequately plantarflex the ankle or rise in releve. Ecchymosis and swelling are often diffuse. On
palpation, the patient will have a tendon gap and a positive Thompson sign
with lack of passive ankle plantarflexion when the calf is manually squeezed.
The patient will be unable to releve on the affected leg and may or may not
have decreased resisted active plantarflexion strength. It is important to
have the patient actively releve as strong, muscular dancers may be able to
maintain adequate plantarflexion strength assuming their unaffected flexor
tendons are intact, including the FDL, FHL, peroneus longus and brevis,
plantaris, and tibialis posterior.
FIGURE 2-5. Changement de pieds.
52
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Although the diagnosis is most often clinical, MRI is recommended when considering operative intervention.
Treatment In dancers who wish to resume activity as soon as possible,
early surgical intervention is most often recommended. It has been shown
that early operative management is associated with a decreased incidence of
repeat rupture [6].
Physical therapy emphasizing early mobilization has been associated
with better tendon healing, reduced rate of adhesions, and improved tendon
strength [7]. Following surgical repair, initial immobilization for 710 days
in a plantarflexed position in a short leg walking boot is recommended.
Active dorsiflexion exercises should be encouraged with a dorsiflexion stop.
Progressive decrease of plantarflexed immobilization should occur, with
removal of increasing wedges. Weight bearing is usually restricted for 28
weeks. The walking boot is removed at 6 weeks and the patient can walk
with a heel pad for the following 3 months. Range of motion exercises are
emphasized for the first 23 months, followed by strengthening exercises for
the next 3 months. Usually following 6 months, the patient is allowed to
return to dance.
2. Ankle Injuries
53
Case Report A 24-year-old ballet dancer is in training for the annual

performance of the Nutcracker. She is practicing an allegro combination
at the end of a long day of rehearsal. In the middle of a jump combination,
she missteps the landing and falls onto her foot in an inverted, supinated
position. She experiences immediate pain over the lateral aspect of her foot
and hears a popping sound.
Diagnosis
Lateral ankle sprain
Epidemiology
Most common ankle injury in dancers.
Pathophysiology The dancer is able to normally maintain ankle stability in

various plantarflexed positions in demi pointe and full pointe as a result of
the static and dynamic stabilizers of the ankle. In the full pointe position, the
ankle is relatively stable at the subtalar joint as the calcaneus locks against
the posterior aspect of the tibia. When the dancer descends from full pointe
into demi pointe or with loss of balance, this joint stability is lost and greater
pressure is placed on the dynamic stabilizers of the ankle, mainly provided
by three ligaments, to stabilize the joint. The anterior talofibular ligament
(ATFL), calcaneofibular ligament (CFL), and posterior talofibular ligament (PTFL) stabilize the ankle as well as help maintain proprioception.
The ATFL and the peroneal muscles predominantly stabilize the ankle in
this position. Of the three stabilizing ligaments, the ATFL is actually the
weakest and most frequently injured. The CFL provides subtalar stability
and is most taut in dorsiflexion, whereas the PTFL is most taut in severe
dorsiflexion. The PTFL is most rarely injured as it is the strongest ligament.
With increased dorsiflexion, the ankle becomes more susceptible to
inversion injury. The anatomy of the talus bone is such that it is wider
anteriorly and narrower posteriorly, resulting in an inherent instability
when the ankle is in a plantarflexed position. Weak and tired peroneal
muscles also predispose the dancer to an ankle sprain in this position.
A grade I ankle sprain typically reflects a stretched or partially torn
ATFL and intact CFL with no associated mechanical instability or significant increase in laxity. A grade II sprain reflects a complete ATFL tear and
partial tear of the CFL, with increased medial tenderness and mild to
moderate instability. A grade III tear reflects a complete tear of the
ATFL, CFL and partial tear of the PTFL, with significant tenderness,
swelling, and difficulty bearing weight both medially and laterally.
History There are multiple risk factors in dancers for this very common
injury. Previous ankle sprains, fatigue, returning to stage too quickly before
an injury has had enough time to heal, inadequate rehabilitation and poor
landing technique are frequently associated risk factors. Specific steps such
as entrechat six and other components of allegro combinations in ballet as
well as certain positions in tap (wings) (Figures 2-6) that are associated with
difficult landings are also commonly cited preceding ankle sprains in
dancers [8].
54
(A)

FIGURE 2-6. (A) Wing mid stance.
(B)
FIGURE 2-6. (B) Toe stance wing.
The patient will typically report injury following landing from a jump
with the ankle in plantarflexion, incorrectly either onto the ground with loss
of balance or onto an object, other dancer, piece of equipment, etc. Ambulation and weight bearing are progressively more difficult for grades I and II
and the patient is typically not able to weight bear with grade III sprains.
PE Full examination of the foot and ankle may be limited secondary to
pain and swelling, if the patient presents a few hours after the injury.
Typically, there is lateral tenderness over the fibular insertion of the
ATFL and if the injury is more severe, over the calcaneal insertion of the
CFL if it is involved as well. The patient will usually have a positive anterior
drawer test, which assesses the integrity of the ATFL. The examiner should
stabilize the distal leg in one hand and anteriorly translate the heel with the
foot in a relaxed plantarflexed position (about 20 degrees) (Figure 2-7). The
test is positive if there is a greater than 35 mm difference in laxity between
the affected and unaffected side with no clear endpoint on the affected side.
The talar tilt test, also known as the varus stress test or inversion stress test,
assesses the integrity of the ATFL and CFL. It is positive with increased
excursion of the inverted heel while the ankle is dorsiflexed as compared to
the opposite side (Figure 2-8). Specifically, greater than 23 degrees of
angulation or more than 10 degrees of difference when compared to the
2. Ankle Injuries
55
FIGURE 2-7. Ankle anterior drawer test.
FIGURE 2-8. Talar tilt test.
unaffected side has been associated with complete ATFL and CFL tears [9].
Mild to moderate joint instability is typically associated with a positive
anterior drawer test and negative talar tilt test, whereas severe joint instability is associated with positive anterior drawer and talar tilt tests.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Any patient with difficulty bearing weight
or experiencing pain over the base of the fifth metatarsal, medial and lateral
malleoli, navicular bone or posterior inferior 4 inches of the tibia and fibular
should have anterior-posterior (AP), lateral and mortise radiographs of the
ankle initially to rule out fractures, osteochondral, and/or joint abnormalities.
Also, an AP radiograph of the foot should be obtained to rule out anterior
calcaneal injury or a fifth metatarsal fracture.
Treatment Initially, PRICE should be instituted as soon as possible following injury. Depending on the grade of injury, the degree of immobilization needed for the ankle will vary. Grade I and II sprains typically need a
gel-cast or air-cast ankle brace. Grade III sprains may require short leg
brace for no longer than 2 weeks, followed by an air cast. Crutches or a cane
are utilized for weight bearing as tolerated.
Pursuing and completing a full course of physical therapy is important
with ankle sprains given the likelihood of recurrence once the initial sprain
occurs. Therapy should focus on improving strength and balance for return
56
to dance activities. Dancers with grade I or II sprains should be able to

return to dance within 12 weeks. Patients are typically allowed to return to
dance if they can single leg hop for 10 consecutive jumps and fully squat [D.
J. Rose, personal communication]. A well-structured functional rehabilitation program is essential to restore the dancers full range of motion,
endurance, strength, balance, and proprioception.
After a grade III injury, PRICE is especially important and protection of
the ankle should continue for up to 6 months following return to dance
activity. For dancers, surgery is a last resort option as dynamic function is
sacrificed for mechanical stability. Surgery typically results in increased
recovery time, time away from classes and off stage, muscle disuse, atrophy,
and subsequent loss of range of motion. This is often an unacceptable outcome for professional dancers. Only if the dancer has chronic complaints of
ankle instability that interfere with ability to dance despite conservative
management should surgery be considered. The modified Brostrm procedure has been performed with success [10], but surgery for dancers is always
a last resort option.
2. Ankle Injuries
57
Case Report An 11-year-old boy active in Irish dancing and gymnastics

presents to your office complaining of right heel pain when running and
jumping during classes and practice sessions. The pain started gradually and
is better with rest but has continued to bother him over the past 23 months.
Diagnosis
Calcaneal apophysitis (Severs disease)
Epidemiology
More common in active 1012-year-old boys.
Pathophysiology First described in 1912 by Dr. J.W. Sever as inflammation of the calcaneal apophysis, Severs disease is a type of osteochondrosis
seen in children and adolescents. The calcaneal apophysis appears in 910year-old boys, 79-year-old girls and normally ossifies by 1718 years old.
During puberty, microfractures may develop around the growth line as a
result of repetitive shear stress over this susceptible, growing area that is
weakened from the tension of the Achilles tendon, gastrocnemius, and
soleus and the newly forming calcified cartilage.
History The patient will typically present complaining of posterior heel
pain, difficulty walking, and may have associated swelling in the painful
area. The pain is worse with running, jumping, and improves with rest. The
pain is usually gradual and does not bother the patient at night.
PE The patient will typically have posterior heel tenderness over the
insertion of the Achilles. Active and forced ankle dorsiflexion may be
painful.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Standard radiographs are useful to rule
out fracture or bony lesions. They can demonstrate fragments and sclerosis
of the apophysis, however, do not provide pathognomonic findings of
apophysitis.
Treatment Initial treatment includes PRICE and reducing the amount of
running and jumping in dance or gymnastic activities. A specific functional
rehabilitation program should focus on stretching of the Achilles tendon,
gastrocnemius, and soleus complex and strengthening of the associated
muscles. A half-inch heel lift can help reduce tension on the Achilles
tendon-apophysial attachment. NSAIDs may be necessary for pain relief.
Local corticosteroid injections to this area are contraindicated secondary to
the risk of Achilles tendon rupture. For severe pain, casting in mild equinus
may be necessary for a 23 week period [11].
58
Case Report A 35-year-old female former professional figure skater presents to your office complaining of pain over the medial arch of her foot,
worse after practice sessions and associated with swelling behind her right
medial malleolus.
Diagnosis
Posterior tibial tendonitis
Epidemiology
Often misdiagnosed and underreported dance injury.
Pathophysiology The posterior tibialis muscle originates from the interosseous membrane and the posterior surfaces of the tibia and fibula and inserts
on the tuberosity of the navicular, cuneiform, and cuboid bones as well as the
bases of the second, third, and fourth metatarsals. Its functions are to plantarflex the ankle and invert the foot. If dancers force turn-out from their feet,
excess pronation will occur, placing increased strain on the posterior tibialis
muscle. Furthermore, ballet aesthetics emphasizes the appearance of a
winged foot that plantarflexes, abducts, and everts the foot, excessively
stretching the posterior tibialis tendon (Figure 2-9). In addition to the strain
of ballet, any premorbid structural causes of biomechanical misalignment,
such as unilateral or bilateral pes planus or an accessory navicular bone may
further increase the risk of poor rearfoot alignment and subsequent posterior
tibialis tendon strain. Tenosynovitis more often than a posterior tibialis
tendon tear is the underlying pathology in dancers.
History The patient will often report a history of increased time spent in
training, either in classes or in rehearsals. Often, the activity will involve
increased frequency of jump combinations. External factors such as a new
dance floor lacking adequate shock absorption may also be a contributing
factor.
PE The patient will typically have tenderness to palpation over the posterior tibialis tendon posterior and inferior to the medial malleolus. There may
be associated swelling in the same area. With significant symptoms, the
patient will typically not be able to releve onto the affected foot or may do
so with resultant pain in the medial ankle. Resisted ankle plantarflexion and
FIGURE 2-9. Winging of the right foot.
2. Ankle Injuries
59
inversion are also usually painful and/or weak. For those patients who
overpronate, they will also typically demonstrate the too many toes
sign, initially described by Johnson [12].
A test that can reflect early posterior tibialis tendon dysfunction has been
described as the first metatarsal rise sign, where the head of the first
metatarsal rises with passive heel varus [13].
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Standard AP and lateral weight bearing
radiographs of the symptomatic and asymptomatic foot should be obtained,
but may initially be normal. As symptoms progress, the talonavicular joint
may sublux as the navicular bone rotates laterally on the talus and the
longitudinal arch may collapse. MRI is useful to evaluate any bony, tendinous, or soft tissue pathology.
Treatment Patients with acute tenosynovitis can initially be immobilized
in a short walking boot. Custom molded orthotics can provide corrective
support for patients who overpronate. A functional rehabilitation program
that focuses on stretching of the Achilles tendon and gastrocnemius-soleus
complex as well as strengthening of the posterior tibialis muscle are important to return the patient to dance activity.
Surgical exploration and debridement of the posterior tibialis tendon is
an available option typically reserved for non-operative treatment failures.
It involves excision of any inflamed tenosynovium with debridement and
repair of any partial tendon tears. Post-operatively, patients are allowed to
ambulate in a short walking boot or cast for 46 weeks, combined with a
functional rehabilitation program that progresses to return to full activity
approximately 812 weeks following surgery [14].
60
Case Report A 13-year-old female figure skater presents to your office

complaining of pain and swelling behind her right lateral malleolus that is
worse after skating practice. She occasionally feels a sharp pinch over the
same area.
Diagnosis
Peroneal tendonitis
Epidemiology Common in young dancers who have not yet developed

sufficient strength for pointe.
Pathophysiology In ballet, the desired externally rotated positions of the
legs often concentrically contract the peroneal muscles. Over time, chronic
shortening of these muscles can irritate and inflame the peroneus long and
brevis tendons in their sheaths. Peroneal tendonitis arises most commonly
as an overuse injury following repetitive jump combinations that require
abrupt changes in direction or frequent push off as seen in ice skating.
Chronically, the peroneal tendons can be damaged with recurrent lateral
ankle sprains that ultimately lead to small tendon tears. Inflammatory
proteins and fluid surround the tendons, increasing pressure in the space
between the tendon and the sheath, resulting in pain, swelling, and ultimately weakness.
History Dancers who are performing jump or allegro combinations in
rehearsal or class that require abrupt changes in direction can overstress
the peroneal tendons. The patient will typically have pain and/or swelling
posterior to the lateral malleolus.
PE On examination, the patient will likely have tenderness to palpation
and/or swelling posterior to the lateral malleolus. Resisted ankle plantarflexion and subtalar eversion may be painful. Passive ankle dorsiflexion and
subtalar inversion may be painful.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation An MRI may be helpful to evaluate bony
or soft tissue pathology as well as the presence of tendon tears, and possible
peroneal tendon subluxation.
Treatment For acute tenosynovitis symptoms, PRICE forms the mainstay
of treatment. NSAIDs may be necessary for pain control initially. Immobilization in a short walking boot for 24 weeks may be necessary for severe
symptoms. For milder symptoms, a lateral heel wedge, ankle brace, or arch
support may help. In the acute phase, heat, ice, and ultrasound can reduce
pain and swelling. A specific functional rehabilitation program that focuses
on modalities, strengthening, and stretching is essential.
Surgical intervention is rarely required. This may include peroneal tenosynovectomy and tendon repair. Chronic peroneal tendon subluxation is
more commonly associated with the need for surgical intervention. This may
include various deepening procedures for the peroneal tendon groove in the
lateral malleolus as well as repair of the peroneal retinaculum.
2. Ankle Injuries
61
References
1. OKane JW, Kadel N. Anterior impingement syndrome in dancers. Curr Rev Musc
Med 2008; 1(1): 1216.
2. Nihal A., Rose D., Trepman E. Arthroscopic treatment of anterior ankle impingement syndrome in dancers. Foot Ankle Int 2005; 26(11): 90812.
3. Hamilton WG, Geppert MJ, Thompson FM. Pain in the posterior aspect of the ankle
in dancers. Differential diagnosis and operative treatment. J Bone Joint Surg 1996;
78-A(10): 14911500.
4. Fernandez-Palazzi F, Rivas S, Mujica P. Achilles tendonitis in ballet dancers. Clin
Ortho 1990; 257: 25761.
5. Thermann H. Treatment of Achilles tendon ruptures. Foot Ankle Clin N Am 1999;
4: 77387.
6. Maffulli N. Rupture of the Achilles tendon. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1999; 81: 101936.
7. Jozsa L, Kvist M, Balint BJ et al. Role of recreational sport activity in Achilles tendon
rupture: a clinical, pathoanatomical and sociological study of 292 cases. Am J Sports
Med 1989; 17: 33843.
8. Hamilton WG. Sprained ankles in ballet dancers. Foot Ankle Int 1982; 3(2): 99102.
9. Young CC, Niedfeldt MW, Morris GA, Eerkes KJ. Clinical examination of the foot
and ankle. Prim Care: Clin Off Pract 2005; 32(1): 10532.
10. Hamilton WG, Thompson FM, Snow SW. The modified Brostrm procedure for
lateral ankle instability. Foot Ankle Int 1993; 14(1): 17.
11. Noffsinger MA. Sever disease. Emedicine 2004; http://www.emedicine.com/orthoped/
TOPIC622.HTM
12. Johnson KA, Strom DE. Tibialis posterior tendon dysfunction. Clin Ortho 1989; 239:
196206.
13. Hintermann B, Gachter A. The first metatarsal rise sign: a simple sensitive sign of
tibialis posterior tendon dysfunction. Foot Ankle Int 1996; 17: 23641.
14. McCormack AP, Varner KE, Marymont JV. Surgical treatment for posterior tibial
tendonitis in young competitive athletes. Foot Ankle Int 2003; 24(7): 53538.
3
Knee and Shin Injuries
Case Report A 13-year-old boy presents to your office complaining of knee

pain that is intermittent and associated with episodes of swelling. Occasionally,
he feels the knee lock and at these times the pain is worse. It takes several
minutes before he can move his knee comfortably after a locking episode.
Diagnosis
Osteochondritis dissecans(OCD)
Epidemiology
More common in young boys ages 1113 years.
Pathophysiology Osteochondritis dissecans describes a condition in which

a fragment of cartilage detaches from the joint surface. The fragment may
separate partially or completely. It is thought to arise from multiple possible
etiologies, including trauma or ischemia, or it may be idiopathic. In dancers,
the repetitive strain of dance classes or rehearsal can lead to symptoms. A
hereditary component has also been reported. Indirect or direct trauma to
the posterolateral medial femoral condyle or recurrent impingement of the
tibial spine on the lateral medial femoral condyle with tibial internal rotation can occur. The theory behind ischemia as a possible cause arises from
studies of the vasculature to subchondral bone. Initially, reports suggested
that subchondral bone vasculature provided insufficient anastomoses and
would be at risk for causing ischemia to subchondral bone; however, recent
studies have refuted this theory.
In the knee joint, the lateral aspect of the medial femoral condyle is most
commonly affected, followed by the weight-bearing surfaces of the medial and
lateral femoral condyles and the patella or anterior intercondylar groove. Four
stages have been used to describe osteochondral lesions. The first stage involves
compression of subchondral bone and the second involves a partially detached
fragment of bone. The third stage involves complete fragment detachment within
the underlying crater bed, whereas the fourth stage involves complete fragment
detachment from the crater bed and is otherwise known as a loose body.
63
64
History The patient will typically complain of intermittent pain, aching,

and swelling in the knee. The patient may also have pain or weakness with
full knee extension. If the cartilage is a loose body, the patient may complain
of the knee locking, catching, sticking, or giving way. The patient will
typically have worse pain with tibial internal rotation.
PE Full range of motion of the knee in extension will probably be limited
and/or cause painful symptoms. The patient may have pain with passive
external rotation of the tibia. A palpable lesion may be felt. Motor strength
may be demonstrated with quadriceps weakness of the affected leg. If the
OCD lesion is located on the medial femoral condyle, Wilsons test can be
useful. This test involves passive flexion of the knee to 90 degrees followed
by internal rotation of the tibia. The patient slowly extends the knee and
pain is reproduced as the tibial spine compresses the OCD lesion on the
medial femoral condyle at about 30 degrees of flexion (Figure 3-1). The pain
should subside with external rotation and relief of tibial spine compression.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Standard AP and lateral radiographs can
reveal the presence of an osteochondral lesion as lucency in the articular
epiphysis. A bone scan will reveal the amount of osseous uptake and reflects
the likelihood of osteochondral fragment healing. With increasing uptake,
osteoblastic activity increases and the lesion is more likely to heal. Serial
scans may be used to follow the lesion and modify treatment options. MRI
can demonstrate the degree of fragment detachment and/or displacement,
the presence of loose bodies or fluid and the quality of the articular surfaces.
Treatment Stage I lesions, especially in skeletally immature patients,
should be expected to go on to complete healing with non-operative treatment. In dancers, protected weight bearing is recommended to allow
healing. Return to activity is recommended once the patient has no reported
symptoms, a normal physical examination and evidence of a healing lesion
on radiograph or MRI. If the patient is still symptomatic after 3 months of
initial conservative therapy or has stage II-IV lesions, especially in skeletally
FIGURE 3-1. Wilsons test.
3 Knee and Shin Injuries
65
immature children, surgery should be considered. Also, in growing children

whose physes are closing, surgery should be considered. Surgical options
include arthroscopic subchondral drilling, debridement, fragment stabilization, excision, and open removal of loose bodies. Transplants of autologous
chondrocytes with removal of sclerotic bone, excision of the defect and bone
grafting are used when other treatment options have failed.
66
Case Report An 18-year-old female modern dancer who is also a marathon runner presents to your office complaining of pain in front of one or
both of her legs, which becomes worse in class after jumps and while
running.
Diagnosis
Tibial stress syndrome, periostitis
Epidemiology
surfaces.
More common in dancers who rehearse on hard, uneven
Pathophysiology Several theories exist regarding the actual pathology

causing medial and anterior tibial stress syndrome. They are normally
assumed to involve inflammation of the periosteal sheath lining the tibia.
Pain results from irritation of the periosteal sheath and/or the surrounding
muscles and tendons. Periostitis typically occurs as an overuse injury associated with repetitive, forceful activities such as running and jumping.
Recurrent overuse in rehearsals where the same sequence of movements
is frequently repeated can lead to increased stress over the tibia. Repetitive
forced ankle dorsiflexion with increased weight bearing can cause a stress
reaction. If left untreated, tibial stress syndrome can lead to stress fractures.
The component of muscle fatigue is an important contributing factor, as the
stress will be transferred to the bone once the muscles are sufficiently
expended.
History The patient will typically describe pain over the anterior or medial
aspect of the tibia, worse following class and any jumping or running
activity. Dancers who overpronate and have tight gastrocnemius and soleus
muscles more frequently complain of periostitis or tibial stress reaction. The
pain may vary in intensity and is usually located on the medial aspect of the
tibia. The pain will usually persist for some time despite stopping class,
rehearsal or other activity, and removing weight bearing. It is also always
important to suspect the female athlete triad when evaluating dancers for
stress reactions or stress fractures.
PE Palpation of the medial tibia over the middle to lower third of the bone
will typically be tender in adults, and in children tenderness over the anterior proximal one third of the tibia is more common. It is also important to
examine the patients gait and observe biomechanical imbalances in walking, plie, and releve. The patients street shoes as well as dance shoes should
be inspected for signs of wear and hyperpronation. Chronic exertional
anterior compartment syndrome should be differentiated by lack of tightness and discomfort localized to the anterior compartment musculature
(tibialis anterior), especially with repetitive resisted ankle dorsiflexion.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Radiographs are typically normal; however, should always be obtained if a stress fracture is suspected. A bone scan
is most sensitive to diagnose a stress fracture and should be normal in a
patient with only periostitis.
67
Treatment PRICE forms the initial mainstay of therapy. Dancers should

initially reduce the amount of jumping and leaping in class while they are
symptomatic and should especially try to avoid jumping on hard or uneven
surfaces that lack the typical reinforcement of dance floors. NSAIDs may be
helpful in controlling the pain acutely. Custom molded orthotics can be used
to help correct hyperpronation for improved biomechanical alignment. A
functional rehabilitation program focused on stretching the gastrocnemius,
soleus muscles, and the Achilles tendon and strengthening the anterior
tibialis and arch of the foot is essential. Gradual increase in activity is
recommended over a 6-week period. The dancer should return to class
and stage only when she or he no longer experiences pain with all dance
activities. If chronic exertional anterior compartment syndrome is diagnosed and conservative management is not successful, a surgical release
(decompression fasciotomy) is highly successful in treating the underlying
condition.
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Case Report A 22-year-old female principal ballet dancer who smokes,

has an eating disorder, and has not menstruated in the last 6 months presents
to your office complaining of localized pain over the anterior aspect of her
left shin, which becomes worse after rehearsal involving jumps and grand
jete (leaps) (Figure 3-2). She has also noticed a small, hard bump over the
tender area. The pain occasionally bothers her at night.
Diagnosis
Tibial stress fracture
Epidemiology Common type of stress fracture in dancers, typically overuse injury from jumping and running.
Pathophysiology Stress fracture occurs often as the end result of a
continuumstress reaction followed by stress fracture. The anterior tibia
is under tension and is prone to develop delayed or non-union. The anterior
tibia is unable to handle the repetitive load on the bone without being given
sufficient time to recover. Given dancers demanding choreography, routines, and schedules, they are a perfect set-up for stress fractures to occur.
The initial stress onto the bone may not be suspected as the patient may or
may not feel pain; however, over time, the repeated submaximal load without adequate recovery forms a chronic cycle that eventually results in injury.
Patients with a stress reaction typically have positive imaging findings
without associated pain symptoms.
Physiologic risk factors associated with the development of stress fractures include disordered eating patterns, often seen in a dancers restricted
diet to maintain low weight, eating disorders, muscle weakness, and chronic
amenorrhea. The female athlete triad of amenorrhea, disordered eating,
and osteoporosis reflects an underlying estrogen deficiency and places the
dancer at increased risk for the development of stress fractures. Smoking,
excessive thinness, and hormonal deficiencies are often associated risk
factors with dancers and further predispose them to injury.
History A stress fracture is a clinical diagnosis and the patients symptoms
must correlate with radiographic findings. When suspecting tibial stress
fractures or stress fractures in general, it is important to ask about prior
injuries, physiologic risk factors such as amenorrhea, disordered eating and/
or eating disorders, as well as environmental risk factors, such as learning
FIGURE 3-2. Grand jete.
69
new choreography, rehearsing on a hard surface that is not an appropriately

reinforced sprung dance floor or recently increasing amount of hours dancing. The patient will often report insidious onset of symptoms. The patient
may have well localized or poorly localized pain, usually with jumps and
grand jete (leaps). In thin female dancers, insufficient amounts of estrogen
are associated with loss of bone mineral density. This also predisposes them
to stress fracture. Multiple studies have shown that amenorrheic and oligomenorrheic athletes are at higher risk for bone loss and that female runners
with decreased bone mineral density are at higher risk for stress fracture [1].
It is important to obtain a full menstrual history when considering a diagnosis of stress fracture in young female dancers.
PE Usually, the patient will have localized bony tenderness with a palpable protrusion over the anterior surface of the tibia. This is in contrast
to the diffuse pain typically felt with periostitis. There may be associated
warmth, erythema, and brawny edema.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation For stress fractures, plain radiographs will
typically be initially negative. They can reveal evidence of a chronic stress
fracture after 23 weeks. The dreaded black line best seen on lateral
radiographs is typically described as a horizontal fissure with adjacent
hyperostosis [2]. On AP radiographs, cortical thickening can be evident
with widening of the anterior cortex, known as buttressing [2]. A bone
scan is sensitive but not specific and can demonstrate the presence of a stress
fracture more than 48 hours after symptoms begin and stay positive for up to
10 months. MRI is sensitive for stress fractures and will demonstrate
decreased signal on T1 images with or without associated muscle or periosteal edema when a stress fracture is present. With chronic stress fractures,
MRI will demonstrate increased signal in the anterior cortex of the tibia and
may reveal altered integrity of the surface of the anterior tibial margin. In a
stress reaction, MRI will typically reveal marrow edema and the bone scan
will have minimal uptake.
Treatment Whereas patients with a stress reaction should be instructed to
reduce their dance activity, patients with anterior tibial stress fractures must
avoid dance activity for 68 weeks. Early stress fractures should be treated
with decreased axial loading and may require crutches for partial or nonweight bearing, depending upon severity of symptoms. Electropulsed electromagnetic field bone stimulation and low intensitypulsed ultrasound are
helpful. A functional rehabilitation program should focus on stretching of
the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles and strengthening of the anterior
tibialis muscle as well as the quadriceps and hamstrings. Hyperpronation
and biomechanical alignment should be addressed and custom molded
orthotics used as necessary. For patients with documented leg-length
discrepancies, it is also important to address postural alignment issues and
proper biomechanics to avoid recurrence of injury. NSAIDs should
70
typically be avoided as they mask the patients pain symptoms. The dancer
should anticipate return to stage and rehearsal full-time approximately 68
months following injury. For stress fractures, it is essential to allow the bone
time to heal. This is likely difficult for dancers to hear and adhere to;
however, it is crucial that they rest in the short term to avoid further
progression of their injury in the long term.
Treatment of the female athlete triad is also essential. This consists of
nutritional and lifestyle counseling as well as hormonal replacement therapy. It is important to have a thorough discussion with the female dancer
regarding her eating habits, the requirements of her dance schedule, and the
importance of a healthy diet in preventing future injuries and the development of osteoporosis.
If the stress fracture does not show signs of healing after 68 months,
surgery should be considered. Surgical options include drilling under fluoroscopic guidance, autogenous bone grafting, and occasionally these fractures
may progress to complete fractures of the tibia, requiring intramedullary
nailing [3].
71
Case Report A 25-year-old Indian female Bharatanatyam dancer presents

to your office complaining of anterior knee pain that has been worsening
over the past 6 months. She states the pain is worse after holding the
Ardhamandala (Figure 3-3) position throughout an entire dance performance. She also complains of difficulty holding the Mandi (Figure 3-4)
position while doing a Sabdam item.
Diagnosis
Anterior interval knee pain (AIKP), patellofemoral pain
Epidemiology
Frequent cause of knee complaints in female dancers.
Pathophysiology Several theories have been proposed to explain the specific underlying processes leading to AIKP. It is generally accepted to be
multifactorial, involving mechanical and chemical changes in the patellofemoral joint. As the patella articulates with the patellofemoral groove in the
femur, it rotates and tilts as well as moves superiorly, inferiorly, medially
and laterally, with multiple resultant forces acting on the different points of
contact between the undersurface of the patella and the femur.
In Indian forms of dance such as Bharatanatyam, maintenance of a half
seated, squatting position (Ardhamandala) is required for the duration of the
piece and may also at times require the fully seated position (Mandi). Constant knee flexion increases the stress placed on the patella and, consequently,
patellofemoral pain is a frequent complaint among Bharatanatyam dancers.
FIGURE 3-3. Ardhamandala position.
FIGURE 3-4. Mandi position.
72
In ballet dancers, the demand of frequent knee flexion combined with external rotation predisposes the dancer to excessive tibial torsion at the knee. Often,
inadequate femoral retroversion at the hips and pronation at the subtalar joint,
usually associated with pes planus or flat feet, result in disturbance of the normal
patellofemoral alignment. The patella is pulled laterally, placing increased stress
on the articular surfaces and lateral aspect of the patella. Over time, this
increased wear in combination with poor technique and alignment can lead to
clinical symptoms. Imbalance of the quadriceps muscles with miscoordinated
firing of the lateral and medial quadriceps as well as a tight lateral retinaculum
can also lead to abnormal tracking of the patella.
Dancers who have poor core control and are unable to maintain pelvic
stability will tend to have increased anterior pelvic tilt, associated with
femoral internal rotation and decreased recruitment of their hamstring
muscles. In turn, loss of appropriate hip extension and gluteal and hamstring
control leads to loss of control of tibial internal and external rotation. This
subsequently leads to patellar instability, misalignment of the patella in the
trochlear groove and can be associated with symptoms of knee pain.
Correct knee and ankle alignment in plie involves the patella aligning
vertically over the first to third toes (Figures 3-5). Plie with the knee moving
further anteriorly often reflects inadequate external rotation at the hips,
FIGURE 3-5. (A) Proper knee and ankle

alignment.
FIGURE 3-5. (B) Improper knee and

ankle alignment.
73
resulting in an attempt to force external rotation from the tibia on the femur,
which in turn places increased tensile stress on the medial aspect of the knee.
History Patients with AIKP will most often present complaining of pain in plie
positions. They will typically have anterior knee pain worse with ascending stairs,
sitting with the knee flexed for a prolonged period of time or while running. The
pain is typically of gradual onset and progression, diffuse in nature and may be
associated with a sensation of the knee catching, giving way or feeling stiff.
PE Tenderness can be elicited over the anterior aspect of the knee and
may be diffuse or localized to the retropatellar surface. The theater sign
reflects pain in the anterior knee after sitting for a prolonged period of time,
as while watching a film in the theater. The Q angle refers to the angle
formed between the line drawn from the anterior superior iliac spine
through the central patella and the line drawn from the central patella to
the tibial tubercle. Normally, this angle is approximately 813 degrees in
males and 1518 degrees in females [4]. Patellofemoral malalignment may
be contributory to patellofemoral syndrome.
The J sign may be elicited when the patient flexes the knee to 30 degrees,
with the patella abruptly shifting medially as it enters the trochlear groove.
Others have described the J sign with extension of the knee from the seated
position to zero degrees, with a positive J sign observed when the patella
lateralizes in extension into an inverted J sign. A positive J sign has been
reported to reflect either a tight lateral retinaculum, patellar instability or
vastus medialis obliquus weakness, with subsequent increased lateral pull of
the patella when contracting the quadriceps. When assessing the dancers
alignment, it is also important to assess the flexibility of the gastrocnemius
muscles, the depth of plie, and the degree of tibial internal rotation and
subtalar joint pronation.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation If a patient shows no improvement in
6 weeks following a prescribed treatment regimen, radiographs and possible
MRI are recommended.
Treatment Initially, PRICE and a course of individualized physical therapy
based on establishing proper biomechanical alignment are essential, as AIKP
is a multifactorial problem. The goal is to obtain core (abdominal and pelvic)
as well as lower extremity strength and flexibility, which will lead to greater
control of movement as well as correct biomechanics. Therapy should include
exercises for strengthening the hip abductors, gluteal muscles, quadriceps as
well as iliotibial band, hamstring, and calf stretching. Closed kinetic chain
exercises are generally recommended as they place less stress on the knee
joint than full arc isotonic exercises. However, open chain exercises from 25 to
90 degrees are useful to reenact common and, usually, necessary movements
of daily activity, including walking, negotiating stairs, etc. Relative rest is
recommended for the component of patellofemoral pain that is often
associated with overuse and overload. In dancers, it is essential to correct
74
underlying faulty technique, including the attempt to force turnout from the
knees and feet instead of using the deep external rotators of the hip.
While performing the Indian dance Bharatanatyam, dancers should
ensure placement of the feet completely on the ground with the heels
down in the Ardhamandala position. Swaying of the waist and bending
forward with increased lumbar flexion should be avoided. When tapping
the feet, correct Ardhamandala posture should be maintained without
straightening of the legs.
Patients who incorporate running in their exercise regimen may change
to lower impact activity such as running on an elliptical machine, spinning,
stationary biking, or swimming. Use of a neoprene knee sleeve or knee
brace is controversial and probably more appropriate for significantly lateral patellar subluxation. Footwear that fits appropriately as well as arch
supports or custom orthotics may help improve the biomechanics of the
lower extremity in maintaining a stable base of support for a normal, pes
planus or pes cavus foot.
Often, surgery is indicated only if non-operative management has been
unsuccessful for a period of 6 months to a year. Degenerative cartilage
behind the patella and/or impinging hypertrophic synovitis can be removed
arthroscopically. If the patients pathology is characterized by significant
lateral patellar tracking that is not improved with stretching of the iliotibial
band or strengthening of the quadriceps, release of the lateral retinaculum
may help [5]. For patellofemoral malalignment recalcitrant to the above, a
tibial tubercle transposition may be required to correct the malalignment,
although this is avoided if at all possible in dancers.
75
Case Report During a performance for which you are the physician on
call, a 34-year-old male ballet dancer collapses on stage following a single
leg landing from a hitchkick with subsequent buckling of his right knee.
Backstage, he tells you that he felt and heard a pop in his knee as well as
immediate pain and swelling.
Diagnosis
Anterior cruciate ligament rupture
Epidemiology Low incidence among elite ballet and modern dancers.

Three-to-five times greater relative risk in female modern dancers than
female ballet dancers and male dancers, most commonly via single leg
landing from jumps [6].
Pathophysiology Injuries to the ACL result from a decelerative force on
the knee, often combined with a rapid change in the direction of movement.
In dance, ACL injuries and tears are often associated with landings from
jumps, when the dancer is pivoting, side-stepping, or turning sharply. Landing on a single leg from a jump has been shown to result in increased internal
rotation of the knee, increased knee valgus at 40 degrees of knee flexion,
decreased knee flexion upon landing, and increased vertical ground reaction
force. Further studies have shown support for the theory of ligament dominance to explain the etiology of ACL injuries in dancers, with the finding
that women land more often with increased knee valgus when compared to
men [7]. Hyperlaxity and increased tibial torsion as measured by an
increased thigh-foot progression angle have also been cited as risk factors
for ACL injury [8]. The remaining number of injuries usually occurs via
direct contact and results in injury to multiple surrounding ligaments in the
knee, including the lateral collateral ligament or medial collateral ligament.
History The patient will typically complain of the knee giving way upon
landing from a jump or twisting the knee sharply. The knee may feel
unstable, insecure, or as if it is hyperextended. Pain is typically associated
with feeling and hearing a pop, as well as decreased range of motion and
swelling. Depending on the activity, the patient may or may not be able to
continue.
PE Acutely, the patient will typically have decreased range of motion of
the affected knee. Often, a knee effusion is present secondary to the ACL
has been compromised. Joint line tenderness may occur if associated bone
bruising or meniscal tears are present. Tests for ligament instability, including Lachman and the anterior drawer tests, should be performed on both
knees for comparison. To perform the Lachman test, hold the knee in 2030
degrees of flexion while stabilizing the patients femur in one hand and
proximal tibia in the other (Figure 3-6). The test is positive when there is
increased excursion and no distinct endpoint of tibial excursion. The anterior drawer test involves placing the patients knee in 90 degrees of flexion
while stabilizing the foot flat on the table (Figure 3-7). The proximal tibia is
76

FIGURE 3-6. Lachman test.
FIGURE 3-7. Anterior drawer test.
pulled anteriorly toward the examiner while holding the proximal calf in
both hands, fingers over the insertion of the hamstrings, and thumbs over
the lateral and medial joint lines. Lack of a firm endpoint with increased
excursion of the tibia compared to the unaffected side may also indicate an
ACL tear, although this maneuver is considered less sensitive than the
Lachman test.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Standard AP and lateral radiographs
should be obtained to rule out fracture or dislocation, and can reveal an
avulsed piece of bone from the lateral tibia, known as a Segond fracture.
MRI is helpful to demonstrate a torn ACL as well as associated injury,
including meniscal tears, femoral or tibial bruising, and edema.
Treatment Depending on the age of the patient, level of dance activity
(amateur to professional) and any associated injury, treatment of an acute
ACL tear can vary. If there are associated injuries in addition to the ACL
tear, surgery and aspiration of a painful hemarthrosis may be required.
Initial pre-operative and post-operative rehabilitation programs are similar.
Acutely post injury, PRICE is recommended to reduce pain and inflammation. A functional rehabilitation program focusing on restoration of range of
motion and strength is essential. Although non-operative management may
77
yield a potentially faster return to dance activity, studies have shown that
more than 80% of dancers will require ACL reconstruction to be able to
return to full, unrestricted dance activity [9]. In elite dancers who require
maximal knee stability and restoration of full range of motion, arthroscopic
reconstruction of the ACL is usually recommended. The technique of
arthroscopic reconstruction of the ACL continues to evolve, with grafts
made from autogenous patellar tendon, quadruple strand hamstrings (semitendinosus and gracilis), quadriceps tendon, allograft, and synthetic
ligaments. One survey of multiple techniques for ACL reconstruction
showed 92% of dancers returning to dance activity without restrictions,
6% modifying their dance technique to avoid jumps and 2% opting to
choose another career [10].
Post-operatively, rehabilitation starts early with quadriceps cocontractions and partial weight bearing. A knee immobilizer with crutches
and progressive partial weight bearing are typically recommended postoperatively for 5 days and full weight bearing as tolerated is started 5 days
post-operatively. Functional rehabilitation should focus on progressive
resistance exercise to improve muscular strength, control excessive tibial
translation, and achieve dynamic stabilization. Hamstring isotonic and
closed chain quadriceps strengthening exercises are recommended as soon
as the patient is able to tolerate. Patients can typically return to full dance
activity by 6 months following surgery.
78
Case Report A 29-year-old male ballet dancer presents to your office

complaining of anterior knee pain that is worse after allegro combinations,
especially with landing from jumps. He does not recall a specific time of
onset or any instigating injury. The pain occasionally resolves during class,
but recently has persisted after finishing class or rehearsal.
Diagnosis
Patellar tendonitis
Epidemiology
Also known as jumpers knee.
Pathophysiology During jumping and specifically upon landing, the patellar tendon is placed under significant stress from the eccentric contraction of
the quadriceps muscles. Landing from a jump has a net downward force;
however, the quadriceps contract eccentrically in the opposite direction to
decelerate and control the landing. When the knee is flexed, the patellar
tendon sustains the greatest degree of stress at its insertion site. In dancers,
the combination of tight quadriceps and hamstrings with poor landing
technique exacerbates the load placed on the patellar tendon. Over time,
the patellar tendon can develop chronic inflammatory and degenerative
changes from repetitive microtrauma. Histologically, inflammatory cells
are not usually a component of chronic patellar tendinopathy; therefore,
patellar tendonitis is described in the acute phase.
History The patient will typically present complaining of gradual onset of
anterior knee pain without specific time of onset or preceding injury. The
pain is typically aching, dull, worse with landing from jumps, and located
inferior to the patella.
PE On exam, the patient will usually have full active range of knee
motion; however, usually has decreased quadriceps excursion. There may
be point tenderness inferior to the patella. Pain is elicited with resisted
terminal knee extension, from 30 to 0 degrees. If pain is superior to the
patella, consider insertional quadriceps tendonitis. Patellar tendonitis has
been previously classified into 4 stages. Stage I involves pain following
activity, without affecting performance. Pain in the first stage resolves
with rest. Stage II involves pain during and following activity, without
affecting performance. The pain may resolve following warm-up, but
returns after finishing the activity. Stage III involves pain during and following activity and affects the quality of performance. Stage IV involves pain,
inability to completely extend the knee, a sensation of the knee giving way
and may reflect a partial tear of the tendon.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Standard radiographs may reveal a small
contributory inferior patellar osteophyte in the symptomatic region, which
is usually unremarkable. Ultrasound and MRI can demonstrate specific
tendon abnormalities. More recently, ultrasound with power Doppler has
been used as a technique to localize neovascularized areas surrounding the
patellar tendon.
79
Treatment First, patients should be instructed to decrease the dance

activity that aggravates the pain and increases the load placed on the
patellar tendon, typically small and large jumps. PRICE is important initially, followed by an individualized functional rehabilitation program.
Cryotherapy and ultrasound can be used initially with stage I injuries.
Oral anti-inflammatories may be useful in the acute phase to reduce pain.
Stretching of the quadriceps is essential. Strengthening of the quadriceps
starting with closed chain exercises emphasizing the eccentric phase on a
decline board is recommended [11, 12]. Stretching should be in the painless
range of motion, usually from 90 to 30 degrees of flexion. Exercises should
progress to plyometric exercises and include joint proprioceptive training.
Patellar taping techniques are used to reduce friction on the patella and
relieve pain. Custom molded orthotics can help reduce foot pronation,
maintain a neutral subtalar joint position, and minimize excess tibial torsion
forces that may be causing abnormal patellar tracking. In stage III of injury,
a longer period of relative rest from inciting painful activity is recommended, for up to 6 weeks. During this time, an appropriate alternative
strength-training and cardiovascular exercise program is important to
prevent deconditioning.
In patients in whom conservative therapy has failed, ultrasound guided
peritendinous corticosteroid and anesthetic injections have been reported
to be effective [13], although if utilized, extreme caution should be exercised
to avoid injecting directly into the patellar tendon for risk of tendon rupture.
Surgical intervention for failed conservative therapy over an extended
period of time or for stage IV injuries typically involves drilling and resection of the involved pole and partial debridement of the involved pathologic
tendon.
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Case Report A 14-year-old male gymnast presents to your office complaining of anterior knee pain worse following class and rehearsal and after
sitting or standing for a prolonged period of time. His knee catches
occasionally, at which point the pain is worse, although he can fully range
the knee in flexion and extension. He denies associated swelling or preceding injury.
Diagnosis
Plica syndrome
Epidemiology
dancers.
Usually associated with pseudo-locking of the knee in
Pathophysiology Synovial plicae (singular: plica, from the Latin meaning

fold) are remnants of fetal membranes that grow during embryonic development. Initially, the knee is divided into three separate components in the
embryo. These membranes are typically resorbed by the second trimester;
however, remnants that persist in adults are synovial folds and are termed
plicae. They are typically characterized as four different types, depending
on their location in the knee. These include the suprapatellar, infrapatellar,
medial, and lateral plicae. In dancers, the medial plica is most often irritated
and prone to injury. It is called the medial shelf plica from its orientation in
the coronal plane, with a suprapatellar origin, oblique course, and insertion
onto the infrapatellar fat pad. When the knee is flexed, the plica can get
irritated with overuse or from direct trauma as it is most prominent in this
position. It has also been suggested that the plica can become inflamed with
repetitive flexion of the knee, where the plica acts as a bowstring, causing
abrasion to the medial femoral condyle, although this theory is debated.
Adjacent anterior synovial tissue or the infrapatellar fat pad may become
hypertrophic, resulting in an anterior impingement syndrome as well.
History The patient will typically complain of intermittent anteromedial or
anterolateral knee pain that may be associated with clicking, catching, snapping, and/or occasionally giving way. Plica syndrome is typically associated
with pseudo-locking, which involves clicking and catching as the patella
moves within the femoral groove. True locking prevents the knee from
further knee flexion or extension. The symptoms are worse during dance
class or rehearsal, prolonged standing, sitting, squatting, or ascending stairs. It
is important to ask about swelling of the knee, as plica syndrome typically
does not cause swelling, in contrast to meniscal or ligamentous injuries.
Localized soft tissue swelling may occur, however, if there is associated
synovial or fat pad impingement.
PE Examination will typically reveal tenderness to palpation along the
inferomedial patella, and it may be possible to palpate a tender, hypertrophied band. It is important to exclude associated meniscal or ligamentous
injuries, patellar instability or tendonitis. Plica syndrome is typically not
associated with an intra-articular effusion.
81
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Standard AP and lateral radiographs as

well as MRI of the knee will help exclude other diagnoses; however, are
usually not definitive for plica or synovial impingement syndrome. Plicae
are often incidental findings during arthroscopic procedures and may or
may not be symptomatic.
Treatment Dancers are usually first instructed to use PRICE to relieve
pain and inflammation. Physical therapy should focus on quadriceps, hamstrings, adductors, and gastrocnemius stretching as well as quadriceps and
hamstrings strengthening exercises. The goal of therapy is proper patellofemoral alignment and specific technique modifications should be made to
optimize the dancers patellofemoral biomechanics in class. A neoprene
knee sleeve may provide biofeedback and remind the dancer of proper
alignment. A localized corticosteroid injection into the palpated plicae or
inflamed synovium may help reduce inflammation. Further treatment
options for failure of conservative management over an extended period
of time include arthroscopic surgery to resect the plicae and/or inflamed
synovium. Post-operatively, the patient follows a similar physical therapy
program to restore full range of motion, appropriate quadriceps control and
strength with gradual return to dance specific training. Good functional
outcomes have been reported in patients treated with arthroscopic plica
excision [14].
82
Case Report A 17-year-old recreational ballet dancer presents to your office

complaining of medial knee pain gradually worsening over the past few weeks. She
notices the pain most during grand plies and jumps. She also complains of the knee
locking up on her from time to time, which is associated with excruciating pain.
Diagnosis
Meniscal tear
Epidemiology Common injury in dancers as a result of increased flexion

and torque at the knee joint.
Pathophysiology The medial and lateral menisci are C shaped segments
of fibrocartilage located between the tibial plateau and the femoral condyles. They act as shock absorbers to distribute the load transmitted through
the knee joint during knee flexion and extension, and protect the femoral
and tibial joint surfaces from excess friction. In ballet dancers, injuries to the
meniscus may result from attempting to incorrectly increase turnout by
placing the feet in the abducted first through fifth positions and straightening or screwing both knees. Acute injury to the meniscus is usually the
result of direct trauma involving some type of rotational force. The dancer
may land incorrectly from a jump with either a valgus (black arrow) or varus
(white arrow) force applied to a flexed knee (Figures 3-8). A medial meniscal
FIGURE 3-8. (A) Landing from a Bournonville jete.
FIGURE 3-8. (B) Mechanism of injury:

valgus and varus stresses.
83
tear can result from a valgus force applied to an internally rotated femur
with the foot grounded and knee flexed. A lateral meniscal tear can occur
with a varus force applied to an externally rotated femur with the knee
hyperflexed. In plie, when landing from jumps and when squatting with the
knee hyperflexed, as in specific types of folk dancing, the lateral meniscus is
at higher risk for injury.
History The patient will typically complain of pain over the medial or
lateral joint line, associated with inability to completely extend or flex the
knee. If the tear occurs through the vascular outer third of the meniscus,
swelling can develop from hemarthrosis. The patient may also complain of
the knee locking or buckling, which reflects a fragment of torn cartilage that
can lodge in the joint, limiting extension or causing pain. This type of
buckling should be distinguished from that caused by joint instability as
seen in ligamentous injuries or reflex inhibition of the quadriceps due to
pain. If the tear is minor, the patient may initially not notice pain until some
time has passed and further activity frays the torn cartilage.
PE Examination will typically reveal decreased range of motion and joint
line tenderness to palpation over the involved medial or lateral side. Inspection may reveal atrophy of the quadriceps muscles if the injury is more than
a week old. Pain can be elicited with hyperflexion of the knee or with deep
squatting when the posterior horn of the medial meniscus is involved. In the
dancer, the pain may be reproduced with jumps, plie, or developpe. There
may be a knee effusion, although the presence or amount of effusion does
not reflect the presence of a meniscal tear. Tests for ligamentous stability
should be performed to rule out associated injuries (Figures 3-9 and 3-10).
To help localize meniscal involvement, a few provocative tests are useful:
The McMurray test is performed with the patient supine and the hip and knee
flexed. With the ankle in one hand, the tibia is externally rotated and a valgus
force is applied to the knee. The knee is then extended, keeping the tibia
externally rotated while applying a medial valgus force to the knee with the
other hand (Figures 3-11). A palpable or audible click, pop, or snap reflects a
FIGURE 3-9. Test for medial collateral

ligament laxity.
84

FIGURE 3-10. Test for lateral collateral
ligament laxity.
FIGURE 3-11. (A, B) McMurray test

for medial meniscal tear.
likely tear of the posterior horn of the medial meniscus. McMurray test,
however, is often not positive in the presence of a meniscal tear. The Apley
compression test is performed with the patient lying prone with the affected
knee flexed to 90 degrees. Holding the heel in one hand and stabilizing the
knee in the other, a vertical downward force is applied through the knee and
onto the menisci while rotating the tibia externally and internally. Pain with
compression often reflects a meniscal tear (Figures 3-12). The Apley distraction test is useful to differentiate meniscal from ligamentous injury. In this
test, the patient is placed in a position identical to the Apley compression

FIGURE 3-12. (A, B) Apley compression
test.
85
(A)
(B)
test and the tibia is externally and internally rotated; however, a vertical
upward force is applied to the tibia (Figure 3-13). This maneuver relieves
pressure off the menisci and reflects ligamentous injury if pain is elicited, i.e.
medial or lateral collateral ligament sprain or tear.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Radiographs are not helpful for the diagnosis of meniscal tears, although they may indicate associated degenerative
knee pathology. MRI is the gold standard for accurate diagnosis of meniscal
tears and will also demonstrate associated ligamentous, cartilage, and bony
integrity.
FIGURE 3-13. Apley distraction test.
86
Treatment Initially, PRICE helps reduce acute pain and inflammation.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatories help reduce swelling and pain. As the
pain resolves, physical therapy focusing on restoration of range of motion
and quadriceps strengthening should begin. Modification of dance activity
should be individualized depending on the extent of the tear and physical
demands of the patients dance schedule. If the patients pain and effusion
improve over 4 to 6 weeks, gradual return to dance activity is recommended.
Rarely, an intra-articular knee corticosteroid injection may be considered to
reduce inflammation and pain. However, if pain, locking, or swelling persists, arthroscopic surgery should be considered.
Operative management of meniscal tears involves arthroscopic repair or
excision of the meniscal tear. Care is taken to preserve as much viable cartilage
as possible to avoid future injury, instability, and degenerative changes in the
knee joint. Post-operative rehabilitation is similar to the course delineated
above; however, initial restrictions are placed on the weight-bearing status to
allow for wound healing. Gastrocnemius and soleus stretching exercises and
ankle range of motion exercises are added to maintain functional range of
motion prior to full weight bearing. Dancers are typically able to return to a
full class and rehearsal schedule 68 weeks post-operatively. Meniscal repair,
rather than excision of the meniscal tear, may require 6 weeks of non-weight
bearing and as many as 6 months prior to return to full dance. Care must be
exercised in the dancer if a repair is performed to avoid permanent postoperative restriction of range of motion due to capsular scarring.
References
1. Myburgh KH, Hutchins J, Fataar AB et al. Low bone mineral density is an etiologic
factor for stress fractures in athletes. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113: 75459.
2. Burrows HJ. Fatigue infraction of the middle of the tibia in ballet dancers. J Bone Joint
Surg 1956; 38 B(1): 8394.
3. Kadel NJ, Teitz CC, Kronmal RA. Stress fractures in ballet dancers. Am J Sports Med
1992; 20: 44549.
4. Johnson LL, van Dyk GE, Green JR et al. Clinical assessment of asymptomatic knees:
comparison of men and women. Arthroscopy 1998; 14: 34759.
5. Juhn MS.Patellofemoral pain syndrome: A review and guidelines for treatment. Am
Fam Physician 1999; 60 (7): 201222.
6. Liederbach M, Dilgen FE, Rose DJ. Incidence of anterior cruciate ligament injuries
among elite ballet and modern dancers: A 5-year prospective study. Am J Sports Med
2008; 36(9):17791788.
7. Pappas E, Sheikhzadeh A, Hagins M et al. The effect of gender and fatigue on the biomechanics of bilateral landings from a jump: Peak values. J Sports Sci Med 2007; 6: 7784.
8. Uhorchak JM, Scoville CR, Williams GN et al. Risk factors associated with noncontact
injury of the anterior cruciate ligament: a prospective four-year evaluation of 859 West
Point cadets. Am J Sports Med 2003; 31 (6): 83142.
9. Cheung Y, Magee TH, Rosenberg ZS, Rose DJ. MRI of anterior cruciate ligament
reconstruction. J Comp Assist Tomo 1992; 16: 13437.
87
10. Chen L, Cooley V, Rosenberg T. ACL reconstruction with hamstring tendon. Ortho
Clin N America 2003; 34 (1): 918.
11. Kongsgaard M, Aagaard P, Roikjaer S et al. Decline eccentric squats increases
patellar tendon loading compared to standard eccentric squats. Clin Biomech 2006;
21 (7): 74854.
12. Jonsson P, Alfredson H. Superior results with eccentric compared to concentric
quadriceps training in patients with jumpers knee: a prospective randomized study.
Br J Sports Med 2005; 39 (11): 84750.
13. Fredberg U, Bolvig L. Significance of ultrasonographically detected asymptomatic
tendinosis in the patellar and Achilles tendons of elite soccer players. Am J Sports
Med 2002; 48891.
14. Johnson DP, Eastwood DM, Witherow PJ. Symptomatic synovial plicae of the knee. J
Bone Joint Surg Am 1993; 75 (10) 148596.
4
Hip Injuries
Case Report A 50-year-old male artistic director of a professional ballet

company presents to your office complaining of pain in both hips, left worse
than right, which has been gradually worsening over the past 23 years. He
has difficulty demonstrating certain movements in class and feels he has lost
full range of motion in his hips.
Diagnosis
Osteoarthritis
Epidemiology
population.
Can develop earlier in dancers than in the general
Pathophysiology In dancers, osteoarthritis can be primary or secondary in

origin. Primary arthritis refers to osteoarthritis without known etiology.
Secondary arthritis can develop as a result of or following some type of
injury. In dancers, repetitive microtrauma to the hip joints combined with
improper biomechanics can lead to secondary arthritis. Osteoarthritis
involves a degenerative process affecting the articular cartilage of the synovial joints, which include the hip, knee, and hand most often. Following
repetitive microtrauma, small tears initially develop in the joint cartilage at
the articular surface and ultimately progress to larger tears where the
cartilage frays into smaller fragments.
In response to this cartilage damage, chondrocytes attempt to repair the
joint surface and replenish the joint with new cartilage. However, the newly
formed cartilage is not as strong as the original, may overgrow, and is more
likely to tear again. Osteophytes are formed peripherally along the joint and
the subchondral bone beneath the surface becomes sclerotic. Synoviocytes
that normally produce hyaluronic acid that lubricates the healthy joint
and provides necessary viscosity and elasticity cannot provide sufficient
lubrication to the osteoarthritic joint, and water begins to replace the
healthy synovial fluid. With further damage to the cartilage and loss of the
89
90
shock-absorbing, lubricating, and nourishing properties of healthy synovial

fluid, the surrounding bone, ligaments, and tendons of the affected joint
capsule bear the load of the joint and pain is felt.
The pain of osteoarthritis is believed to result from a number of different
factors, as cartilage itself is not innervated. The pain can come from activation of nociceptive nerve endings in the surrounding synovium, bone, tendons, and ligaments that are placed under excess pressure. This leads to loss
of the normal synovial cushion and cartilage lining. Pain can also result from
vascular congestion of subchondral bone, periosteal elevation, muscle fatigue, and ultimately contracture of the joint.
History The patient will typically complain of pain that began gradually,
with or without an inciting injury. The pain is worse with activity, relieved
with rest, and associated with morning stiffness lasting less than 30 minutes.
PE Depending on the stage of disease, physical examination of the hip
joint may differ. In the early stage, the patient may have antalgic gait,
although the joint otherwise can appear normal. As the disease progresses,
range of motion in the hip will become limited, with internal rotation
typically affected before external rotation. Progressive hip flexion, adduction, and prone rotation are typically painful.
In ballet dancers, it is important to evaluate the alignment of the pelvis in
common positions, such as plie, which is the beginning and endpoint for
many exercises at the barre and in center. Correct plie technique involves
activation of the external rotator muscles of the hips and adductor muscles
of the legs, activating the adductors to work eccentrically when flexing the
knees in plie and concentrically during knee extension (Figures 4-1).
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Early in the disease process, standard
radiographs are usually negative. As the disease progress, radiographs are
useful to characterize the extent of disease. A universally accepted method
of radiographically classifying arthritis is the Kellgren and Lawrence grading system, which identifies four characteristic radiographic features of
arthritis [1]
1.
2.
3.
4.
Joint space narrowing

Osteophytes
Subchondral sclerosis
Subchondral cysts
Treatment It is important to inform the dancer that osteoarthritis is not an

inevitable byproduct of aging and a lifetime of dancing. Rather, they should
be made aware of several effective measures to manage the symptoms of
osteoarthritis. First, changes in diet should be made to include adequate
hydration (with water, not sugar filled drinks), increased intake of fruits,
vegetables and cold-water fish, and decreased consumption of red meat and
processed foods. Second, an individualized physical therapy program for
4.
Hip Injuries
91
FIGURE 4-1. (A) Demi plie correct

pelvic alignment.
FIGURE 4-1. (B) Demi plie incorrect

pelvic alignment.
arthritis of the hip should focus on quadriceps and hamstring stretches, hip
flexor and hip external rotator stretches, quadriceps, hamstrings and gluteal
strengthening exercises and core strengthening exercises. Aerobic conditioning with low-impact weight-bearing exercises should also be emphasized.
Intra-articular injections of corticosteroid and sodium hyaluronate may
be helpful in providing temporary pain relief [2]. Fluoroscopic guided
corticosteroid injections have been reported to have anti-inflammatory
and pain relieving effects for about 46 weeks. Due to possible cartilage
damage, intra-articular steroid injections should be limited. Intra-articular
injection of sodium hyaluronate for hip osteoarthritis using different
types of hyaluronic acid formulations (SynviscTM, HyalganTM, SupartzTM,
OrthoviscTM, and EuflexxaTM) have been used to provide pain relief and
delay total hip arthroplasty, with variable results. Ultrasound guidance has
been used with increasing frequency [3].
Indications for surgery typically include pain, functional limitations, and
joint stiffness. In the dancer, surgical options for hip osteoarthritis include
almost exclusively total hip arthroplasty. Osteotomy, arthrodesis, and hemiarthroplasty are not recommended. About 85% of patients undergoing total hip
arthroplasty have the diagnosis of osteoarthritis. Hip arthroscopy has a limited
role, if at all, in the management of osteoarthritis of the hip, with approximately
15% good to excellent results (D.J. Rose, personal communication).
92
Recently, newer techniques involving hip resurfacing have been used in

younger patients. Whereas total hip replacement involves removal of the
femoral head, hip resurfacing involves grinding down the head of the femur
to a smaller ball and cementing a metal ball over the remaining head
fragment to articulate with a new artificial metal socket. The advantages
of hip resurfacing, however, over total hip replacement are at present
debatable.
4.
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93

complaining of pain over the right side of her hip that started gradually and
is worse when sleeping on her right side, when ascending stairs and when
standing up after sitting for a prolonged period of time.
Diagnosis
Trochanteric bursitis
Epidemiology
females.
Common cause of hip pain in dancers, more common in
Pathophysiology Trochanteric bursitis can develop acutely or gradually. It

can occur from direct trauma to the hip, such as a fall. More often in dancers,
it occurs as an overuse injury in combination with poor biomechanical
alignment. Associated with trochanteric bursitis, the dancer may have a
lumbosacral radiculopathy, scoliosis, snapping hip, or a leg length discrepancy. Trochanteric bursitis develops from inflammation of the bursa over
the greater trochanter following repetitive stress to this area.
History The patient can report localized pain over the greater trochanter
that may be referred into the lateral thigh, less often to the posterior thigh or
distal to the knee. It is typically worse with standing from a seated position,
standing or walking for prolonged period of time, ascending stairs or sleeping on the affected side.
PE Palpation of the affected greater trochanter will usually yield point
tenderness. Active range of motion of the hip and lower back may be
decreased, with pain reproduced in external rotation and abduction. The
patient may have associated numbness or paresthesias in the proximal thigh
that does not follow a specific dermatomal segment.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Standard radiographs of the hip and
femur can rule out associated fracture, dislocation, arthritis, bony, or soft
tissue lesions. Radiographs may reveal trochanteric spur formation. Local
injection of lidocaine into the trochanteric bursa may be diagnostic and
therapeutic.
Treatment Initially, a trial of oral NSAIDs may reduce pain and inflammation. A local corticosteroid injection into the bursa can also be therapeutic. In addition to medication, a course of physical therapy should be
followed, focusing on stretching of the iliotibial band, tensor fascia latae,
hip external rotators, hip flexors, and quadriceps. Ultrasound and TENS
may also be helpful. Heel lifts may be prescribed for leg length discrepancy.
For refractory trochanteric bursitis, arthroscopic or open bursectomy and
trochanteric ostectomy may be surgical options.
94

complaining of an audible snapping sound as she brings her right leg into
passe developpe a` la seconde (Figures 4-2). She denies any associated pain
and cannot remember when exactly her hip started snapping, although she
believes it has been over 2 years.
Diagnosis
Coxa saltans, snapping hip syndrome
Epidemiology
20 years old.
Very common among female ballet dancers younger than
Pathophysiology Coxa saltans, otherwise known as the snapping hip,

has been classified into one of three sourcesexternal, internal, or intraarticular. External causes of snapping hip are thought to arise from the
iliotibial band, tensor fasciae latae, or lateral margin of the gluteus maximus
sliding over the greater trochanter. Internal snapping hip is very common in
dancers and has been attributed to the iliopsoas tendon. Internal snapping
hip has been attributed to the iliopsoas tendon sliding over the iliopectineal
eminence, femoral head, femoral neck, or lesser trochanter. Internal snapping hip tends to be more painful than external, and may also be associated
with iliopsoas bursitis or iliopsoas tendonitis involving inflammation of the
synovium near the insertion of the tendon onto the femur. Intra-articular
causes of a snapping hip have been attributed most often to loose bodies,
labral tears, or osteochondral fracture. It has been suggested that repetitive
hip flexion associated with snapping of the tendon can cause thickening and
catching of the connective tissue band and may be associated with a tight
FIGURE 4-2. (A) Passe.
FIGURE 4-2. (B) Passe developpe a` la

seconde.
4.
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95
iliotibial band, weak hip abductors, hip external rotators, poor core stability,
and overpronation.
History The patient will typically complain of an audible snapping or
clicking in the hip, particularly with passe developpe a` la seconde (involving flexion, abduction, and external rotation of the hip) and grand plie
(Figures 4-3). The patient is usually able to voluntarily reproduce the snap,
which is typically unilateral. There may be associated pain right before or
during the snap but it is often painless. If associated pain is present, it may
be felt laterally over the iliotibial band or gluteus maximus, or anteriorly in
the groin over the iliopsoas. The snapping typically begins asymptomatically and can continue for months to years without causing pain.
PE Physical examination for a snapping hip may yield tenderness to
palpation over the proximal iliotibial band, trochanteric bursa, or lateral
gluteus maximus. The tenderness may be associated with an audible or
palpable snap with passe developpe actively. Flexion, abduction, and
external rotation of the hip from a neutral position can typically elicit
the snap. Weakness of the iliopsoas may be tested by resisted hip flexion
in a turned out (externally rotated) position (Figure 4-4). Coxa saltans
intra-articular, secondary to a labral tear, is associated with pain upon
FIGURE 4-3. (A) Passe demonstrating

hip external rotation.
FIGURE 4-3. (B) Grand plie.
96

FIGURE 4-4. Resisted hip flexion.
passive forced flexion and adduction of the hip. However, this may also be
positive with iliopsoas tendonitis, which can be ruled out by testing the
iliopsoas. Therefore, this test should be considered sensitive for labral
tears, but not specific.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation A snapping hip can typically be diagnosed from careful history and physical examination findings. Standard
radiographs are typically normal and not recommended unless the diagnosis is uncertain. Ultrasound is helpful to visualize the anatomy and
dynamic changes when moving the hip through flexion, abduction, and
extension. Ultrasound is also useful to guide localized injection of the
tendon sheath or bursa if iliopsoas tendonitis or bursitis is suspected.
MRI/MRA is useful when assessing the etiology of snapping hip and
when suspecting a labral tear. An intra-articular lidocaine injection may
be utilized at the same time to differentiate intra-articular causes of anterior hip pain.
Treatment For snapping hip syndrome that does not cause pain, treatment
consists initially of correction of alignment, muscle imbalance and proper
biomechanics and gait training. Anti-lordotic exercises, core strengthening
exercises, lumbopelvic stability exercises, peripelvic stretching, and
strengthening exercises should be emphasized. Hip flexor, hip abductor,
and hip external rotator stretching exercises are important.
For an acutely painful snapping hip, PRICE and a short course of
NSAIDs are usually appropriate. Physical therapy should focus on functional rehabilitation as above, as well as elimination of exacerbating dance
activities until symptoms have resolved. For a snapping hip that is associated
with iliopsoas tendonitis, please refer to the treatment of iliopsoas syndrome
discussed in the next section. For coxa saltans externa, surgical options
include resection of a portion of the iliotibial band overlying the greater
trochanter or at the gluteus maximus insertion site and lengthening of the
iliotibial band tendon. Surgery in the dancer for a snapping hip should be
avoided at all costs as this may end the dancers career.
4.
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97

complaining of painful snapping in the front of her hip when attempting
passe developpeandattitude en avant (Figures 4-5). It is worse after class and
rehearsal and alleviated with rest.
Diagnosis
Iliopsoas tendonitis, iliopsoas syndrome
Epidemiology Iliopsoas tendonitis, e.g. coxa saltans interna, is more common in student dancers than professional dancers.
FIGURE 4-5. (A) Developpe proper hip

alignment.
FIGURE 4-5. (B) Developpe hip lifted.
FIGURE 4-5. (C) Attitude en avant on

pointe.
98
Pathophysiology In ballet dancers, the most common cause is overuse

injury. Repetition of the basic passe developpe preparation for many of
the standard ballet positions involves hip flexion, abduction, and external
rotation with extension of the leg to the maximum possible. Over time,
repetition of these same movements leads to chronic microtrauma to the
iliopsoas tendon. Without sufficient time to heal, microtrauma leads to
macroscopic injury. Also, for young dancers, the adolescent growth spurt
is a time of relative inflexibility of the hip flexors and hamstrings. Tight hip
flexors exacerbate anterior pelvic tilt, placing the spine in excess lumbar
lordosis with subsequent increased pressure on the posterior elements of the
spine, leading to increased risk of back injury.
History The patient will typically complain of anterior hip pain that may
be associated with clicking or weakness with passe developpe (hip flexion,
abduction, and external rotation). The pain is typically of insidious onset
without acute preceding injury.
PE Physical examination will typically reveal tenderness to palpation of
the iliopsoas in the femoral triangle, bordered superiorly by the inguinal
ligament, laterally by the sartorius muscle and medially by the adductor
longus muscle. The patient usually has tight hip flexors. Motor muscle
testing usually reveals proximal weakness of the hip extensors and rotators. Provocative testing with active hip flexion in an externally rotated
position can be applied with resistance with the patient lying supine. This is
considered positive if anterior hip or groin pain is elicited with resisted
active range of motion. Provocative hyperflexion of the hip is also painful
when the patients hip is gradually flexed while lying supine with the hip in
neutral rotation and abduction [4]. If active and passive range of motion of
the hip is normal, suspect iliopsoas tendonitis [5]. Anterior hip pain that
occurs simply with passive range of motion and rotation of the hip with
flexion, abduction, and adduction may be indicative of hip arthritis. If pain
is felt posteriorly, suspect sacroiliac joint dysfunction. Forced flexion and
adduction of the hip may be positive with both iliopsoas syndrome and
labral tear.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Pelvic AP and frog leg lateral view radiographs will typically be normal, but are useful to rule out bony pathology.
MRI is usually negative for iliopsoas pathology; however, may be useful to
rule out other causes of anterior hip pain. Dynamic ultrasound can demonstrate tendinopathy, bursitis, edema, and other soft tissue pathology.
Treatment Acutely, the goal of treatment is to reduce pain and inflammation. PRICE is initially useful, followed by gentle stretching exercises once
the symptoms have improved. For iliopsoas syndrome, iliopsoas and rectus
femoris stretching and strengthening, as well as anti-lordotic and pelvic
mobilization exercises should be instituted. This protocol has been found
to resolve almost all instances of iliopsoas syndrome with the need for
4.
Hip Injuries
99
injection or surgery. Patients who overpronate can be helped by using a

custom molded orthotic.
For patients with recalcitrant pain despite focused physical therapy and
for whom iliopsoas tendonitis and/or bursitis is suspected, an ultrasound
guided corticosteroid and local anesthetic injection into the iliopsoas tendon
sheath or into the iliopsoas bursa may be beneficial. A lidocaine challenge
test is performed under ultrasound guidance and involves bathing the iliopsoas tendon sheath with 1% lidocaine. If the patient experiences relief of
his/her symptoms, the injection is both diagnostic and therapeutic. More
recently, ultrasound guided peritendinous injections of a combination of
corticosteroid and anesthetic have been used with increasing success in the
treatment of tendonitis resistant to conventional therapy [6].
Almost all patients experience relief from symptoms with non-operative
management. If conservative management is not successful over the course
of 36 months, other causes of anterior hip pain should be explored. If,
however, the above measures fail and the lidocaine injection challenge test
does not relieve symptoms, surgical intervention may be considered. Surgical options include partial and complete release of the iliopsoas tendon and
resection of the iliopsoas bursa via open and arthroscopic techniques; however, surgery should absolutely be avoided in the active dancer as this may
end his or her career. In addition, operative complications have included
persistent hip pain, weakness, and decreased sensation [7].
100

complaining of low back pain and right buttock pain that is worse after
rehearsals. She points with two fingers to her right lower buttock to a
localizable area of pain.
Diagnosis
Sacroiliac joint dysfunction
Epidemiology Accounts for 15% of chronic low back pain in general

population [8] and approximately 12% of all dance injuries [9].
Pathophysiology The sacroiliac (SI) joints articulate between the sacrum
and the two ilia to provide significant stability as well as passive mobility.
The sacroiliac articulation is unique in its role in relieving stress on the
pelvic ring. It must allow movement of the pelvis secondary to significant
range of motion of the lower extremities, especially in the extreme ranges
displayed by dancers. On the other hand, it must also provide stability in
absorbing forces transmitted from the spine into the lower extremities in
multiple directions. The interlocking ridges and grooves joining the sacrum
and two ilia as well as the surrounding ligaments allow this passive range of
motion to occur.
In dancers, the SI joints are particularly stressed as the dancer transfers a
significant amount of force through the torso into the lower extremities via
the SI joints. These motions are also repetitive and the increased frequency
and amount of force can ultimately lead to either asymmetric or decreased
motion of these joints. The sacrum sits obliquely between the ilia, with its
wider superior aspect tilting anteriorly. With hyperlordosis of the spine or
exaggerated hyperextension of the spine or hip (Figure 4-6), the ilia tend to
move anteriorly on the sacrum, with the wider superior portion of the
sacrum moving inferiorly and the inferior portion moving superiorly. Both
movements tend to separate the ilia and move them farther away from the
sacrum. Decreased and asymmetric motion, which has been described and
debated in various circles, can occur [10]. It is agreed that the sacroiliac
joints respond to flexion, extension, and rotation of the trunk and lower
limbs with complex gliding movements. Sacroiliac joint pain can occur as a
FIGURE 4-6. Hyperextension of hip in

partnered penche.
4.
Hip Injuries
101
result of acute injury to the surrounding ligaments, muscles, or nerves, or

stress on the joints secondary to repetitive, extreme ranges of motion.
The innervation of the SI joints is purportedly broad, with multisegmental contribution from the dorsal rami of the L4, L5, S1, and S2 nerves,
obturator nerve, superior gluteal nerve, and lumbosacral trunk. As a result,
pain from this region can present with multiple referral pain patterns,
including the buttocks, groin, thigh, and occasionally lower leg.
History The patient will typically complain of dull, aching pain in the
buttocks, lower back, posterior thigh, groin, or occasionally lower leg.
Dancers with sacroiliac joint hypermobility can also present with anterior
hip pain. The pain may be worse with weight bearing and ipsilateral hip
flexion and extension. The dancer may complain of decreased range of
extension when performing maneuvers to the front and side and that the
hip feels tight or locked. Assuming that the sacroiliac joint pain is secondary
to biomechanical causes, it is still important to rule out other etiologies,
including ankylosing spondylitis, other spondyloarthropathies, infection,
and metabolic disease. Patients who are status post lumbar fusion, capsular
tear, or subluxation may also have sacroiliac joint pain symptoms.
PE The patient may have gluteus medius weakness, tightness of the
piriformis, or hip flexor muscles secondary to pain or muscle imbalance;
however, strength, sensation, and reflexes should typically be normal. Palpation of the involved sacroiliac joint and surrounding soft tissue is usually
painful. Provocative testing for sacroiliac joint dysfunction can be performed with the FABER or Patrick test, which involves flexion, abduction,
and external rotation of the involved hip while applying pressure to the
opposite anterior superior iliac spine (Figure 4-7). Gillet test is performed
with the patient standing erect and alternating hip flexion while holding the
knee to the chest as the examiner palpates the posterior superior iliac spines
with both thumbs and observes for asymmetry of motion (Figure 4-8).
Gaenslen test is performed by having the patient lie supine and flex the
unaffected hip with the knee to the chest. The leg of the affected side is
FIGURE 4-7. FABER test for sacroiliac

joint dysfunction.
102

FIGURE 4-8. Gillet test.
dangled over the edge of the examining table with an inferiorly directed
force applied to the leg to increase hip extension and load on the SI joint. SI
joint provocative testing has not been shown to be reliably diagnostic or
specific [11].
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Plain radiographs can demonstrate evidence of sacroiliac joint arthritis, which may or may not cause the patient
symptoms. MRI is useful to demonstrate soft tissue pathology, sacral insufficiency fractures, inflammation, tumor, or abscess. Diagnosing the sacroiliac
joint as the source of pain is best performed with intra-articular injections
under fluoroscopic guidance. This method is preferred over radiographic
evaluation or history of clinical symptoms and physical examination.
Treatment PRICE, including anti-inflammatory medication, heat, and ice
as needed are helpful for acute injury. Physical therapy is essential to correct
improper technique and establish or reestablish proper biomechanics.
Abdominal and hip abductor strengthening exercises as well as pelvic
stabilization exercises are important. Avoidance of extreme ranges of
motion in hip and lumbar spine hyperextension and flexion are recommended in the acute phase. Muscle spasm can be addressed with myofascial
release and trigger point injections. A sacroiliac joint belt can provide
proprioceptive awareness. Joint mobilization techniques and correction of
any malalignment in positions at the barre or in center are important. If the
above treatment measures do not significantly alleviate pain, consider an
intra-articular anesthetic and steroid injection. Radiofrequency neurotomy
has also been used with varying efficacy and involves ablation of the sacroiliac joint nerve branches.
4.
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103
Case Report A 40-year-old Pilates and yoga instructor who is also a

secretary presents to your office complaining of pain in her right gluteal
area after sitting in class or at her desk for a prolonged period of time. She is
a smoker with a 25 pack-year history and admits to not warming up and
stretching enough before or after class.
Diagnosis
Piriformis syndrome
Epidemiology Occurs more commonly in females than males, although

this syndrome is often overdiagnosed.
Pathophysiology The piriformis muscle is innervated by L5-S2 and passes
through the greater sciatic notch to insert onto the superior surface of the
greater trochanter. In hip extension, it externally rotates the hip, and in hip
flexion, abducts the hip. Several anatomic variants have been observed of
the course of the sciatic nerve in relation to the piriformis muscle. The sciatic
nerve may pass undivided through the piriformis muscle or anterior to it.
The piriformis muscle may be split by the peroneal portion of the sciatic
nerve with the tibial portion passing anterior to the piriformis muscle. The
peroneal portion may pass posterior to the piriformis with the tibial portion
passing anterior to the muscle. Piriformis syndrome is often the result of
some type of gluteal spasm, contracture, or trauma to the muscle that causes
inflammation around the sciatic nerve. Gluteal spasm has been implicated
in combination with tight hip flexors, sacroiliac hypomobility, and foot
overpronation. This syndrome is often overdiagnosed, as it may be similar
in presentation to other causes of pain in the gluteal region.
History The patient may complain of pain in the gluteal region, posterior
thigh, calf and lateral foot, along the distribution of the sciatic nerve. The
pain is typically of insidious onset and may be associated with low back pain,
perineal pain, pain when rising from a seated position, defecating, or when
sitting for a long period of time.
PE On physical examination, the patient will typically have tenderness to
palpation in the gluteal region with pain with passive flexion, adduction, and
internal rotation of the hip. The patient may have associated weakness with
resisted hip external rotation and abduction. Lase`gue sign reflects tenderness to palpation of the greater sciatic notch when the knee is extended with
the hip flexed to 90 degrees. It is important to distinguish tenderness
secondary to sciatic neuritis.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Electromyography (EMG) is useful to
evaluate patterns of activity in specific muscles. In piriformis syndrome,
the piriformis and gluteus maximus should show abnormal EMG activity,
whereas the gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, and tensor fasciae latae
should all be normal. An injection of lidocaine into the painful trigger
point of the piriformis can be both diagnostic and therapeutic if the pain is
relieved following injection.
104
Treatment Dancers should avoid positions and activities that exacerbate

the pain, such as prolonged sitting, bicycling, and repetitive passe positions
in class or rehearsal. Therapeutic modalities including moist heat, cryotherapy, electrical stimulation, and ultrasound are beneficial prior to stretching
exercises. Physical therapy should focus on stretching of the piriformis with
flexion, adduction, and internal rotation of the hip (Figure 4-9). Stretching
exercises should also involve the iliopsoas, gluteal muscles, tensor fasciae
latae, and hamstrings. Myofascial release for tight lumbar paraspinal muscles and sacroiliac joint mobilization should be considered as needed. Heel
lifts, yoga, soft tissue, and myofascial release techniques have also been
recommended. More recently, injections of a mixture of corticosteroid and
lidocaine as well as botulinum toxin into the piriformis muscle with either
electromyographic, ultrasound, or fluoroscopic guidance have also been
used. If the above non-operative interventions do not successfully alleviate
the patients symptoms, surgical options include release of the piriformis
tendon near its insertion on the greater trochanter of the femur, resection of
the piriformis muscle and sciatic neurolysis [12]. It is very important, however, to rule out other etiologies in the differential diagnosis prior to any
invasive management.
FIGURE 4-9. Piriformis stretch.
4.
Hip Injuries
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Case Report A 28-year-old female principal ballet dancer presents to your

office complaining of left groin pain that began approximately 6 months
ago. She does not remember any acute injury and states the pain is worse
during class and rehearsals. It occasionally bothers her at night. She thought
the pain would resolve but it has persisted and now can get so bad that she
has difficulty putting full weight on her leg.
Diagnosis
Femoral neck stress fracture
Epidemiology
dancers.
Higher incidence in amenorrheic professional female
Pathophysiology In dancers, frequent loading of the hip and femoral neck

during class and rehearsal place high stresses with compressive and sheer
forces on the relatively small femoral neck area. In ballet dancers, these
stresses combined with low body fat, amenorrhea, and hypoestrogenemia
greatly increase their risk of developing stress fractures. Without a necessary percentage of body fat, dancers menstrual cycles stop, hypoestrogenemia develops, and their bones become weak and brittle. Initially, bone of
the femoral neck can respond to the applied high stresses by increasing
mechanical bone resorption, which is then balanced by osteoblastic bone
remodeling. However, once the mechanical stresses combined with the
metabolic hypoestrogenemia exceed the capacity of the bone to repair itself,
microfractures develop that ultimately lead to fracture. A third pathophysiologic risk factor in dancers is poor technique as a result of muscle
imbalance, further increasing the load placed on the femoral neck that
should ideally be sustained by properly strengthened muscles.
History The patient will typically complain of anterior hip, groin, or thigh
pain that may refer to the medial knee via the obturator nerve. Typically,
the pain has been going on for some time, may occur at night and be
progressively worsening, or simply not resolving. The pain usually improves
with rest and is worse with weight bearing and high impact activity. Often,
the patient does not recall a specific initial injury.
PE Depending on the severity of the fracture, the patient may or may not
be able to bear weight on the leg. Tenderness to palpation of the femoral
neck is actually not typical secondary to the soft tissue surrounding the
femoral neck. Passive range of motion will typically be limited at end
range. The patient may have pain with internal rotation of the hip and
difficulty jumping on the affected leg. The patient should be assessed for
leg length discrepancy and excessive subtalar pronation. Manual muscle
testing may reveal weakness of the hip musculature, especially in hip flexion, which may be difficult to assess depending on the degree of pain.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Initial radiographs are often not sensitive
for fracture. A bone scan provides higher sensitivity and more information
regarding any associated periosteal injury. MRI is important when
106
considering surgical intervention and will demonstrate displacement of the

fracture as well as associated soft tissue pathology.
Treatment Depending on the location of the femoral neck stress fracture,
management will vary. If the stress fracture is superolateral and is not
displaced, it is considered a tension type fracture. Surgery (internal fixation)
is usually required for non-displaced tension type femoral neck fractures as
they are at high risk for displacement. If displacement occurs, the vascular
supply to the femoral head may be compromised, which requires immediate
surgery to avoid avascular necrosis.
Surgical intervention is also necessary for complete transverse femoral
neck fractures and is typically performed via arthroplasty or internal fixation. It is important not to delay diagnosis of transverse femoral neck
fractures for risk of non-union, malunion, delayed union, AVN, or osteonecrosis. Post-operatively, the patient usually begins toe touch weight bearing on days 23, followed with progressive weight bearing as tolerated with
crutches, a walker, or other assistive aid for 812 weeks.
If the stress fracture is partial, occurring inferomedially, this is considered
a compression type femoral neck fracture. Surgery is usually not indicated
for this type of fracture as complete fractures and displacement tend not to
occur. Weight bearing is initially avoided until the patients pain symptoms
improve, and subsequently should be limited to crutches or a cane in the
hand opposite the injured side. Progressive weight bearing is allowed when
pain free and healing of the fracture should be followed with serial radiographs. If after 3 months radiographs show fracture extension and/or the
patients symptoms are not improving, referral to an orthopedic surgeon is
indicated.
4.
Hip Injuries
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Case Report A 32-year-old professional female ballet dancer presents to

your office complaining of sharp groin pain with hip flexion. The pain
worsens by the end of class and following rehearsal. She also complains
that her hip occasionally catches and gives way.
Diagnosis
Acetabular labrum tear
Epidemiology Common cause of chronic hip pain in dancers secondary to

repetitive stress at the extremes of hip range of motion and exacerbated by a
hypermobile hip joint.
Pathophysiology The acetabulum of the hip is covered by a fibrocartilaginous labrum similar to the glenoid labrum of the shoulder. The labrum
provides joint stability by deepening the hip socket and reducing the stress
on the hip joint. The acetabulum is oriented anteriorly and has the least
amount of structural support in this direction. The stability of the capsule is
largely provided by three ligamentsthe iliofemoral ligament anteriorly,
which is the strongest ligament in the body, the ischiofemoral ligament
posteriorly, and the pubofemoral ligament inferiorly. Labral tears most
commonly involve the anterolateral labrum.
In ballet dancers, it is important to remember that the degree of hip
external rotation is dependent not only on the degree of femoral anteversion but also on the amount of tension provided by the iliofemoral ligament.
As the hip externally rotates and extends, the femoral head glides anteriorly. Depending on the balance between tension and laxity of the ligaments forming the capsule as well as the depth of the hip socket itself, the
relative mobility of the femoral head in the hip joint will vary. Excess
capsular laxity can lead to instability, repetitive microtrauma from
increased stresses on the hip joint, and eventually a labral tear. The
increased stresses on the hip joint are usually associated with truncal rotation on a single weight bearing leg combined with hip external rotation, leg
hyperabduction, and hyperextension of the spine.
In additional to lax ligaments, a large degree of external hip rotation can
be secondary to shallow hip sockets, for which the body compensates with a
large acetabular labrum. This will also lead to increased capsular laxity,
instability, and potentially labral tears. In ballet dancers, it is further more
difficult to distinguish labral tears as the cause or result of joint instability, as
the requirement for hip external rotation must be balanced with adequate
capsular support by the surrounding hip ligaments and musculature. The
dancer ideally wants both a flexible and a well supported hip joint.
Risk factors for development of a labral tear include increased acetabular
surface area due to acetabular bone spur formation (pincer impingement),
increased femoral head radius or osteophyte formation (CAM impingement), acetabular retroversion, and hip dysplasia with a shallow acetabulum. The development of labral tears with associated hip joint instability,
subluxation, and excessive joint loading has been associated with an
108
increased risk of later developing degenerative hip osteoarthritis, which can

ultimately necessitate hip replacement.
History The patient can complain of anterior groin pain. Often the pain is
sharp and associated with the sensation of the hip catching, clicking, giving
way, or locking. The pain may be acute or chronic, depending on the
mechanism of injury.
PE For anterolabral tears, pain may be elicited with passive range of
motion of the hip through flexion, adduction, and internal rotation. Pivoting
on the affected leg may be painful or feel unstable. It is important to rule
out iliopsoas syndrome as an etiology as this may also be positive for the
above test.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Standard radiographs can demonstrate
associated acetabular dysplasia or degenerative changes of the hip, e.g.
pincer and/or CAM impingement. Anterior posterior views of the pelvis
and a true lateral of the hip should be obtained. MRI can reveal tears in the
labrum similar to meniscal tears in the knee. MRA with 1015 ml diluted
gadolinium injected into the hip prior to imaging to detect labral tears is
significantly more sensitive. Labral tears are still frequently missed on
imaging, providing intra-articular lidocaine/corticosteroid injections and
arthroscopy as reasonable diagnostic and therapeutic options.
Treatment The treatment algorithm varies depending on the specific labral pathology. For an isolated labral tear, the dancer is initially instructed to
limit dance activity that aggravates the pain and increases the stress placed
on the hip joint for 46 weeks. For ballet dancers, this restriction includes
limiting extreme hip external rotation. Restricted activity should be followed by an individualized physical therapy program once the pain symptoms resolve. Physical therapy should focus on iliopsoas and hip rotator
stretching, strengthening, core stabilization and proprioception and balance
training. The dancer should be carefully assessed for muscular imbalances
and tightness. If the above options fail, consider a fluoroscopic guided intraarticular corticosteroid injection and/or oral anti-inflammatory medication
as needed. Labral tears without pincer or CAM impingement usually do
very well with arthroscopic debridement. Partial weight bearing may be
instituted immediately post-operatively with full weight bearing usually
occurring by 35 days post-operatively.
For a labral tear secondary to impingement, the patient should be evaluated by an orthopedic surgeon for labral repair via arthroscopic osteochondroplasty or debridement. Above average outcomes have been reported for
patients without associated osteoarthritis or dysplasia, and outcomes in dancers have ranged from no relief to return to dance at their pre-operative level
with an average of 68 months of rehabilitation. It has been suggested that
similar to meniscal injuries in the knee, labral injuries with associated instability, subluxation, and excess joint loading can lead to arthritic joint changes.
4.
Hip Injuries
109
References
1. Kellgren J, Lawrence J. Radiologic assessment of osteoarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis
1957; 16: 494501.
2. Zhang W, Moskowitz RW, Nuki G et al. OARSI recommendations for the management of hip and knee osteoarthritis, Part II:OARSI evidence-based, expert consensus
guidelines. Osteoarthr Cartilage 2008; 16(2): 13762.
3. Robinson P, Keenan AM, Conaghan PG. Clinical effectiveness and dose response of
image-guided intra-articular corticosteroid injection for hip osteoarthritis. Rheumatology 2007; 46: 28591.
4. Micheli LJ. Dance injuries: The back, hip and pelvis. In PM Clarkson andM Skrinar
(eds) Science of dance training 1988; 193207. Champaign, IL. Human Kinetics..
5. Padgett DE. The unstable total hip replacement. Clin Ortho Rel Res 2004; 420: 7279.
6. Adler RS, Buly R, Ambrose R, Sculco T. Diagnostic and therapeutic use of sonography-guided iliopsoas peritendinous injections. Am J Roentgenology 2005; 185:
94043.
7. Rose DJ, Montalbano G, Rosen J et al. Iliopsoas syndrome in dancers. Med Sci Sports
Exer 1998; 30(5)S: 288.
8. Schwarzer AC, Aprill CN, Bogduk N. The sacroiliac joint in chronic low back pain.
Spine 1995; 20:3137.
9. DeMann LE Jr. Sacroiliac dysfunction in dancers with low back pain. Manual Therapy 1997; 2(1): 210.
10. Cibulka MT, Sinacore DR, Cromer GS, Delitto A. Unilateral hip rotation range of
motion asymmetry in patients with sacroiliac joint regional pain. Spine 1998; 23(9):
100915.
11. Dreyfuss P, Michaelsen M, Pauza K et al. The value of medical history and physical
examination in diagnosing sacroiliac joint pain. Spine 1996; 21(22): 2594602.
12. Mizuguchi T. Division of the piriformis muscle for the treatment of sciatica. Postlaminectomy syndrome and osteoarthritis of the spine. Arch Surg 1976; 111(6):
71922.
5
Spine Injuries
Case Report A 40-year-old modern dancer who was a gymnast in her

teenage years presents to your office complaining of intermittent lower
back pain for the past 6 months. It is worse with extension and bridges and
does not radiate into the lower extremities.
Diagnosis
Lumbar zygapophysial joint (z-joint or facet) arthropathy
Epidemiology
Second most common source of low back pain.
Pathophysiology Similar to most overuse injuries seen in dance, zygapophysial joint arthropathy usually develops over time as a result of the
significant stress placed on the lumbar spine following repetitive hyperextension. Positions that increase lumbar extension, including arabesque,
attitude derrie`re (Figures 5-1) in ballet and modern dance, bridges, back
walk-overs, and back handsprings (Figures 5-2) in gymnastics exacerbate
this condition. Z-joint arthropathy tends to develop in older dancers or
those with many years of experience as a result of degenerative changes to
the z-joints. Similar to osteoarthritis, the symptoms of degenerative z-joint
disease include erosion of cartilage and the z-joint surfaces, narrowing of
the z-joint space and development of osteophytes (also known as bone
spurs) and/or subchondral sclerosis along the z-joint surfaces. In addition
to the degenerative changes, one or more of the osteophytes or the z-joint
itself may fracture during periods of increased dance activity.
History The patient typically presents complaining of back pain worse
with extension and turning to one side. The pain may be localized to the
lower back or may radiate down the lower extremity if there is associated
irritation of the nerve root adjacent to the z-joint. A referral pain pattern is
typically dull, aching, and difficult to localize. Pain is usually insidious and
may be worse with standing, descending stairs, and walking.

111
112
FIGURE 5-1. (A) Arabesque, flat.

FIGURE 5-1. (B) Arabesque, on pointe.
FIGURE 5-1. (C) Attitude derrie`re, on

pointe.
PE The patient may have tenderness to palpation over the lumbar z-joints
and the surrounding paraspinal muscles on the affected side. Lumbar hyperextension with lateral rotation (oblique extension) to the involved side
typically reproduces the pain. Dancers tend to utilize extreme ranges of
motion of the lumbar spine; therefore, apparently normal range of motion
on examination may be significantly decreased range of motion for a dancer
(Figures 5-3 and 5-4).
The dancers technique in lumbar extension is important to assess as
patients will often incorrectly demonstrate lumbar hyperlordosis and lack
5. Spine Injuries
FIGURE 5-2. (A) Bridge.
FIGURE 5-2. (B) Back walkover.
FIGURE 5-3. Spine range of motion.
FIGURE 5-4. Spine, hip range of motion.
113
114

FIGURE 5-5. Exaggerated spine hyperextension.
of use of abdominal muscles in positions en derrie`re that increase lumbar

extension. When at the barre and in center, the patient should be evaluated
for proper positioning throughout full range of motion of the demonstrated
exercise (Figure 5-5).
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Radiographs of the lumbar spine may
show degenerative z-joint changes, including osteophytes, irregularity of
the joint line, joint space narrowing, and/or subchondral sclerosis. CT and/
or MRI can demonstrate more specific degenerative changes of the z-joint
but with questionable reliability. Bone scan with SPECT imaging has
recently been used with increasing frequency to diagnose z-joint pathology.
The gold standard with which to diagnose z-joint disease are fluoroscopic
guided medial branch blocks. In double blind blocks, a short acting anesthetic such as lidocaine is first injected into the joint, followed by injection
with a longer acting anesthetic such as bupivacaine.
Treatment A carefully prescribed physical therapy regimen involving antilordotic exercises, core strengthening, and lumbar stabilization is essential for
the acute as well as maintenance phase, and to prevent recurrence of symptoms. Should physical therapy fail, consider an intra-articular injection of
corticosteroid and anesthetic. Relief from this injection can be diagnostic as
well as therapeutic. If the patient experiences no relief from the injection
and the specific z-joint or joints have been identified as the pain generators,
radiofrequency neurotomy of the medial branches of the dorsal rami innervating the involved z-joints may be performed under fluoroscopic guidance.
Surgical excision of any fractured osteophytes, if present, or excision of the
z-joint itself is considered only if the above treatment options fail. Spinal
fusion is considered only as a last resort.
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115

complaining of pain in his lower back when bending forward while sitting
and when lifting most objects heavier than a few pounds. He initially felt the
pain during a performance, then again after practicing a lift with a fellow
company member.
Diagnosis
Discogenic pain
Epidemiology More common in male than female dancers secondary to

increased pressure on discs during lifts.
Pathophysiology Low back pain can arise from injury to the lumbar
intervertebral discs. The outer third of the annulus fibrosus of lumbar
discs is richly innervated and when a radial tear or fissure extends into the
outer third of the annulus, nociceptive nerve endings in the annulus fibrosus
can be stimulated chemically as well as mechanically, resulting in the clinical
symptom of low back pain. Internal disc disruption refers to disruption of
the disc without external bulge or herniation. If an annular tear extends into
the periphery of the annulus fibrosus in the vicinity of a degraded nucleus
pulposus, the nucleus can herniate if the disc is under compression. A visual
analogy is squeezing jelly (nucleus pulposus) out of a donut (annulus
fibrosus).
In dancers, mechanical compression of the disc increases with frequent
forward lumbar flexion, which significantly increases the load placed on
lumbar discs when compared to the load in neutral position. Also, in male
dancers, this load on the discs is further increased when carrying the weight
of another dancer in the arms or when the flexed spine is rotated. This load is
increased when the arms are held away from the body (Figure 5-6). Poor
technique with lumbar hyperlordosis is also frequently associated with
inadequate lifting strength and core instability (Figures 5-7).
If the extruded nucleus herniates centrally, pain can be felt in the lower
back. If the nucleus herniates laterally, it can irritate nerve roots that supply
the leg. Irritation of the nerve roots can also cause numbness or tingling in
FIGURE 5-6. Increased lumbar load with

hands held away from body.
116

FIGURE 5-7. (A) Hyperlordosis.
FIGURE 5-7. (B) Improved hyperlordosis.
the leg or muscle weakness. These signs of neurologic loss are reflective of a
radiculopathy, which will be discussed in the next section.
History The patient will typically complain of low back pain, worse with
bending forward, sitting, or lifting from a seated or standing position. He or
she may report an acute incident, often involving lifting or lifting and
twisting using incorrect technique. It may be exacerbated with coughing,
sneezing, or any activity that increases intradiscal pressure. If there is an
associated radiculopathy, the patient may report symptoms of motor weakness or numbness and/or tingling in the lower extremities.
PE Although no physical exam finding is pathognomonic for discogenic
low back pain, a thorough musculoskeletal and neurologic physical examination is important to further corroborate the information obtained from
the patients history and symptoms. Depending on the acuity of the pain, the
patient may have tenderness to palpation of the lumbar paraspinal muscles
that are in spasm, decreased active range of motion in lumbar flexion
secondary to pain and tight hamstrings and/or hip flexors. Without associated pain generators in addition to the disc, the neurologic examination
should be intact.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation While MRI is the best non-invasive imaging technique to visualize degenerative changes within the disc, including
tears in the annulus, the correlation between changes seen on MRI and the
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117
existence of patients symptoms is not direct. In other words, a patient

having low back pain symptoms may or may not have identifiable disc
pathology to explain the source of their pain, and patients with demonstrable disc pathology on MRI may not have pain corresponding to their
MRI findings. The gold standard for diagnosing internal disc disruption is
disc stimulation and post-discography CT. Stimulation of the disc identifies
which disc is painful and post-discography CT delineates the morphology of
the nucleus and presence of an annular tear.
Treatment In young dancers, the natural history of disc herniations tends
to be resorption of the herniated disc over the course of weeks to months.
For acute pain, a course of anti-inflammatory medications or muscle relaxants is initially used. An individualized physical therapy program should
focus first on correcting improper alignment and biomechanics, improving
segmental motion and progress to an anti-lordotic stretching, strengthening
and core stabilization program. Education regarding proper activation of
the abdominal and lumbar paraspinal musculature and correct pelvic alignment during lifts, at the barre and in center is essential for core strengthening and prevention of injury. A brace or corset together with the exercise
program can help immobilize the lumbar spine. Surgical excision is considered only as a last resort if the patients symptoms are not responsive to nonoperative treatment.
118
Case Report A 27-year-old modern dancer performing in the Broadway

production of STOMP presents to your office complaining of low back
pain associated with radiating pain down the back of his leg and occasionally
into the side of his foot.
Diagnosis
Lumbar radiculopathy and radicular pain
Epidemiology
L5 most common radiculopathy in lumbar spine.
Pathophysiology A radiculopathy is defined as a state of neurologic loss in

which conduction is blocked in the axons of a spinal nerve or its roots. In
sensory axons, this conduction block results in numbness and in motor
axons, weakness. These symptoms occur as a result of compression or
ischemia of axons of a spinal nerve root. They reflect an inflammatory
process that involves nerve root swelling and toxic injury. The most common
causes of a radiculopathy include a herniated disc (most common), foraminal stenosis, epidural disorders such as infection or lipoma, meningeal
disorders, and neurologic disorders, including but not limited to diabetes,
cysts, infection, and tumors.
In distinguishing between a radiculopathy, radicular pain, and referred
pain, it is important to remember that a radiculopathy reflects a state of
neurologic loss that may or may not be associated with radicular pain.
Radicular pain refers to a shooting, electric, radiating pain that occurs
secondary to compression of a dorsal root ganglion or mechanical compression combined with chemical irritation and inflammation of a spinal nerve
root. The two entities can occur together or separately. Referred pain is
often described as dull, deep, aching, and difficult to localize. It arises as a
result of the brain misattributing the source of pain from separate distal sites
whose neural pathways converge in the same area of the brain. The pain is
perceived in a region other than the pathologic source of pain. Symptoms
that sound like referred pain may be radicular, but symptoms that are
radicular are not referred. These are important to distinguish, as management differs for both.
In the lumbar spine, an L5 radiculopathy is common and may occur most
often secondary to the tight fit of the root in its foramen. The L5 nerve root
has the largest diameter and narrowest intervertebral foramen.
History In the lumbar spine, the patient may complain of low back pain
with associated leg pain, numbness, tingling, or weakness. Depending on the
nerve root involved, the symptoms may involve the anterior, posterior,
lateral, or medial aspects of the thigh, lower leg, and/or foot.
It is also important when evaluating the patient for a radiculopathy to
assess for any red flag symptoms. These include fever, weight loss, chills, and
any history of tumor. Adolescent patients and those greater than 50 years
old are at increased risk for back pain of a malignant etiology, including
tumor and infection. In the cervical and thoracic spine, intraspinal tumors
can compress the spinal cord as well as the nerve roots and present as a
5. Spine Injuries
119
myeloradiculopathy. It is important to remember that compression of the

spinal cord is a medical emergency and to always ask about recent bowel or
bladder dysfunction, significant lower extremity deficits in strength or sensation and the presence of saddle anesthesia. Any of these symptoms
require urgent medical attention.
PE The patient should have a thorough musculoskeletal and neurologic
examination, including evaluation of motor strength, sensation, and
reflexes. Active range of motion of the lumbar spine may be reduced
secondary to pain. Tenderness to palpation or muscle spasm may be noted
along the lumbar paraspinals. Assess for upper motor neuron signs, including spasticity, clonus, Babinski reflex, and Hoffmans sign.
The straight leg raise can be performed with the patient lying supine and
passively flexing the uninvolved hip. Passively extend the symptomatic leg.
At 3570 degrees of extended leg elevation, the nerves are maximally
stretched and can reproduce the patients symptoms (Figure 5-8).The sitting
slump or dural tension test is performed with the patient in a seated position
with the head, upper chest, and shoulders in a forward slumped position, to
increase the stretch on the sciatic nerve (Figure 5-9).This test evaluates L5S1 radicular symptoms and is considered positive when symptoms radiating
down the leg are reproduced, not with hamstring tightness.
FIGURE 5-8. Straight leg raise.
FIGURE 5-9. Dural tension test.
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Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation For herniations in the lumbar spine,

radiographs are usually unremarkable and are more useful to detect structural pathology. MRI is indicated to specify the level of pathology and in
patients whose symptoms are not responding to therapy, who have progressive neurologic deficits or evidence of cauda equina syndrome. CT and
myelogram are typically indicated for pre-operative patients, those with
progressive neurologic deficits and when MRI and electromyogram
(EMG) are not diagnostic. Nerve conduction studies and needle EMG are
useful to diagnose nerve root dysfunction when the diagnosis is uncertain or
to distinguish radiculopathy from other lesions, such as peripheral neuropathy or plexopathy. In the second week post-injury, positive sharp waves
and fibrillations can first be seen in proximal, followed by distal, muscles.
Therefore, the study should be delayed until 3 weeks but less than 6 months
following injury to increase the likelihood of obtaining informative results.
Treatment The natural history of radiculopathy secondary to disc herniations is eventual resorption of the disc and improvement in the patients
symptoms. Treatment initially consists of an individualized physical therapy
program focused on lumbar stabilization and core strengthening. Manipulation, soft tissue mobilization, and lumbar traction to distract the vertebral
bodies have also been used. Perhaps the most essential component of the
physical therapy program to prevent further injury is institution and adherence to a home exercise program, which the patient can incorporate into
their regular schedule. NSAIDs are useful to treat pain and inflammation,
while muscle relaxants can be used for radiculopathy associated with muscles in acute spasm. Opioids and anticonvulsants such as gabapentin and
pregabalin are approved for neuropathic pain.
For pain that does not resolve with physical therapy and medications,
consider an epidural steroid injection for a carefully identified population of
patients. These injections can be administered via transforaminal, interlaminar, and caudal routes. Surgery is indicated for significant and progressive
motor deficits, or cauda equina syndrome with bowel and bladder dysfunction. Surgical options include percutaneous discectomy, microdiscectomy,
discectomy with or without fusion, chemonucleolysis, laminectomy, or laminotomy for patients with spinal stenosis.
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121
Case Report A 14-year-old female ballet student presents to your office

complaining of delayed menarche and a rib hump noted by her mother.
She denies associated back pain or other medical problems.
Diagnosis
Scoliosis
Epidemiology
population.
Higher prevalence in dancers than in the general
Pathophysiology Scoliosis involves a three dimensional deformity of

the spinal segments with lateral curvature and vertebral body rotation.
It can occur in any segment of the spine and has been divided into
different categories depending on the age of onset: congenital, infantile,
juvenile, adolescent, and adult. It can also be described as occurring
secondary to a preexisting condition, such as cerebral palsy. Most often
the cause of scoliosis is idiopathic; however, a gene has been recently
identified in association with idiopathic scoliosis [1]. Congenital scoliosis
may result from abnormal development of the spine during embryonic
development and may be associated with neurologic deficits. Infantile
scoliosis is described in patients less than 3 years old and is typically
associated with congenital defects. Juvenile scoliosis is described in
patients 410 years old and is often associated with a high risk of
curve progression. In dancers, adolescent idiopathic is the most common
type and is characterized for patients 11 years old to growth completion.
It is also associated with a high risk of curve progression, occurs with
equal frequency in males and females, although the risk of curve progression is greater in females. During the adolescent growth spurt, the
rate of curve progression is approximately 1 degree per month.
History Scoliosis in and of itself is not a direct cause of back pain and the
patient will not typically complain of back pain secondary to scoliosis. In
ballet dancers, delayed menarche and prolonged episodes of amenorrhea
have been suggested as predisposing factors for scoliosis; therefore, it is very
important to elicit a patients menstrual history.
PE On physical examination, first assess the patients gait and check the
feet for cavovarus deformity. It is also important to evaluate for asymmetry
at various levels. Inspect the patient for shoulder height asymmetry, a
prominent scapula, protruding ribs, and asymmetric iliac crest heights.
Evaluate the patients range of motion in lumbar flexion, extension, and
lateral rotation. The Adams bending test is used to assess appropriate
rotation of the ribcage in thoracic scoliosis. If the patient has visible asymmetry of the ribs in forward lumbar flexion seen as an asymmetric prominence of the posterior trunk, the test is positive and scoliosis should be
suspected (Figure 5-10).Thoracic curvature to the right, or dextroscoliosis, is
most common and can usually be visualized at the T7 or T8 level. Levoscoliosis describes curvature to the left.
122

FIGURE 5-10. Adams bending test.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP, lateral, and scoliosis views obtained

posteriorly can reveal scoliotic curvature. Typically, the Cobb angle is the
standard measurement used to quantitatively determine the degree of spine
curvature. The Cobb angle refers to the angle between two intersecting
perpendicular lines drawn from the superior border of the first endplate
noted to have curvature and the inferior border of the most inferiorly
involved endplate. If multiple curves are noted, Cobb angles are drawn for
each curve. The degree of vertebral body rotation is measured by evaluating
the position of the pedicle and is graded from 0 (no rotation) to 4 (complete
rotation where the contralateral pedicle is shifted past midline). Serial
radiographs are typically obtained in patients who are still growing to follow
curve progression, approximately every 36 months.
Treatment Treatment of scoliosis typically falls into one of three possible
options: observation, orthosis, or operative management. The choice of
treatment option depends on the severity of the curve. If the curve is less
than 20 degrees, treatment typically begins with observation of curve progression and an individualized physical therapy program that focuses on
flexibility exercises, joint mobilization, and stretching and strengthening
exercises to lengthen shortened muscles and strengthen overemphasized
muscles. Emphasis is also given to proper posture and biomechanical alignment in dance as well as everyday activities.
Orthosis options are recommended when the curve is between 20 and 40
degrees and typically include a custom-molded cervical-thoracic-lumbarsacral orthosis (CTLSO) or thoraco-lumbosacral orthosis (TLSO). Orthoses
are worn 23 hours per day until the end of the patients growth spurt. The
Milwaukee brace is a type of CTLSO and the Boston brace is a type of TLSO.
The effectiveness of bracing is highly dependent upon patient compliance,
and it is important to remind patients to wear the brace as often as possible,
including during dance activities. In young children, orthoses may prevent
progression of severe curves and can potentially delay surgery on the spine
of a growing child. If the degree of curvature is greater than 40 degrees in a
growing patient, surgical correction is indicated, most often with spinal fusion.
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Case Report A 16-year-old female gymnast and ballet dancer presents to

your office complaining of low back pain that began gradually and is worse
with arabesque, attitude, back walk-overs, and back handsprings.
Diagnosis
Spondylolysis
Epidemiology Greater incidence in gymnasts and female Caucasian dancers [2]. Thought to have hereditary predisposition.
Pathophysiology Spondylolysis typically arises as one of several spinal
overuse injuries seen in dancers. It represents a defect in the normal bony
structure of the pars interarticularis, most commonly in the lumbar spine at
the L5 level. It typically occurs as a result of microtrauma from repetitive
hyperextension and rotation of the lumbar spine. If the fracture occurs
bilaterally, the superior vertebra may slip over the inferior vertebra, causing
spondylolisthesis (see below).
In ballet dancers, frequent hyperextension of the lumbar spine in arabesque, attitude, and other movements involving leg extension greater than
90 degrees can stress any of the posterior elements of the lumbar spine and
specifically shear the pars, causing a stress fracture to occur. Often, ballet
dancers who attempt to compensate for less than ideal turnout from their
hips will instead go into hyperlordosis with increased anterior pelvic tilt.
This removes some tension from the anterior hip capsule ligaments, especially the iliofemoral ligament, after which the dancer will typically force
turnout from their feet and attempt to increase external rotation at their
hips [3].
History The dancer may present with low back pain that started gradually
and is localized to the affected side (if unilateral). The pain is typically worse
with arabesque, attitude, and grand battement derrie`re(Figures 5-11). Pain is
also noticed when standing on the affected side with the lumbar spine
hyperextended. Usually, the patient does not report associated numbness,
tingling, weakness, or radiating pain down the lower extremity.
FIGURE 5-11. (A) Arabesque, flat.
124

FIGURE 5-11. (B) Attitude derrie`re.
FIGURE 5-11. (C) Grand battement

derrie`re.
PE On exam, the patient may have full range of motion in lumbar flexion,
extension and lateral rotation or slightly limited lumbar flexion if the hamstrings are tight. Dancers typically have above average flexibility, so decreased
range of motion may not be elicited. Hyperextension of the spine is typically
painful, in arabesque, attitude, and especially when the patient stands on the
affected side. Pain elicited with extension is spondylolysis in a dancer or
gymnast until proven otherwise. The surrounding paraspinal muscles may be
in spasm. The patient may be able to localize a specific area of pain.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation While AP radiographs are typically normal, oblique views can demonstrate a defect in the pars that may resemble a
stress fracture. The pars defect will appear as a break in the neck or the
collar of the Scotty dog. Single photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT) bone scan can demonstrate increased activity at the involved
regions and is useful for identifying acute stress reactions prior to their
appearance on radiographs. CT will demonstrate detailed evidence of fractures and other bony pathology.
Treatment In the acute phase, immobilization of the symptomatic area with
bracing and physical therapy are recommended until the injury heals or the
patient no longer has symptoms with dance activity. The brace is typically
worn in neutral lordosis (0 degrees) for 23 hours daily until the patient is free
of symptoms. A bone scan is usually repeated after a minimum of 3 months.
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125
Physical therapy should focus on hamstring, iliopsoas, paraspinal, and

abdominal muscle stretching, which can be done while in the brace. Hyperextension should be avoided. Although the fracture may not heal completely by radiographic evaluation, the dancer can be allowed to return to
dance after the symptoms resolve. Fibrous healing of the fracture can
coincide with complete resolution of the patients symptoms.
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Case Report A 14-year-old female gymnast and modern dancer presents

to your office complaining of lower back pain while doing backbends, back
walk-overs, and back handsprings during gymnastics practice and while
doing bridges in modern dance class rehearsal. She describes the pain as
dull and aching, occasionally extending to her buttocks. It is improved with
sitting.
Diagnosis
Spondylolisthesis
Epidemiology
Occurs most often at the L4L5 level.
Pathophysiology Spondylolisthesis describes anterior translation of one

superior vertebral body upon the vertebral body immediately inferior to it.
Depending on the cause of the spondylolisthesis, the type of translation is
described differently. Five categories have been described. The first category (Type I) refers to congenital spondylolisthesis, which is characterized
by anterior translation of dysplastic sacral zygapophysial joints. Type II
describes a stress fracture of the pars interarticularis causing isthmic spondylolisthesis, which is typically seen in dancers and gymnasts. Type III
describes degenerative spondylolisthesis that arises from zygapophysial
joint disease that causes intersegmental instability. Acute trauma to the
pars interarticularis causes type IV spondylolisthesis. Pathologic spondylolisthesis arises from any destabilizing injury to the zygapophysial joints.
Spondylolisthesis is also graded according to the percentage of anterior
displacement of the superior vertebral body to the superior end plate of the
inferior vertebral body. Grade 1 describes 125% displacement, grade 2
2650%, grade 3 5175%, grade 4 76100%, and grade 5 greater than 100%
displacement.
History Depending on the cause of spondylolisthesis, the history of a
patients symptoms may differ. The presentation is almost identical to
spondylolysis. Type II spondylolisthesis occurs more often in dancers than
other types. The patient may complain of mild pain initially with dance
activity, particularly in lumbar extension, such as arabesque, attitude, and
grand battement derrie`re; however, often the patient does not have preceding pain symptoms. If the patient has pain, it may be acute or gradual in
nature. Traumatic spondylolisthesis is associated with acute trauma, pain
and may result in spinal cord compression. Other types of spondylolisthesis
do not typically cause neurologic symptoms.
PE The physical examination findings may be similar to that of spondylolysis. The patient who presents with isthmic spondylolisthesis may have a
palpable lumbar step-off if the spondylolisthesis is grade 2 or greater. The
lumbar paraspinals may also be tender to palpation and in spasm. Often,
dancers will have loss of hamstring flexibility.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP, standing lateral, oblique, and flexion/
extension radiographs are useful to demonstrate the degree of
5. Spine Injuries
127
displacement. SPECT is helpful to distinguish a hot from a cold lesion.

Otherwise, a lesion that is no longer metabolically active does not require
bracing. CT can demonstrate any associated bony pathology and CT with
myelogram and MRI will demonstrate the presence of nerve root compression and central or foraminal stenosis.
Treatment Depending on the grade of spondylolisthesis, management
differs. For dancers with an acute isthmic lesion, dance activity should be
restricted until the patient is symptom free. An individualized physical
therapy program should focus on improving hamstring flexibility and
abdominal strength. Exercises to decrease lumbar hyperlordosis, avoid
lumbar hyperextension, and increase core stability are essential. A fracture
that is healing will be positive on bone scan and can be treated with bracing.
Serial radiographs should be performed for patients with isthmic or congenital
spondylolisthesis approximately every 6 months. Rarely does displacement
progress following adolescence.
Patients with degenerative spondylolisthesis are also typically treated
conservatively and present as older patients who may require treatment
for additional medical problems. Pathologic spondylolisthesis management
should include appropriate diagnostic work-up to direct treatment. Traumatic spondylolisthesis often require surgical intervention when the patient
presents with neurologic symptoms and/or back pain symptoms that do
not resolve with conservative management. Spondylolisthesis greater than
50% (grade 3 and above) and traumatic spondylolisthesis typically require
surgical intervention.
128

complaining of lower back pain that began gradually and is worse when
lifting his partner overhead. He had been instructed to start weight training
for core strengthening although he admits he has little time to spend in the
gym and finds weightlifting boring.
Diagnosis
Mechanical low back pain
Epidemiology More common in dancers with hyperlordotic posture and

lack of core strength.
Pathophysiology Low back pain that is described as mechanical refers
generally to etiologies that are somatic in origin, resulting from stimulation
of nociceptive nerve endings in bone, joints, ligaments, muscles of the
lumbar spine or some combination thereof. These etiologies typically
exclude visceral causes in which the source of pain is a body organ or
neurogenic causes in which the pain arises from pathology of peripheral
nerve cell bodies or axons. Non-mechanical causes can also be systemic,
such as infection, osteoporosis, and metastatic disease. It is usually a diagnosis of exclusion, once more specific causes have been ruled out.
In dancers, mechanical low back pain typically arises from a combination
of poor posture, hyperlordosis, weakness of abdominal muscles, and tight
hamstrings and lumbar fascia. There may be associated ligamentous sprain
or muscular strain, usually secondary to poor posture and biomechanical
alignment. Ballet dancers are particularly at risk for mechanical low back
pain secondary to the increased tendency to attempt to improve external
rotation from the hips. The dancer will anteriorly tilt the pelvis to slacken
the anterior hip ligaments, force turnout from the feet upward, and hyperextend the lumbar spine. This places excessive strain on the posterior
lumbar extensor muscles and underutilizes the abdominal and pelvic floor
muscles, which are usually weak. Hyperlordosis occurs as a result with
subsequent compression of the vertebrae and hypercontraction of the surrounding extensor muscles.
Adolescent dancers may also experience their growth spurts asymmetrically, where the vertebral bony components of the spine develop faster
than the surrounding tendons and ligaments, resulting in tightness of the
hamstrings and lumbar fascia. This exacerbates the hyperlordosis that may
already exist from poor technique.
History The young dancer typically presents as an adolescent, with low back
pain that is worse with dance activity. The pain may be localized and exacerbated by specific movements, or may be more diffuse, aching, and difficult to
pinpoint. It is usually worse with lumbar hyperextension and associated with
poor posture and technique.
PE Physical examination may reproduce pain in lumbar hyperextension
or in multiple directions with active range of motion. The musculoskeletal
5. Spine Injuries
129
and neurologic examinations are usually normal and any associated provocative maneuvers for more specific etiologies, i.e. sitting slump or dural
tension test, straight leg raise, sacroiliac joint tenderness, referred pain
patterns, etc., should be negative. There may be associated hamstring tightness and weak abdominal muscles.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Diagnostic and imaging studies should be
ordered if other specific etiologies are suspected. Disc herniations, infection, tumors, etc. should be excluded with appropriate evaluation prior to
making the diagnosis of mechanical low back pain.
Treatment It is important to establish proper posture, alignment, and
correct dance technique at the barre, center and for lifting, if applicable.
An individualized physical therapy program should focus on reducing
hyperlordosis, strengthening abdominal and pelvic floor muscles, stretching
the hamstrings and posterior lumbar extensor muscles, and correctly utilizing the dancers degree of turnout, or external rotation at the hips. If specific
exercises do not alleviate the pain and correct the patients biomechanics
over time, an anti-lordotic brace may be considered to supplement the
therapy program. The brace is normally worn at all times except during
dance activity for approximately 612 weeks, then gradually decreased in
duration for 34 months until the patient can dance without pain. Emphasis
should be placed on maintaining appropriate biomechanical alignment,
correct lifting technique (especially for male dancers), and avoiding hyperlordosis long term even after the patient is free of symptoms.
130

complaining of neck and arm pain radiating down into his hand, mainly
into the middle finger. He initially felt the pain during a performance while
lifting his partner overhead. He occasionally has pain in the lateral aspect of
his shoulder and believes some of his hand feels numb at times.
Diagnosis
Cervical radiculopathy and radicular pain
Epidemiology
C7 most common radiculopathy in cervical spine.
Pathophysiology
radiculopathy.
Please refer to the Pathophysiology section of lumbar
History In evaluating a patient for a cervical radiculopathy, it is important

to distinguish the neurologic causes of pain from non-neurologic etiologies.
In the cervical spine, the patient may complain of insidious onset of neck
and arm discomfort associated with radiating, shooting, electric pain down
the arm in a band-like pattern. There may be associated sensory changes
along the involved nerve root sclerotome, such as tingling, numbness, or loss
of sensation. Motor weakness in the upper extremity may also be present.
It is also important when evaluating the patient for a radiculopathy to
assess for any red flag symptoms. These include fever, weight loss, chills, and
any history of tumor. Adolescent patients and those greater than 50 years
old are at increased risk for back pain of a malignant etiology, including
tumor and infection. In the cervical and thoracic spine, intraspinal tumors
can compress the spinal cord as well as the nerve roots and present as a
myeloradiculopathy. It is important to remember that compression of the
spinal cord is a medical emergency and to always ask about recent bowel or
bladder dysfunction, significant lower extremity deficits in strength or sensation and the presence of saddle anesthesia. All of these symptoms require
urgent medical attention.
PE The patient should have a thorough musculoskeletal and neurologic
examination, including evaluation of motor strength, sensation, and
reflexes. Active range of motion of the cervical spine may be reduced.
Tenderness to palpation or muscle spasm may be noted along the cervical
paraspinals. Assess for upper motor neuron signs, including spasticity,
Babinski, and Hoffmans sign. In the cervical spine, perform Spurlings
test to evaluate foraminal compression [4]. This provocative maneuver is
performed by extending the neck and rotating the head to the suspected side
of the pathology and applying axial compression. The maneuver is considered positive when radicular symptoms are reproduced down the arm.
Patients with cervical radiculopathy will also typically have pain relief
with abduction of the ipsilateral shoulder and placing the hand on the
head (shoulder abduction sign). Sensation and/or reflexes in the upper
extremity may be diminished. Motor weakness may be a result of significant
root compromise or may be secondary to pain. In dancers, it is also
5. Spine Injuries
131
FIGURE 5-12. (A) Cervical kyphosis.
FIGURE 5-12. (B) Cervical kyphosis

corrected.
important to assess posture and positioning of the neck and upper back
as well as scapulohumeral alignment and range of motion (Figures 5-12).
Proper scapular kinematics, cervical spine posture, and adequate proprioception are essential to prevent injury.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation For the cervical spine, standard radiographs are useful to detect degenerative changes, fractures, subluxation,
and gross bony pathology. Any history of trauma should include AP, lateral,
bilateral oblique, flexion, extension, and open-mouth views. CT with myelography will demonstrate the integrity of the spinal canal and can reveal
spinal cord compression. MRI is the method of choice to localize nerve root
impingement and to assess the integrity of the disc, vertebral bodies, and
surrounding soft tissue. Nerve conduction studies and EMG are helpful to
differentiate cervical radiculopathy from other neuropathic conditions such
as plexopathy, peripheral neuropathy, or carpal tunnel syndrome.
Treatment The natural history of cervical radiculopathy is unclear. Initially,
relative rest from dance activity for 35 days and NSAIDs are recommended to reduce pain, inflammation, and specifically nerve root irritation
and edema. Some advise use of a soft cervical collar or cervical pillow at
night to help prevent neck movement and maintain a neutral position.
Manual and self-powered traction can be used, although it is important to
avoid neck extension.
132
In the acute phase, therapy should include isometric exercises to

strengthen the muscles affected by the radiculopathy. Low weight with
more frequent repetitions as well as closed kinetic chain exercises are recommended for weak shoulder girdle muscles. After the pain and inflammation
are controlled, physical therapy should be advanced to restore full range of
motion. Exercises should then progress to isotonic strengthening once the
radicular symptoms are improved. For cervical radiculopathies, scapular
stabilization exercises and manual resistive cervical stabilization exercises in
various planes are important. Soft tissue mobilization techniques are useful to
stretch the non-contractile elements. NSAIDs are helpful to reduce pain and
inflammation. Tricyclic antidepressants may be used as adjunct medications
to control radicular pain. Opioids are typically not necessary or recommended unless other regimens fail or are contraindicated. When the above
treatment options fail, consider cervical epidural steroid injections. Surgical
options are recommended only as a last resort. It is recommended for cervical
instability, for patients with symptoms of progressive neurologic deficits, long
tract signs, and failure to improve following injections.
References
1. Warren MP, Brooks-Gunn J, Hamilton LH et al. Scoliosis and fractures in young ballet
dancers. Relation to delayed menarche and secondary amenorrhea. New Eng J Med
1986; 314(21): 134853.
2. Jackson DW, Wiltse LL, Cirincione RJ. Spondylolysis in the female gymnast. Clin
Orth 1976; 117: 6873.
3. Solomon R, Brown T, Gerbino PG, Michel LJ. Pediatric and adolescent sports injuries:
The young dancer. Clin Sports Med 2000; 19(4): 71739.
4. Spurling RG. Lesions of the cervical intervertebral disc. Springfield, IL: Charles
Thomas, 1956.
6
Shoulder Injuries

complaining of pain over the top of his shoulder following a fall onto his arm
and shoulder. The pain is worse when trying to wrap his scarf around his neck.
Diagnosis
Acromioclavicular (AC) joint sprain
Epidemiology Typically occurs following a fall onto the shoulder or from

direct force on the shoulder.
Pathophysiology The acromioclavicular ligament attaches the distal end
of the clavicle to the acromion and provides horizontal joint stability, as
opposed to the coracoclavicular ligament, which provides vertical AC joint
stability. A fall onto the arm and shoulder or direct injury to the shoulder is
the usual mechanism of injury and can result in one of six types of AC joint
injury. Type I involves a partial sprain of the AC ligament, no injury to the
coracoclavicular (CC) ligament, and no clavicular displacement. A type II
injury involves a complete AC ligament tear, partial CC tear, and no
clavicular displacement. A type III injury involves complete AC and CC
ligament tears and superior clavicular displacement. A type IV injury
involves complete AC and CC ligament tears and posterosuperior clavicular
displacement. A type V injury involves complete AC and CC ligament tears,
posterosuperior clavicular displacement, deltoid and trapezius disruption
and doubling of the coracoclavicular space. A type VI injury involves
complete AC and CC ligament tears as well as inferior clavicular
displacement.
History The patient will typically complain of superior shoulder pain over
the AC joint, worse with attempted adduction of the arm across midline.
Any suspicion for AC joint separation should prompt referral to an orthopedic surgeon.

133
134
PE Physical examination will typically reveal tenderness to palpation over

the AC joint and decreased active and passive range of motion with the arm
adducted past midline. The scarf test is considered positive when the
patient has tenderness to palpation over the AC joint as the examiner
passively adducts the patients arm across midline.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP radiographs of the shoulder with the
patient bearing weight (10 lbs) should be obtained. Type V injuries can show
more than 100% expansion of the coracoclavicular region and type III
injuries can show 25100% widening.
Treatment Management of acromioclavicular joint sprains depends on the
degree of injury. Type I and II injuries typically require PRICE initially and
the patient should avoid lifting of significant weight (including partners in
dance) as well as any applied force to the affected shoulder. A type I injury
typically requires about 2 weeks prior to return to dance activity and a type
II injury may require up to 6 weeks off from dance. A sling may be worn for
comfort for 24 weeks. The patient should be allowed to return to class and
rehearsal when free of symptoms and full range of shoulder motion is
regained.
Beginning with type III injuries, either non-operative or operative management may be considered, depending on the patients dance or other occupational requirements. Cosmetics may play a part in this as well for a female
dancer. Occasional gross cosmetic deformities may also be considered for
surgical intervention, although dancers may trade a bump for an incisional scar.
Patients with type III injuries should be referred to an orthopedic surgeon for evaluation.
Usually, elite dancers who require high level function of the shoulder
joint may require surgical management, especially for chronic instability or
pain. For chronic AC joint pain or for patients who are not surgical candidates, an intra-articular corticosteroid injection may be helpful. Patients
with associated AC joint arthritis may also benefit from an intra-articular
lidocaine injection, combined with a focused physical therapy program.
Patients should be allowed to return to dance activity when free of symptoms with manual traction with full range of shoulder motion and no
tenderness to palpation at the AC joint. For types IVVI, operative management is usually recommended, which typically includes open reduction
internal fixation or distal resection of the clavicle with CC ligament reconstruction [1].
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135

complaining of pain down the lateral aspect of his arm and in his shoulder,
especially when lifting his partner or any object overhead.
Diagnosis
tear
Shoulder impingement syndrome, rotator cuff tendonitis and
Epidemiology Common cause of shoulder pain with repetitive overhead

arm movements. Partial thickness tears common in young athletes can be
asymptomatic in older adults.
Pathophysiology Shoulder impingement occurs when the subacromial
joint space is narrowed secondary to a number of possible inciting factors.
The subacromial joint space is bordered by the coracoacromial arch and the
rotator cuff. The coracoacromial arch is comprised of the coracoid process,
the coracoacromial ligament and the acromion. The possible inciting factors
may be anatomic or structural, acquired or congenital, including a congenitally curved or hooked acromion that narrows the joint space. Most often,
repetitive microtrauma is the cause of impingement in dancers.
The rotator cuff is comprised of the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres
minor, and subscapularis muscles. These four muscles hold the humeral
head within the glenoid socket. The supraspinatus abducts the arm and
depresses the humeral head. The infraspinatus and teres minor externally
rotate and extend the arm, and the subscapularis internally rotates it.
A rotator cuff tear can occur from acute trauma or as a result of some
combination of external and internal factors including chronic repetitive
microtrauma, subacromial impingement, and intrinsic tendon degeneration.
The development of chronic microtrauma and subacromial impingement is
thought to be affected by the shape of the acromion, with curved and
hooked acromions associated with joint space narrowing and increased
rotator cuff tear risk.
Dancers in particular maximally utilize the shoulders wide range of
motion, which can coincide with increased stress on its static and dynamic
stabilizers, leading to instability and ultimately impingement. Repetitive
overhead arm movements, as seen with male dancers lifting a partner, can
irritate the underlying rotator cuff muscles with resultant inflammation,
swelling, and compression of the subacromial bursa and rotator cuff muscles
and tendons. The supraspinatus tendon is most frequently involved, as the
area of impingement is localized over the supraspinatus tendon insertion on
the superior facet of the greater tubercle of the humerus. High velocity
eccentric extension movements also predispose for the development of
impingement. Furthermore, if the dancer presents with weak rotator cuff
muscles and shoulder instability, the shoulder joint will sustain a disproportionately larger stress than it can handle. If the muscles stabilizing the
shoulder are not strong enough to hold the humeral head within its socket
and are subject to overuse, the humeral head may move superiorly and
136
impinge the subacromial space. If allowed to progress, subacromial impingement may lead to a partial or complete rotator cuff tear. Multiple partial
tears can be associated with degenerative tendinopathy.
Subacromial impingement is typically divided into three stages. The first
stage is most common in young dancers. It typically occurs in patients less
than 25 years old, is reversible, and involves acute inflammation, edema, and
hemorrhage of the rotator cuff and surrounding structures. The second stage
involves tendonitis of the involved tendon(s) and may progress to fibrosis. It
most commonly occurs in 2540-year-old patients. The third stage involves a
rotator cuff tear and is associated with acromioclavicular spurs. The third
stage is most frequently seen in patients older than 40 years.
History As dancers typically try to work through the pain, the patient
will often come to the office well after the initial symptoms have started. The
dancer complains of increased pain in the shoulder joint that may or may not
extend into the lateral aspect of the arm and is worse with overhead
activities. The pain is usually of gradual onset and associated with overuse,
without a single inciting event. The pain may be associated with a sensation
of the shoulder catching, clicking, stiffening, or fatiguing quickly. The pain
may awaken the patient at night secondary to difficulty finding a comfortable position in which to sleep.
They may also complain of difficulty initiating shoulder abduction if the
supraspinatus is involved. In addition to pain, the patient may complain of
decreased active range of motion and depending on the severity of the tear,
weakness.
PE Physical examination will typically reveal painful or decreased range
of motion in lifting the arm overhead or internally rotating the arm behind
the back. The acromion, coracoacromial ligament, greater tuberosity, and/
or the subacromial bursa may be tender to palpation. Each of the four
rotator cuff muscles should be initially palpated for tenderness. There may
also be associated tenderness to palpation beneath the acromion or over the
acromioclavicular joint. Motor strength testing of the rotator cuff muscles
can reveal weakness, depending on the severity of the tear. Also, depending
on the time of injury, if the patient presents shortly following an acute
rotator cuff injury, pain may be perceived as weakness, rendering strength
testing less reliable.
Several provocative maneuvers may be helpful. Neers, modified
HawkinsKennedy, and the Empty Can tests can be positive with
impingement (Figures 6-1, 6-2 and 6-3). The drop arm test involves
passive abduction of the patients arm to 90 degrees with instruction
to slowly adduct the arm. Patients with a complete tear will likely be
unable to hold the arm against gravity and will drop the arm back to
neutral. Full thickness tears typically are associated with significant loss
of range of motion and weakness. Chronic tears may be associated with
less pain; however, the weakness and loss of range of motion persist.
137
FIGURE 6-1. Neers test
FIGURE 6-2. Modified Hawkins-Kennedy test
FIGURE 6-3. Empty Can test
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Radiographs are helpful to demonstrate

the presence or absence of a curved or hooked acromion and should include
AP, lateral, and axillary views. They will also show calcific deposits within
the supraspinatus tendon, if present. Radiographic changes associated with
a rotator cuff tear include superior migration of the proximal humerus with
reduction of the acromiohumeral distance to less than 7 mm, the presence of
osteophytes and/or subacromial sclerosis [2]
138
MRI is very helpful to indicate the degree and extent of pathology,

although false positive and false negative MRI findings are not uncommon.
MRI will reveal full thickness tears and provide useful pre-operative information regarding degree of injury and any associated rotator cuff disease or
soft tissue injury. Ultrasound is also useful as a dynamic technique to
visualize the integrity of the rotator cuff tendons and any associated
edema, hemorrhage, or calcifications.
The lidocaine impingement test, originally described by Neer, involves
injection of 310 cc of local anesthetic, typically 1% lidocaine or xylocaine,
into the subacromial bursa. Pain relief is considered a positive test and
reflective of subacromial impingement.
Treatment Initially, PRICE is helpful for the acute phase of impingement
and as conservative treatment of a rotator cuff tear to reduce pain, swelling,
and inflammation. NSAIDs, a shoulder sling for comfort, and modalities
such as ultrasound, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), and
cryotherapy can be helpful.
Once the pain is under control, initial physical therapy should focus on
establishing proper scapulohumeral range of motion, which in dancers is
paramount. Physical therapy addresses restoration of ROM and function
and emphasizes gentle passive stretching of the posterior capsule. This is
followed by increased active stretching, rotator cuff strengthening, scapular
stabilization, and progressive resistance exercises when active pain-free
range of motion is restored. Strengthening exercises of the rotator cuff
and scapular stabilization exercises are important to recenter the humeral
head. Also, education in proper postural alignment is essential for dancers
to avoid further injury and reestablish correct scapular kinematics.
If these initial treatment measures fail, a subacromial corticosteroid
injection performed in the office can help decrease inflammation and
pain. It should be confirmed, however, via MRI that the patient does not
have a rotator cuff tear, as corticosteroid injection can exacerbate the tear.
Patients who are most likely to benefit from an intra-articular corticosteroid
injection have significant subacromial inflammation that interferes with
their normal activities of daily living, school or work, and is associated
with severe pain or pain occurring at night.
Most patients impingement symptoms resolve with non-operative management. Non-operative treatment of rotator cuff tears is generally effective in
over 60% of patients. However, if symptoms of impingement become chronic
for more than 612 months or in patients with rotator cuff changes on MRI,
large subacromial spurs, full unrestricted PROM, and prior positive response to
subacromial space lidocaine injection [3], surgical options should be considered. For recalcitrant impingement, glenohumeral arthroscopy, and open surgical decompression of the subacromial space are available therapeutic options.
Glenohumeral arthroscopy is also diagnostic in cases of failed non-operative
therapy to identify any associated labral, articular, or muscular pathology.
139
In the case of a rotator cuff tear in an elite dancer in which lifting the
shoulder overhead is important and especially for symptoms persisting
longer than 3 months, surgical intervention should also be considered.
Research has shown that over time, the size of the rotator cuff tear progresses. If a small partial thickness rotator cuff tear on the articular surface
without subacromial impingement is noted on diagnostic arthroscopy,
glenohumeral debridement of the tear is recommended if the tear is less
than 50% of the rotator cuff thickness [3]. If associated subacromial impingement is noted, subacromial decompression is recommended. Today,
arthroscopic rotator cuff repair has generally replaced open or mini-open
rotator cuff repairs and is recommended for greater than 50% partial thickness or full thickness rotator cuff tears.
Patients should be advised that 612 months of post-operative rehabilitation will likely be necessary prior to return to full dance activity. Patients
should have pain free full range of motion with more than 80% return of
strength upon return to dance [4].
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Case Report A 17-year-old male gymnast and volleyball server presents to

your office complaining of the sensation of his shoulder slipping in and out
of place when serving and while on the uneven bars. He has been able to
voluntarily dislocate his shoulder in the past and is double jointed.
Diagnosis
Anterior glenohumeral joint instability, shoulder dislocation
Epidemiology Anterior glenohumeral joint instability is more common

than posterior instability in younger dancers and occurs with a higher
recurrence rate.
Pathophysiology The glenohumeral joint is a ball and socket joint that
moves in conjunction with the scapulothoracic joint in a glenohumeral
rhythm to allow abduction of the arm and rotation of the glenoid without
acromial impingement. When this joint motion is balanced, a 2:1 ratio of
glenohumeral to scapulothoracic motion exists. Glenohumeral joint
instability is defined as translation of the humeral head on the glenoid
fossa with incomplete separation. The direction of the instability may be
anterior, posterior, or multidirectional. Anterior glenohumeral instability
occurs more often in younger dancers, tends to recur, and is frequently
associated with abduction and external rotation of the arm. Posterior
instability is usually preceded by a fall onto a flexed and adducted arm
and is less common than anterior instability. Dancers are at higher risk for
glenohumeral joint instability with a higher incidence of hypermobility.
A shoulder dislocation can be partial or complete. If it is partial, the
humeral head has subluxed to some degree out of the glenoid socket. If it is
complete, the humeral head has completely dissociated from the socket.
Falling onto an extended arm is the most common inciting event, although
any awkward and forced position extending the arm out of the joint may
result in dislocation.
History The patient will typically complain of performing some type of
movement in which the arm was abducted and externally rotated with a
resultant feeling of the shoulder slipping out of place. Dislocation is usually
associated with a fall onto an extended arm or outstretched hand with
subsequent pain and an unsteady feeling in the shoulder. The patient
may also complain of associated shoulder pain, numbness, tingling, and/or
a feeling of shoulder weakness secondary to fatigue. The surrounding
shoulder muscles may spasm in response to the dislocation. Patients with
increased ligamentous and/or capsular laxity may present more frequently
with glenohumeral joint instability and are more likely to dislocate their
shoulders.
PE Several provocative maneuvers can elicit anterior glenohumeral
instability. The apprehension test is performed by having the patient lie
supine and placing the shoulder in 90 degrees of abduction and external
rotation. The apprehension test is positive when the patient subsequently
141
feels apprehensive and fearful that the shoulder will dislocate. The relocation test should relieve this feeling of apprehension by having the examiner
apply a posteriorly directed force to the anterior aspect of the shoulder. This
maneuver should resolve rather than elicit apprehension. The anterior load
and shift test is positive when the humeral head can be passively, anteriorly
displaced on the glenoid by the examiner.
In an acute dislocation, the patient will typically minimize active movement of the shoulder and attempted passive range of motion by the examiner will be painful. Anterior instability can be assessed with the anterior
apprehension test. A positive sulcus sign reflects inferior shoulder laxity.
Posterior dislocation of the shoulder results in adduction and internal rotation of the shoulder, although this is rare.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP, scapular Y view, and axillary lateral
view radiographs are recommended to adequately visualize the glenohumeral joint and assess for the presence of dislocation. They can demonstrate
presence of a compression fracture of the posterior humeral head following
traumatic contact with the anterior glenoid. This is known as a Hill-Sachs
lesion and reflects anterior shoulder dislocation. More severe unidirectional
trauma can result in a detachment of the anteroinferior glenohumeral ligament labral complex from the anterior glenoid rim, known as a Bankart
lesion. Internal and external rotation views are helpful to visualize bony
detail and specifically lesions involving the lesser tuberosity of the humerus.
The posterolateral aspect of the humeral head can be visualized with the
Stryker-Notch view, where the patient lies supine, extends the arm overhead, flexes the elbow, and supports the head with the hand. This view is
useful to visualize Hill-Sachs lesions. The West Point lateral axillary view
can demonstrate fractures of the anterior glenoid and is helpful to visualize
bony Bankart lesions. MRI will reveal soft tissue pathology, such as Bankart
lesions, more subtle Hil-Sachs deformities, and associated pathology, e. g.
rotator cuff tears.
Treatment Initially, the patient may be treated with a sling for comfort
and to minimize excess motion of the joint for 24 weeks. An individualized
physical therapy program should then focus on shoulder girdle complex
range of motion exercises, including Codman pendulum exercises and progress to isotonic and isokinetic strengthening. Scapular stabilization and
rotator cuff strengthening are fundamental. Dancers with associated capsular laxity will likely not be able to avoid recurrent dislocations without
appropriate treatment of capsular laxity. Studies have shown significantly
higher rates of dislocation recurrence in younger populations than older
populations and in athletes than in non-athletes [5].
Historically, surgery was typically reserved for shoulders that dislocated
three times or more. Today, however, arthroscopic repair of the Bankart
lesion and capsulorrhaphy is an option for patients as early as their initial
dislocation, as this is a relatively minimally invasive procedure. It also yields
142
a low incidence of post-operative shoulder stiffness, little loss of external

rotation, and results in a less than 510% recurrence rate.
Immediately post-operatively, the arm is placed in a sling for 46 weeks
with precautions to avoid external rotation of the arm beyond neutral. Four
weeks post-operatively, active range of motion exercises begin with arm
flexion, followed by internal and external rotation of the arm with 510
lbweights and progress to full active range of motion by 3 months. By this
time, the patient should have 70% return of external rotation, followed by
100% return of range of motion and strength by 6 months following surgery.
Shoulder subluxations can usually be relocated independently by the
patient. Acute anterior dislocations can be relocated by a physician with
manual downward traction on the arm and reduction of the humeral head,
known as the Stimson technique. Ice and anti-inflammatory medications
can help reduce pain and acute inflammation in the joint. Initially, physical
therapy following the reduction is essential for rotator cuff strengthening,
scapular stabilization, and the prevention of future dislocations.
Dancers are notorious for hyperlaxity in their joints, and as the shoulder
joint is the most mobile joint in the body, they are at increased risk for future
dislocations. Dancers with associated capsular laxity will likely not be able
to avoid recurrent dislocations without appropriate treatment of the laxity.
Surgical options are typically reserved for Bankart lesions or instability that
does not respond to the above rehabilitation options.
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complaining of shoulder pain and instability following a fall onto his outstretched arm after lifting his dance partner overhead and losing his balance.
The pain is worse when trying to lift his arm overhead.
Diagnosis
Glenoid labrum tear
Epidemiology Greater incidence with repetitive throwing movements or

lifts. May occur following acute injury or chronically after repetitive throwing motions.
Pathophysiology The glenoid labrum lines the glenoid fossa circumferentially and provides insertion points for the rotator cuff and biceps tendons.
Typically, a glenoid labrum tear occurs as a result of trauma or repetitive
overuse injury with subsequent associated pathology to the rotator cuff and/or
biceps tendons. The tear may occur in a single or multiple directions through
the anterior, superior, or posterior aspects of the labrum. Compared to the rest
of the labrum, the superior border may be more susceptible to traumatic and
degenerative lesions due to its more meniscoid attachment. A SLAP lesion
describes a superior labral tear that extends in the anteriorposterior direction
and involves the biceps tendon at its origin [6]. SLAP lesions have been
divided into four types. Type I involves degenerative changes of the labrum.
Type II includes degenerative labral changes and detachment of the superior
labrum from the glenoid rim. The biceps tendon remains intact and lifts the
superior portion of the labrum. Type III injuries involve displacement of the
detached superior labrum fragment into the joint, known as a bucket handle
tear. Type IV injuries involve a bucket handle tear with associated partial
rupture of the long head of the biceps tendon. The integrity of the biceps
tendon is important to assess as this muscle contributes to glenohumeral joint
stability and loss of its stabilizing function results in loss of shoulder function.
History The patient may complain of anterior shoulder pain associated
with clicking, catching, locking, and/or popping, worse with overhead activities. The pain may be localized anteriorly or felt deep in the shoulder. The
patient may complain of prior fall onto an outstretched arm, direct trauma
to the shoulder, a specific compression or traction injury or prior repetitive
overhead activities. Throwing motions may become difficult.
PE Physical examination with provocative maneuvers can reveal labrum
instability, although several tests are sensitive but not specific. Forced hyperflexion and abduction may elicit pain if a SLAP lesion is present. The load and
shift test is performed by holding the humeral head and applying an anterior,
then posterior force while manipulating it in the glenoid fossa over the
labrum. Excess translation of the humeral head anteriorly or posteriorly
reflects labrum instability and is considered a positive test. OBriens test is
performed by standing behind the patient while he/she flexes the arm to
90 degrees and adducts it 15 degrees medially past midline. Apply an
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FIGURE 6-4. OBriens test arm pronated
inferiorly directed force on the arm while the patient internally rotates it
(Figure 6-4). This will typically elicit pain in the shoulder or AC joint. Next,
repeat the same exam with the forearm maximally supinated. If this reduces
the pain, the test is considered positive. Deep pain is associated with labral
pathology, while superficial pain is associated with AC joint pathology. If the
SLAP lesion involves injury or irritation of the biceps tendon, Speeds tension
test may be positive. This test is performed by resisting active shoulder flexion
while the patient holds the arm in nearly complete extension with the forearm
maximally supinated (Figure 6-5). Without associated impingement, Neers,
modified HawkinsKennedy, and Empty Can tests should be negative.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation AP, scapular Y view, and axillary lateral
view radiographs are recommended to adequately visualize the glenohumeral joint and assess for the presence of dislocation. Normal radiographs are
usually not valuable. MRI and especially MR arthrogram are helpful to
evaluate the presence of labral tear or SLAP lesion although there is a
relatively high degree of false positives and false negatives [7]
Treatment Initially, the patient may be treated with a sling to minimize
excess motion of the joint for 24 weeks. Relative rest with avoidance of
aggravating activities should be recommended, while taking care to prevent
development of a frozen shoulder. An individualized physical therapy
FIGURE 6-5. Speeds tension test
145
program should focus on shoulder girdle complex range of motion, pendulum Codmans exercises, and closed chain scapulothoracic and glenohumeral strengthening exercises.
Operative management may be required for the symptomatic patient
unresponsive to conservative management. Arthroscopy will reveal the
type of SLAP pathology and direct treatment. Type I lesions typically
require debridement only. Type II lesions usually require debridement
and reattachment of the biceps tendon to the superior glenoid rim with
suture anchors. Type III lesions require excision of the bucket-handle tear
and repair of any associated biceps tendon instability. Type IV lesions must
be visualized to determine the degree of biceps tendon tearing. If less than
30% of the tendon is damaged, the biceps origin is left intact and only the
damaged portion is resected. If more than 30% of the tendon is involved and
the patient is an otherwise young, active dancer, repair of the tendon and
reattachment of the labrum is performed. If the patient no longer requires
maximal range of motion or high demand dance activity, especially in an
older dancer, biceps tenotomy/tenodesis and labral debridement may be
performed.
146

complaining of right anterior shoulder pain that travels to his elbow and is
worse when lifting his partner and when weightlifting in the gym. It occasionally bothers him at night and he feels his symptomatic shoulder tires
more easily.
Diagnosis
Proximal biceps tendonitis
Epidemiology
Occurs more often as overuse than acute injury in dancers.
Pathophysiology Biceps tendonitis as a general term is characterized by a

chemical and mechanical pathology. Chemically, the long head of the biceps
tendon is inflamed in the bicipital groove through which the long head
courses between the greater and the lesser humerus tubercles. Mechanically, the tendon is impinged between the acromion, the head of the
humerus, and the coracoclavicular ligaments. In dancers, chronic overload
of the biceps tendon can lead to microscopic tears that trigger inflammation.
In this example, biceps tendonitis is distinguished from tendinosis, which
implies an underlying degenerative process that causes histologic changes
seen as fibroplasia and scar tissue in the tendon.
History The patient will typically complain of anterior shoulder pain over
the bicipital groove that may be associated with referred pain down the
biceps tendon, to the elbow or diffusely over the shoulder. The pain is
usually worse with overhead activities and when loading the arm with the
elbow flexed.
PE The patient may have point tenderness to palpation over the bicipital
groove. The bicipital groove can be found by first palpating the greater
tubercle of the humerus and passively externally and internally rotating the
shoulder. Medial to the greater tuberosity is the bicipital groove. It is
important to compare shoulders as patients may have tenderness to palpation over the bicipital groove even in the asymptomatic shoulder. Several
provocative tests can be helpful in diagnosing biceps tendonitis. Speeds test
is performed by asking the patient to flex the shoulder against resistance
with the elbow almost completely extended and forearm supinated. Pain
that is reproduced at the anterior shoulder is considered a positive test.
Yergasons test is performed by having the patient flex the elbow to 90
degrees while holding the elbow adducted against the body and supinating
the wrist against resistance (Figure 6-6). A positive test reproduces the pain.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation No specific imaging technique can identify biceps tendonitis. It is primarily a clinical diagnosis. However, plain
radiographs can demonstrate degenerative articular changes or calcifications in and around the tendon. Ultrasound can dynamically visualize the
tendon in the bicipital groove with any associated edema, tears or
calcifications.
147
FIGURE 6-6. Yergasons test
Treatment Most patients can be treated effectively non-operatively. Initially, PRICE forms the mainstay of treatment. An individualized physical
therapy program should then focus on progressive range of motion exercises, including Codman pendulum exercises. Modalities such as ultrasound,
soft tissue release, and electrical stimulation can be helpful. Stretching and
strengthening exercises should progress from isometric to concentric,
eccentric, and proprioceptive exercises. If an initial course of physical
therapy is inadequate in relieving the patients pain, consider an ultrasound-guided bicipital corticosteroidlidocaine injection. Take great care
to avoid injecting directly into the tendon. Surgical intervention, usually
arthroscopic, is reserved for situations where the shoulder does not respond
to the above treatment options. A debridement of the biceps tendon for less
than 50% thickness tear may be performed. If greater than 50% of the
biceps tendon thickness is involved, a tenotomy, or in the higher demand
patient, biceps tenodesis is usually required.
References
1. Dumonski M, Mazzocca AD, Rios C et al. Evaluation and management of acromioclavicular joint injuries. Am J Ortho 2004; 33(10): 52632.
2. Sanders TG, Morrison WB, Miller MD. Imaging techniques for the evaluation of
glenohumeral instability. Am J Sports Med 2000; 28(3): 41434.
3. DeBerardino TM, Arciero RA, Taylor DC, Uhorchak JM. Prospective evaluation of
arthroscopic stabilization of acute, initial anterior shoulder dislocations in young
athletes. Two-to-five year follow-up. Am J Sports Med 2001; 29(5): 58692.
4. Hawkins RJ, Kennedy JC. Impingement syndrome in athletes. Am J Sports Med 1980;
8(3): 15158.
5. Carr KE. Musculoskeletal injuries in young athletes. Clin Fam Prac 2003; 5(2):
385406.
6. Snyder SJ et al. SLAP Lesions of the shoulder. Arthroscopy: J Arth Rel Surg 1990;
6(4): 27479.
7. Bencardino JT, Beltran J, Rosenberg ZS et al. Superior labrum anterior-posterior
lesions: Diagnosis with MR arthrography of the shoulder. Radiology 2000; 214: 26771.
7
Elbow, Wrist, and Hand Injuries
Case Report A 42-year-old recreational ballroom dancer and avid golfer

presents to your office complaining of elbow pain that is worse while
swinging the golf club and specifically at the end of the swing before he
hits the ball.
Diagnosis
Medial epicondylitis
Epidemiology:
Most common cause of medial elbow pain.
Pathophysiology Medial epicondylitis involves predominantly the forearm

muscles of flexion and pronation, including the flexor carpi radialias, palmaris
longus, pronator teres, and occasionally the flexor carpi ulnaris and flexor
digitorum superficialis, at their origin at the humeral anterior medial epicondyle. The ulnar (medial) collateral ligament and the radial (lateral) collateral
ligament stabilize the elbow. Medial epicondylitis occurs secondary to repetitive overuse most often from throwing motions with the arm overhead or
serving motions as in golf and tennis. Acutely, it is typically characterized as a
tendonitis and chronically as a tendinosis when the tendon fails to heal, and
develops degenerative changes associated with granulated, fibrous tissue.
History The patient may report prior acute injury, most often during a
sport or dance activity that included throwing or serving. The pain may also
have worsened gradually with repetition of the inciting activities. He or she
will typically complain of medial epicondylar pain worse with wrist pronation and flexion. There may be associated numbness or tingling radiating
into the fourth and fifth fingers if there is ulnar nerve involvement.
PE The medial epicondyle and approximately one inch distal to the epicondyle toward the belly of the muscles are often tender with palpation. Resisted
wrist flexion with the forearm pronated is typically painful (Figure 7-1). The
motor, sensory, and reflex exams are useful to evaluate any associated cervical
149
150

FIGURE 7-1. Resisted wrist flexion with
forearm pronation.
radiculopathy and/or ulnar neuropathy. Valgus and varus testing of the collateral ligaments should be performed to assess ligament stability.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Although no imaging techniques are diagnostic, AP and lateral elbow radiographs can evaluate any associated bony
pathology. MRI will reveal integrity of the collateral ligaments and surrounding
soft tissue. Nerve conduction studies and electromyography can be useful if the
ulnar nerve is involved.
Treatment Initially, PRICE is helpful to reduce pain and inflammation. An
elbow splint that provides medial counterforce can be used to relieve pressure
on the medial epicondyle and a wrist splint that keeps the wrist in neutral
position can be used to relieve tension on the wrist flexors. A counterbalance
brace is recommended for mild symptoms as it allows for some degree of
motion while restricting full range of motion. Consider oral NSAIDs and/or a
corticosteroid/lidocaine injection into the symptomatic area for pain that does
not resolve. Avoid direct injection into the tendon or ulnar nerve. Physical
therapy should focus on stretching and flexibility exercises initially, followed
by isometric, then eccentric strengthening exercises. Modalities such as ultrasound, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, and iontophoresis may be
helpful. Surgical options are reserved for pain that has not responded to nonoperative management and is contraindicated in patients with any associated
ligamentous instability. Surgical intervention may include epicondylar debridement or surgical pinning for an unstable elbow joint.
7.
151
Case Report A 32-year-old male trapeze artist presents to your office

complaining of right elbow pain when extending his arms to lift and hold
his trapeze partner in mid-air. He also has noticed the same elbow pain
while playing tennis and when replacing his car tires.
Diagnosis
Lateral epicondylitis
Epidemiology
Frequent cause of lateral elbow pain.
Pathophysiology Overuse and repetitive movements that overload the

extensor and supinator tendons can lead to microtrauma and small tears
of the extensor tendons, particularly the extensor carpi radialis brevis. In
athletes, lateral epicondylitis is also called tennis elbow, occurring as a result
of poor backhand technique, incorrect grip size, and/or excess string tension.
History The patient typically presents with lateral elbow pain that is worse
with holding and lifting objects with the arm extended. There may be
associated pain and perceived weakness. The pain is usually chronic in
nature, whereas acute on chronic pain is typically associated with rupture
of the extensor tendons.
PE The patient typically will have tenderness to palpation 25 cm distal to
the lateral epicondyle over the origin of the common extensor tendon. The
patient may have poor grip strength and pain while gripping objects with the
arm extended. Mills test is positive when resisted wrist extension is painful
(Figure 7-2). Cozens test is performed with the examiner placing his/her
thumb over the patients lateral epicondyle and stabilizing the elbow. The
test is positive when the patient experiences pain with flexing the fingers
into a fist, pronating the forearm, extending, and radially deviating the wrist
against resistance (Figure 7-3). The patient may also have pain over the
lateral epicondyle when the examiner places his/her thumb over the lateral
epicondyle, passively extends the elbow, and forcibly flexes the wrist.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Radiographs of the elbow are usually
unremarkable, although they may reveal a lateral epicondylar spur, which
FIGURE 7-2. Mills test.
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FIGURE 7-3. Cozens test.
are usually more recalcitrant to conservative management. MRI can reveal

pathology of the extensor tendons.
Treatment PRICE is recommended as the initial course of treatment and
is effective for the majority of patients. NSAIDs can be helpful in the acute
phase to reduce pain and inflammation. Physical therapy should initially
involve exercises to restore pain-free range of motion, improve flexibility,
and progress to strengthening exercises. Use of a tennis elbow brace may also
be helpful. For dancers, it is important to improve any errors in lifting
technique involving use of the affected extensor tendons. If the above options
fail, consider a local corticosteroid injection with care not to inject directly
into a tendon. After 6 months, surgery may be considered. Surgical options
include debridement of the degenerative portion of the extensor carpi radialis
tendon and any associated lateral epicondylar spur.
7.
153
Case Report A 25-year-old modern dancer who works as a secretary

presents to your office complaining of bilateral hand numbness, right
worse than left, which has been progressively worsening. When she wakes
up in the morning, she finds she often has to shake her hands to get rid of the
tingly feeling. She types frequently at a computer during the day.
Diagnosis
Carpal tunnel syndrome
Epidemiology
Most common compressive neuropathy in athletes.
Pathophysiology Carpal tunnel syndrome describes a median nerve

mononeuropathy. The median nerve passes through the carpal tunnel at
the wrist. The carpal tunnel is bordered by the transverse carpal ligament
superiorly, the carpal bones inferiorly, and contains the flexor pollicis
longus tendon, the four flexor digitorum profundus tendons and four flexor
digitorum superficialis tendons, as well as the median nerve. Carpal tunnel
syndrome can occur as a result of several mechanisms of injury that cause
compression of the carpal tunnel, including arthritis, a wrist fracture, or
pregnancy. Most often, the pathophysiology of carpal tunnel syndrome
involves demyelination and when severe, axonal loss.
Three categories of carpal tunnel syndrome have been described,
depending on the severity of symptoms. Each stage also includes specific
electrodiagnostic findings. Mild carpal tunnel syndrome is characterized by
paresthesias, numbness, or dysesthesias in the first three digits and may
include the lateral aspect of the fourth digit. Electrodiagnostic findings
consistent with mild carpal tunnel syndrome include prolonged sensory
nerve action potential (SNAP) latencies and normal compound motor
action potential (CMAP) amplitudes. Electromyogram (EMG) in mild
carpal tunnel syndrome is typically normal. Moderate carpal tunnel syndrome is characterized by sensory symptoms along the median nerve distribution, involving both the hand and arm proximally. This stage is also
characterized by impairment of fine motor coordination.
Electrodiagnostic findings consistent with moderate carpal tunnel syndrome include prolonged SNAP latencies, decreased SNAP amplitudes,
and prolonged CMAP latencies. EMG in moderate carpal tunnel syndrome
is also typically normal. Severe carpal tunnel syndrome is characterized by
significant sensory loss along the medial nerve distribution as well as muscular atrophy of the thenar eminence. Electrodiagnostic findings consistent
with severe carpal tunnel syndrome include absent SNAP amplitudes and
decreased CMAP amplitudes. EMG in severe carpal tunnel syndrome
typically shows abnormal activity reflective of median nerve compression.
History The patient will typically present initially complaining of hand
numbness, tingling, paresthesias in the affected hand. Most often, the symptoms include pain and paresthesias in the first three digits and the lateral
aspect of the fourth finger. However, secondary to autonomic nerve fiber
involvement from the median nerve, the patients symptoms may be felt in
154
the whole hand. The pain may be worse at night and/or progress to the arm
and shoulder. It typically improves with shaking or flicking the hands
upon waking in the morning. The patient may also complain of frequently
dropping objects, losing grip and feeling that the hand is swollen, tight or
heavy. They may have difficulty turning doorknobs or twisting objects open
or closed. As symptoms progress from mild to moderate, the patient may
present with decreased sensation and weakness in the hand along the distribution of the median nerve. With severe symptoms, the patient can
complain of significant sensory and motor loss.
PE Depending on the severity of symptoms, the patients physical examination findings will likely differ. The patient may have decreased sensation
to pinprick over the palmar three digits and radial half of the fourth digit.
When severe, muscle weakness and/or atrophy of the median nerve innervated first and second lumbricals, opponens pollicis, abductor pollicis
brevis, and/or flexor pollicis brevis may be present. Although none are
pathognomonic, several provocative tests for carpal tunnel syndrome have
been described. The carpal compression test is positive if paresthetic
symptoms occur within 30 seconds of firm, steady pressure over the carpal
tunnel (Figure 7-4). Phalens test is positive when maintaining the wrist in
90 degrees of flexion for one minute reproduces paresthetic symptoms
(Figure 7-5).Reverse Phalens test is positive when maintaining the
wrist in 90 degrees of extension reproduces the patients paresthetic
symptoms. The carpal tunnel compression test is positive when compression of the carpal tunnel for 30 seconds with the thumb reproduces
FIGURE 7-4. Carpal compression test.
FIGURE 7-5. Phalens test.
7.
155
the patients symptoms in the hand. When symptoms are severe, physical examination may also reveal thenar atrophy and decreased two
point discrimination in the median nerve distribution of the affected
hand.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation Electrodiagnostic studies including nerve
conduction studies and electromyography are standard of care for the diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome. They are helpful to establish the degree of
nerve injury and provide prognostic information. Electrodiagnostic findings
can help classify the syndrome as mild, moderate, or severe. Repeat electrodiagnostic studies can be used to evaluate efficacy of treatment. No routine
imaging studies are considered diagnostic for carpal tunnel syndrome. Ultrasound and MRI of the carpal tunnel can demonstrate space-occupying
lesions.
Treatment Initial treatment should include a course of physical and occupational therapy as well as a specific ergonomic evaluation of the patients
workplace. Common postural factors associated with carpal tunnel syndrome
include poor sitting posture (often in front of a computer), incorrect wrist and
hand placement while typing and incorrect computer monitor, chair, and
table height. Patients should be instructed to avoid positions of extreme
wrist flexion or extension that increase pressure on the median nerve. Custom
made wrist orthoses that maintain the wrist in a neutral position can be worn
at night for mild symptoms. Occupational therapy should focus on stretching
techniques for the carpal tunnel as well as strengthening exercises for the
hand and wrist. NSAIDs and more recently, a topical 5% lidocaine patch may
be helpful to acutely reduce pain and inflammation. If a course of therapy and
ergonomic rehab fail to alleviate the patients symptoms, consider an ultrasound guided steroid injection into the carpal tunnel.
Patients with evidence of muscle atrophy, unrelieved pain, failed conservative treatment, and severe carpal tunnel syndrome as identified by electrodiagnostic studies should be considered for operative intervention. Surgery
involves release of the transverse carpal ligament and can be performed as an
open or endoscopic procedure. For acute carpal tunnel syndrome, an open
release that provides better visualization has been recommended. The endoscopic technique typically allows faster recovery and is associated with
greater risk of intra-operative nerve injury and less incisional pain. The
majority of patients (>90%) have been reported to experience symptomatic
relief following an endoscopic or open carpal tunnel release[1].
156
Case Report A 32-year-old female Broadway dancer presents to your

office complaining of right hand pain after running downstage and falling
forward onto her outstretched hand. She noticed swelling over the back part
of her hand that is also painful to touch.
Diagnosis
Scaphoid fracture
Epidemiology
Most commonly fractured bone in the wrist.
Pathophysiology The bones of the wrist, or carpal bones, consist of eight

bones of which only two, the scaphoid and lunate, articulate with the radius.
These bones distribute compressive forces from the hand to the forearm
following a fall. The scaphoid bone itself is frequently divided into proximal,
middle (waist), and distal thirds, with the middle (waist) portion most often
fractured. The proximal portion is avascular and is at increased risk for
necrosis following fracture, whereas the distal portion receives the greatest
proportion of the blood supply. As a result, non-union is more likely to
occur in the proximal and middle portions following fracture. Also, since the
scaphoid bone has no ligamentous or tendinous attachments, a scaphoid
fracture has higher incidence of non-union, malunion and subsequent development of arthritis [2].
Scaphoid fractures are classified as stable or unstable. Stable fractures
are not displaced, are minimally comminuted, and have no associated
ligamentous injury. Unstable fractures are displaced (>2 mm), significantly
comminuted, and can have associated ligamentous injury.
History The patient will typically report a fall onto an outstretched hand
with forced hyperextension of the wrist and pronation of the forearm.
Gymnasts and modern dancers may present with a stress fracture of the
scaphoid as a result of an overuse injury involving repetitive, forceful wrist
extension (Figure 7-6).
PE The patient will typically have tenderness to palpation over the anatomic snuffbox (Figure 7-7), which is bordered by the scaphoid bone inferiorly, the extensor pollicis longus medially and the extensor pollicis brevis
FIGURE 7-6. Wrist extension.
7.
157
FIGURE 7-7. Anatomic snuffbox.
and abductor pollicis longus laterally. There may be associated swelling

over the anatomic snuff box and/or wrist.
Imaging/Diagnostic Evaluation PA, lateral, and oblique views of the
wrist in ulnar deviation should be obtained. Early diagnosis and treatment
of a scaphoid fracture are essential to avoid the complication of non-union.
If initial radiographs are normal, CT or MRI can better define bony
pathology and ligamentous injury. Radionuclide bone scanning is also
useful 37 days following injury to identify a fracture when initial radiographs are normal.
Treatment Stable fractures are usually treated with immobilization in a
long arm thumb spica cast for 6 weeks with the wrist in neutral position, then
in a short arm spica cast for 6 additional weeks. Union tends to occur by
3 months following fracture. If non-union persists as evidenced by radiograph 4 months following fracture, surgical fixation may be indicated.
Following immobilization, physical therapy should include active range of
motion exercises to the thumb, wrist, and forearm. The wrist should be kept
neutral in a wrist and thumb splint when not in therapy.
Unstable fractures require surgical intervention with open reduction and
internal fixation (ORIF). Following fluoroscopic confirmation of fixation
post-operatively, the wrist should be immobilized in a short arm thumb spica
cast for 612 weeks. About 510% of scaphoid fractures will result in
non-union, despite appropriate treatment. Most (>90%) fractures heal
appropriately if treated acutely [3]. Grafting may be required for chronic
non-unions.
Physical therapy following ORIF should begin with active range of
motion exercises focusing on wrist flexion, extension, pronation, supination,
and mobilization of the wrist joint once the cast is removed. Elevation of the
wrist following injury and surgery, if applicable, is important to minimize
edema. However, it is also important to maximize mobilization of the
uninjured finger, elbow, and shoulder joints to minimize disuse atrophy
while allowing the bone and soft tissue heal. Strengthening exercises involving the wrist flexors and extensors should progress to resistive exercises as
tolerated.
158
References
1. Brown RA, Gelberman RH, Seiler JG et al. Carpal tunnel release. A prospective,
randomized assessment of open and endoscopic methods. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1993;
75(9): 126575.
2. Dias JJ, Wildin CJ, Bhowal B, Thompson JR. Should acute scaphoid fractures be
fixed? A randomized controlled trial. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2005; 87(10): 216068.
3. Geissler WB. Carpal fractures in athletes. Clin Sports Med 2001; 20(1): 16788.
8
Dance Glossary
FIGURE 8-1. Arabesque.
FIGURE 8-2. Attitude en avant.

159
160

FIGURE 8-3. Attitude derrie`re, on pointe.
FIGURE 8-4. Bournonville jete.
FIGURE 8-5. Degage.
FIGURE 8-6. Demi plie first position

heels lifted.
8. Dance Glossary
FIGURE 8-7. Demi plie first position
corrected.
FIGURE 8-8. Demi plie gripping floor.
FIGURE 8-9. Demi plie gripping corrected.
FIGURE 8-10. Demi plie second position.
161
162

FIGURE 8-11. Fondu coupe.
FIGURE 8-12. Genu varum.
FIGURE 8-13. Genu varum corrected.
FIGURE 8-14. Genu recurvatum anterior

view.
8. Dance Glossary
FIGURE 8-15. Genu recurvatum corrected.
FIGURE 8-16. Genu recurvatum sagittal

view.
FIGURE 8-17. Genu recurvatum corrected.
FIGURE 8-18. Grand jete.
163
164

FIGURE 8-19. Grand plie second position.
FIGURE 8-20. Overturnout first position.
FIGURE 8-21. Overturnout corrected.
FIGURE 8-22. Passe.
8. Dance Glossary
FIGURE 8-23. Passe developpe a` la seconde hip lifted.
FIGURE 8-24. Passe developpe a` la seconde corrected.
FIGURE 8-25. Penche.
FIGURE 8-26. Releve sous-sus.
165
166

FIGURE 8-27. Second position demi plie
overpronation.
FIGURE 8-28. Second position demi plie

oversupination.
FIGURE 8-29. Tendusickled foot.
FIGURE 8-30. Tenduwinged foot.
8. Dance Glossary
FIGURE 8-31. Tendu corrected.
167
Index
A
Acetabular labrum tear
case report, 105
diagnosis
epidemiology, 105
history, 106
imaging/diagnostic evaluation, 106
pathophysiology, 105
physical examination, 106
treatment, 106
Achilles tendon rupture
case report, 51
diagnosis
epidemiology, 51
history, 51
pathophysiology, 51
treatment, 52
early mobilization and, 52
Achilles tendonitis
case report, 48
diagnosis
epidemiology, 48
history, 48
pathophysiology, 48
treatment, 4950
Acromioclavicular (AC) joint sprain
case report, 133
diagnosis
epidemiology, 133
history, 133
treatment, 134
type I-VI, 133134
Acute fracture of fifth metatarsal

base
avulsion fracture, 1112
Jones fracture, 1314
stress fracture, 16
distal shaft (dancers fracture), 810
See also Fractures
Ankle injuries
Achilles tendon rupture, 5152
Achilles tendonitis, 4850
anterior impingement syndrome,
4344
calcaneal apophysitis
(Severs disease), 57
lateral ankle sprain, 5356
peroneal tendonitis, 60
posterior impingement syndrome,
4547
posterior tibial tendonitis, 5859
See also Foot injuries
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rupture
case report, 75
diagnosis
epidemiology, 75
pathophysiology, 75
treatment, 7677
Anterior glenohumeral joint instability
case report, 140
diagnosis
epidemiology, 140
history, 140
treatment, 141142
Anterior impingement syndrome
case report, 43
169
170
Anterior impingement syndrome (cont.)
diagnosis
epidemiology, 43
history, 43
pathophysiology, 43
treatment, 44
See also Posterior impingement syndrome
Anterior interval knee pain (AIKP)
case report, 71
diagnosis
epidemiology, 71
history, 73
treatment, 7374
Apophysitis, see Calcaneal apophysitis
(Severs disease)
Ardhamandala, see Anterior interval knee
pain (AIKP)
Avulsion fracture
case report, 11
diagnosis
epidemiology, 11
history, 11
pathophysiology, 11
treatment, 1112
B
Back pain, see Mechanical low back pain
Bankart lesion, 141
See also Anterior glenohumeral joint
instability
Bharatanatyam, see Anterior interval knee
pain (AIKP)
Biceps tendonitis, see Proximal biceps
tendonitis
Bunion, 1
treatment, 4
See also Hallux valgus
Bursitis, see Trochanteric bursitis
C
Calcaneal apophysitis (Severs disease)
case report, 57
diagnosis
epidemiology, 57
Index
history, 57
pathophysiology, 57
treatment, 57
Carpal tunnel syndrome
case report, 153
diagnosis
epidemiology, 153
history, 153154
treatment, 155
Cervical radiculopathy
case report, 128
diagnosis
epidemiology, 128
history, 128129
treatment, 130
See also Lumbar radiculopathy
Cervical-thoracic-lumbarsacral orthosis
(CTLSO), 120
See also Scoliosis
CMAP latencies, 153
See also Carpal tunnel syndrome
Compression type femoral neck
fracture, 104
See also Tension type femoral neck
fracture
Coracoclavicular (CC) ligament, 133
See also Acromioclavicular (AC) joint
sprain
Coxa saltans
case report, 92
diagnosis
epidemiology, 92
history, 93
pathophysiology, 92
treatment, 94
C7 radiculopathy, see Cervical
radiculopathy
Cuboid subluxation
case report, 30
cuboid thrust technique, 31
diagnosis
cuboid squeeze technique, 31
epidemiology, 30
Index
171
history, 30
pathophysiology, 30
treatment, 3031
D
Dancers fracture
diagnosis
case report, 8
epidemiology, 8
history, 9
pathophysiology, 8
treatment, 910
grossly displaced, 10
mild-moderately displaced, 9
nondisplaced, 9
Dancers heel, see Posterior impingement
syndrome
Delayed union (type II) stress fracture of
fifth metatarsal base, 16
Demi pile position
anterior impingement syndrome, 43
Demi pointe position
avulsion fracture and, 11
dancers fracture and, 8
hallux rigidus and, 5
Jones fracture and, 13
cuboid subluxation and, 30
FHL tendonitis and, 35
lateral ankle sprain and, 53
metatarsophalangeal synovitis
and, 29
sesamoiditis and, 23
See also En pointe position
Developpe position
iliopsoas tendonitis and, 9596
meniscal tear and, 83
Discogenic pain
case report, 113
diagnosis
epidemiology, 113
history, 114
imaging/diagnostic evaluation,
114115
treatment, 115
Dislocation, shoulder, see Anterior
glenohumeral joint instability
E
Echappe, FHL tendonitis and, 34
Elbow, wrist, and hand injuries
carpal tunnel syndrome, 153155
lateral epicondylitis, 151152
medial epicondylitis, 149150
scaphoid fracture, 156157
See also Foot injuries
En pointe position, 5
stress fracture of second metatarsal base
and, 17
flexor hallucis longus (FHL) tendonitis
and, 3435
lateral epicondylitis and, 151
medial epicondylitis and, 149
See also Demi pointe position
Epicondylitis
lateral, 151152
medial, 149150
Externally rotated positions (turnout), 14
F
Fasciitis, see Plantar fasciitis
Female athlete triad, 15
See also Acute fracture of fifth metatarsal
Femoral neck stress fracture
case report, 103
compression type, 104
diagnosis
epidemioxlogy, 103
history, 103
treatment, 104
tension type, 104
Fifth metatarsal base
acute fracture of
stress fracture of, 1516
acute (type I), 16
case report, 15
delayed union (type II), 16
epidemiology, 15
history, 15
15, 16
non-union (type III), 16
pathophysiology, 15
172
Fifth metatarsal base (cont.)
repetitive adduction forces and, 15
treatment, 16
See also Stress fractures of second
metatarsal base
Fifth metatarsal distal shaft acute fracture,
see Dancers fracture
First metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint
sprain
case report, 26
diagnosis
epidemiology, 26
history, 26
pathophysiology, 26
treatment, 2728
Grade I/II/III, 2728
Flexor hallucis brevis (FHB) tendons, 2324
See also Sesamoiditis
Flexor hallucis longus (FHL) tendonitis
diagnosis
epidemiology, 34
history, 35
treatment, 36
Foot injuries
cuboid subluxation, 3031
dancers fracture, 810
FHL tendonitis, 3436
first metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint
sprain, 2628
hallux rigidus, 57
hallux valgus, 14
interdigital (Mortons) neuroma,
3233
metatarsophalangeal synovitis, 29
midfoot (Lisfrancs) sprain, 1920
plantar fasciitis, 3738
sesamoiditis, 2325
sinus tarsi syndrome, 39
stress fracture of
second metatarsal base, 1718
tarsal navicular, 2122
trigger toe, 34
See also Ankle injuries; Hip injuries
Index
Fractures
avulsion, 1112
Jones, 1314
forefoot twisting in fixed position
(dancers fracture), 810
scaphoid, 156157
stress fracture
tibial, 6870
See also Sprain; Tear
Full pointe position
G
Getting struck, see Flexor hallucis longus
(FHL) tendonitis
Glenohumeral joint instability,
see Anterior glenohumeral joint
instability
Glenoid labrum tear
case report, 143
diagnosis
epidemiology, 143
history, 143
treatment, 144145
Grand jete (leaps), 6869
See also Tibial stress fractures
Grand plie
Grecian foot, 17
See also Stress fractures
H
Hallux rigidus
case report, 5
demi pointe position in, 5
diagnosis
epidemiology, 5
history, 5
treatment, 67
Hallux saltans (trigger toe), 34
Index
Hallux valgus
case report, 1
diagnosis
epidemiology, 1
history, 4
pathophysiology, 13
treatment, 4
turned out position in, 14
Hand injuries, see Elbow, wrist, and hand
injuries
Hill-Sachs lesions, 141
See also Anterior glenohumeral joint
instability
Hip injuries
acetabular labrum tear, 105106
coxa saltans, 9294
femoral neck stress fracture, 103104
iliopsoas tendonitis, 9597
osteoarthritis, 8790
piriformis syndrome, 101102
sacroiliac joint dysfunction, 98100
trochanteric bursitis, 91
See also Ankle injuries; Foot injuries
I
Iliopsoas tendonitis
case report, 95
diagnosis
epidemiology, 95
history, 96
pathophysiology, 96
treatment, 9697
Impingement syndrome
ankle
anterior impingement syndrome,
4344
posterior impingement syndrome,
4547
shoulder, 135139
Interdigital (Mortons) neuroma
case report, 32
diagnosis
epidemiology, 32
history, 32
pathophysiology, 32
treatment, 3233
173
J
Joint sprain, see Acromioclavicular (AC)
joint sprain
Jones fracture
case report, 13
diagnosis
epidemiology, 13
history, 13
pathophysiology, 13
treatment, 1314
displaced, 13
non-displaced, 13
Jumpers knee, see Patellar tendonitis
K
Knee and shin injuries
ACL rupture, 7577
anterior interval knee pain (AIKP),
7174
meniscal tear, 8286
osteochondritis dissecans (OCD), 6365
patellar tendonitis, 7879
plica syndrome, 8081
tibial stress fracture, 6870
tibial stress syndrome, 6667
L
Labrum tear, see Acetabular labrum tear
Lachman test, 75
See also Anterior cruciate ligament
(ACL) rupture
Lateral ankle sprain
case report, 53
diagnosis
epidemiology, 53
grade I/II/III, 5556
history, 5354
pathophysiology, 53
treatment, 5556
See also Ankle injuries
Lateral epicondylitis
case report, 151
diagnosis
epidemiology, 151
history, 151
151152
174
Lateral epicondylitis (cont.)
treatment, 152
See also Medial epicondylitis
Lisfrancs joint
midfoot (Lisfrancs) sprain,
1920
stress fracture of second metatarsal base
and, 17
Locking, see Flexor hallucis longus (FHL)
tendonitis
Low back pain, see Mechanical low back
pain
Lumbar radiculopathy
case report, 116
diagnosis
epidemiology, 116
history, 116117
treatment, 118
See also Cervical radiculopathy
Lumbar zygapophysial joint (z-joint or facet)
arthropathy
case report, 109
diagnosis
epidemiology, 109
history, 109
treatment, 112
M
Mechanical low back pain
case report, 126
diagnosis
epidemiology, 126
history, 126
treatment, 127
Medial epicondylitis
case report, 149
diagnosis
epidemiology, 149
history, 149
Index
treatment, 150
See also Lateral epicondylitis
Meniscal tear
case report, 82
diagnosis
epidemiology, 82
history, 83
pathophysiology, 82
treatment, 8486
Metatarsophalangeal synovitis
case report, 29
diagnosis
epidemiology, 29
history, 29
pathophysiology, 29
treatment, 29
Midfoot (Lisfrancs) sprain
case report, 19
diagnosis
epidemiology, 19
history, 19
pathophysiology, 19
treatment, 20
Mortons foot, 17
See also Interdigital (Mortons) neuroma
N
Neck stress fracture, see Femoral neck stress
fracture
Neuroma, see Interdigital (Mortons)
neuroma
Non-union (type III) stress fracture of fifth
metatarsal base, 16
NSAIDs treatment
Achilles tendonitis, 49
calcaneal apophysitis (Severs disease), 57
carpal tunnel syndrome, 155
cervical radiculopathy, 130
flexor hallucis longus (FHL) tendonitis, 36
peroneal tendonitis, 60
sesamoiditis, 25
tibial stress fracture, 70
See also PRICE treatment
Index
O
ORIF
for scaphoid fracture, 157
stress fracture of fifth metatarsal base, 16
Osteoarthritis
case report, 87
diagnosis
epidemiology, 87
history, 88
treatment, 8990
Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD)
case report, 63
diagnosis
epidemiology, 63
history, 64
pathophysiology, 63
treatment (stage I-IV lesions), 65
Os trigonum, 45, 47
See also Posterior impingement syndrome
P
Passe position, iliopsoas tendonitis and,
9596
Patellar tendonitis
case report, 78
diagnosis
epidemiology, 78
history, 78
pathophysiology, 78
treatment, 79
stage I
treatment, 79
stage II, 78
stage III
treatment, 79
stage IV
treatment, 79
Patellofemoral pain, see Anterior interval
knee pain (AIKP)
Periostitis, see Tibial stress syndrome
Peroneal tendonitis
case report, 60
175
diagnosis
epidemiology, 60
history, 60
pathophysiology, 60
treatment, 60
Piriformis syndrome
case report, 101
diagnosis
epidemiology, 101
hisotry, 101
treatment, 102
Plantar fasciitis
case report, 37
diagnosis
epidemiology, 37
history, 37
pathophysiology, 37
treatment, 38
Plica syndrome
case report, 80
diagnosis
epidemiology, 80
history, 80
pathophysiology, 80
treatment, 81
Plie position
Posterior impingement syndrome
case report, 45
diagnosis
epidemiology, 45
history, 45
4547
pathophysiology, 45
treatment, 47
See also Anterior impingement syndrome
Posterior tibial tendonitis
case report, 58
diagnosis
epidemiology, 58
history, 58
176
Posterior tibial tendonitis (cont.)
pathophysiology, 58
treatment, 59
Posterolateral ankle pain, 35
See also Flexor hallucis longus (FHL)
tendonitis
PRICE treatment
ACL rupture, 76
acromioclavicular (AC) joint sprain, 134
AIKP, 73
calcaneal apophysitis (Severs disease), 57
coxa saltans, 94
dancers fracture, 910
epicondylitis
lateral, 152
medial, 150
first MTP joint sprain, 28
hallux rigidus, 6
impingement syndrome
anterior, 44
posterior, 47
shoulder, 138139
lateral ankle sprain, 5556
meniscal tear, 84
metatarsophalangeal synovitis, 29
midfoot (Lisfrancs) sprain, 20
plantar fasciitis, 38
plica syndrome, 81
sacroiliac joint dysfunction, 100
sinus tarsi syndrome, 39
stress fracture of
tendonitis
Achilles, 49
FHL, 36
iliopsoas, 96
patellar, 79
peroneal, 60
proximal biceps, 147
See also NSAIDs treatment
Proximal biceps tendonitis
case report, 146
diagnosis
epidemiology, 146
history, 146
treatment, 147
Index
R
Radicular pain
cervical, 128130
lumbar, 116118
Releve position
Achilles tendon rupture and, 51
metatarsophalangeal synovitis and, 29
midfoot (Lisfrancs) sprain and, 19
Rotator cuff tendonitis, 135
See also Shoulder impingement
syndrome
S
Sacroiliac (SI) joint dysfunction
case report, 98
diagnosis
epidemiology, 98
history, 99
treatment, 100
Scaphoid fracture
case report, 156
diagnosis
epidemiology, 156
history, 156
treatment, 157
stable, 156157
unstable, 156157
Scoliosis
case report, 119
diagnosis, 119
epidemiology, 119
history, 119
treatment, 120
Second metatarsal base, see Stress fractures
of second metatarsal base
Sesamoiditis
case report, 23
diagnosis
epidemiology, 23
history, 23
Index
pathophysiology, 23
treatment, 2425
sickling maneuver and, 23
Severs disease, see Calcaneal apophysitis
(Severs disease)
Shin injuries, see Knee and shin injuries
Shoulder impingement syndrome
case report, 135
diagnosis
epidemiology, 135
history, 136
137138
treatment, 138139
Shoulder injuries
AC joint sprain, 133134
anterior glenohumeral joint instability,
140142
glenoid labrum tear, 143145
proximal biceps tendonitis, 146147
shoulder impingement syndrome,
135139
See also Ankle injuries; Foot injuries; Hip
injuries
Sickling
defined, 23
Sinus tarsi syndrome
case report, 39
diagnosis
epidemiology, 39
history, 39
pathophysiology, 39
treatment, 39
SLAP lesion, 143144
treatment, 145
type I, 143, 145
type II, 143, 145
type III, 143, 145
type IV, 143, 145
See also Glenoid labrum tear
SNAP latencies, 153
See also Carpal tunnel syndrome
Snapping hip, see Coxa saltans
Spine injuries
cervical radiculopathy, 128130
discogenic pain, 113115
lumbar radiculopathy, 116118
177
lumbar zygapophysial joint (z-joint or
facet) arthropathy, 109112
mechanical low back pain, 126127
scoliosis, 119120
spondylolisthesis, 124125
spondylolysis, 121123
Spondylolisthesis
case report, 124
diagnosis
epidemiology, 124
history, 124
treatment, 125
Spondylolysis
case report, 121
diagnosis
epidemiology, 121
history, 121
treatment, 122123
Sprain
joint sprain
AC joint, 133134
first MTP, 2628
lateral ankle, 5356
midfoot (Lisfrancs), 1920
See also Stress fractures
Squeeze technique, cubiod, 31
See also Cuboid subluxation
Stress fractures
femoral neck, 103104
metatarsal base
fifth, 1516, see also under Stress
fractures of fifth metatarsal base
second, 1718, see also under Stress
fractures of second metatarsal base
tibial, 6870
See also Sprain; Tear
Stress fractures of fifth metatarsal base
acute (type I), 16
case report, 15
delayed union (type II), 16
diagnosis
epidemiology, 15
history, 15
pathophysiology, 15
178
Stress fractures of fifth metatarsal base (cont.)
treatment, 16
non-union (type III), 16
repetitive adduction forces and, 15
Stress fractures of second metatarsal base
case report, 17
diagnosis, 17
epidemiology, 17
history, 18
pathophysiology, 17
treatment, 18
Stress syndrome, tibial, see Tibial stress
syndrome
Subacromial impingement, see Shoulder
impingement syndrome
Synovitis, see Metatarsophalangeal synovitis
T
Tarsal navicular stress fracture
case report, 21
diagnosis
epidemiology, 21
history, 21
pathophysiology, 21
treatment, 2122
displaced, 21
Tarsitis, see Sinus tarsi syndrome
Tear
acetabular labrum, 105106
glenoid labrum, 143145
meniscal, 8286
See also Sprain; Stress fractures
Tendinosis, 48
See also Achilles tendonitis
Tendon rupture, see Achilles tendon rupture
Tendonitis
Achilles, 4850
FHL, 3436
iliopsoas, 9597
patellar, 7879
peroneal, 60
posterior tibial, 5859
proximal biceps, 146147
rotator cuff, 135139
Tension type femoral neck fracture, 104
See also Compression type femoral neck
fracture
Thoraco-lumbosacral orthosis (TLSO), 120
See also Scoliosis
Index
Tibial stress fracture
case report, 68
diagnosis
epidemiology, 68
history, 6869
pathophysiology, 68
treatment, 6970
Tibial stress syndrome
case report, 66
diagnosis
epidemiology, 66
history, 66
pathophysiology, 66
treatment, 67
Tibial tendonitis, see Posterior tibial
tendonitis
Tomassens sign, 35
See also Flexor hallucis longus (FHL)
tendonitis
Trigger toe (Hallux saltans), 34
Trochanteric bursitis
case report, 91
diagnosis, 91
epidemiology, 91
history, 91
pathophysiology, 91
treatment, 91
Turf toe, see First metatarsophalangeal
(MTP) joint sprain
Turnout position, 14
Twisting of forefoot in fixed position, see
Dancers fracture
W
Windlass effect, 37
See also Plantar fasciitis
Wrist injuries, see Elbow, wrist, and hand
injuries
Z
Z-joint arthropathy, see Lumbar
zygapophysial joint (z-joint or
facet) arthropathy
Zygapophysial joint arthropathy,
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