Better Practices Dance PDF

B E T T E R
P R A C T I C E
I N A R T S
E D U C A T I O N
VOLUME I
BETTER
practice in
DANCE
EDUCATION
Lynette Y. Overby, PhD

University of Michigan
Karen Bradley, MFA
University of Maryland
James L. Tucker, Jr.

Series Editor
BUILDING EFFECTIVE TEACHING

THROUGH EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
BETTER PRACTICE IN DANCE EDUCATION
Better Practice in Arts Education, Volume I
Building Effective Teaching Through Educational Research
James L. Tucker, Jr. Series Editor
Copyright © 2003 by the Maryland State Department of Education.
All rights reserved. Published in 2007.
Maryland State Department of Education
200 West Baltimore Street
Baltimore, MD 21201-2595
Telephone: (410) 767-0352 or (410) 767-0100
Fax: (410) 333-1146
TTY/TDD: 410-333-6442
Web site: http://www.marylandpublicschools.org
B E T T E R
P R A C T I C E
I N A R T S
E D U C A T I O N
VOLUME I
BETTER
practice in
DANCE
EDUCATION
MARYLAND STATE Lynette Y. Overby, PhD

DEPARTMENT University of Michigan
OF EDUCATION
Karen Bradley, MFA
James L. Tucker, Jr.

Series Editor
BUILDING EFFECTIVE TEACHING

THROUGH EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Maryland State Board of Education
Edward L. Root, President

Dunbar Brooks, Vice President
Nancy S. Grasmick, Secretary/Treasurer
Lelia T. Allen
J. Henry Butta
Beverly A. Cooper
Calvin D. Disney
Charlene M. Dukes
Richard L. Goodall
Karabelle Pizzigati
Maria C. Torres-Queral
David F. Tufaro
Brian W. Frazee, Student Member
Maryland State Department of Education

Nancy S. Grasmick, State Superintendent of Schools
Ronald A. Peiffer, Deputy State Superintendent
Office of Academic Policy
A. Skipp Sanders, Deputy State Superintendent
Office of Administration
JoAnne L. Carter, Deputy State Superintendent
Office of Instruction and Academic Acceleration
Colleen Seremet, Assistant State Superintendent
Division of Instruction
Dixie Stack, Director of Curriculum
James L. Tucker, Jr., Coordinator of Fine Arts
State of Maryland
Martin O’Malley, Governor
The Maryland State Department of Education does not dis-

criminate on the basis of race, color, sex, age, national origin,
religion, disability, or sexual orientation in matters affecting
employment or in providing access to programs. For
inquiries related to departmental policies, contact the Equity
Assurance and Compliance Office.
ii BETTER DANCE EDUCATION

F O R E W O R D
The State of Maryland is gaining increased recognition nationally for its education
reform initiatives and its commitment to high standards of accountability in educa-
tion. It further recognizes the need for high quality arts education as an essential part
of our children’s education. In 1989, after a decade of requiring experiences in
dance, music, theatre, and the visual arts for all students in grades K-8, Maryland
became one of the first states to require that students earn a credit in the fine arts to
receive the Maryland High School Diploma. Maryland’s reform initiatives have tra-
ditionally focused on envisioning what students should know and be able to do, pro-
viding resources and enhancing instructional practice, and documenting student
learning. This particular project focuses on informing instructional practice.
In 1995, the Maryland State Board of Education adopted a goal that 100 percent of
Maryland’s students will participate in fine arts programs that enable them to meet
the content and achievement standards established by State standards for the arts. By
1997, K-12 standards for dance, music, theatre, and visual arts education, developed
by a 38 member task force, were approved by the State Board. The following year
Project BETTER was initiated to develop a resource tool that would inform instruc-
tional practice in each of the art forms.
The concept for Project BETTER – Building Effective Teaching Through Educational
Research – was created by the Division of Instruction of the Maryland State
Department of Education (MSDE) during the late 1980s as part of its mission to pro-
mote effective instruction. The development of the four volume publication for the
current project was guided by the same three major objectives: 1) to identify current
research on effective instruction, 2) to synthesize this research in the form of non-the-
oretical summaries, and 3) to deliver this information directly to practitioners.
The information in this publication is designed as a resource to assist teachers in

expanding and refining their repertoire of teaching strategies and to guide instruc-
tional planning and decision-making that supports student achievement of State
standards in the arts. It is not intended to prescribe a particular style of teaching or
one “best” method. This resource provides a guide to teachers as they consider their
curriculum objectives, the nature and needs of their students, their personal style of
teaching, and their available instructional resources. The application of this knowl-
edge will result in more effective teaching and more powerful learning.
BETTER DANCE EDUCATION iii

INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Teachers who are aware of research studies in dance education and whose practice is
informed by such studies are enormously effective teachers. In addition, to be able to cite
studies in which dance has been shown to be a valuable mode for learning in all areas is
to be the most useful kind of advocate for arts education across the board.
Current teaching practices in dance classrooms and studios cover a wide range of theo-
retical and practical approaches. From rote performance of skills to preparation for con-
certs to instrumental uses of dance to enhance creative thinking, cognitive skills, social
intelligence, and kinesthetic learning, the range of approaches and curricular content is
quite vast.
All aspects of the dance curriculum are important to educators. Dance exists in a world
that is primarily nonverbal but that requires verbal and written understanding, and it
builds upon early movement skills that everyone has but requires continual refinement
and articulation of those skills. Dance is a discipline that bolsters other disciplines
throughout the school day and fosters an array of learning outcomes.
Sources for curriculum development and discussions of teaching practices are as varied as
they are sparse. Conference proceedings, occasional articles in scholarly dance journals,
sporadic articles in juried and popular physical education and education journals, informal
discussions online, and the one journal in the field (Journal of Dance Education) form the
bulk of the theoretical considerations. Additionally, a number of unpublished papers, the-
ses, and dissertations turn up in database searches; most of these are narrow in scope and
largely inaccessible. Some are included in this document because they relate to the topic,
but readers will need to be fairly persistent and patient if they pursue follow-up reading.
With the advent of the database of dance education research forthcoming from the
National Dance Education Organization, however, the terrain will undergo a quick
change. Over 2,400 studies are expected to constitute the largest collection of sources and
iv BETTER DANCE EDUCATION

resources for teaching and researching dance education theory and practice. The data-
base will be upgraded and updated regularly, providing a useful springboard for lessons,
practices, curricular approaches, and research methods.
This document cites studies drawn from a number of sources, including the journals and
conference proceedings mentioned above and the NDEO database to date. The studies
fall into three categories:
1. Teaching Through Dance
2. Teaching In Dance
3. Teaching About Dance
Additional sections include:
4. Studies in Dance Analysis and Applied Movement Theory (since such studies cross
the three categories listed above)
5. Studies Dealing with Teacher Behaviors and Effectiveness
6. Research on Advocacy and Policy Efforts, including the National Standards, and
7. Studies of Children with Special Needs.
State Standards for the Arts
Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes
Maryland curricular guidelines for dance education include four categories for content in dance:
Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding—Aesthetic Education
Outcome II: Historical, Cultural, and Social Context
Outcome III: Creative Expression and Production
Outcome IV: Aesthetic Criticism
The major portion of the studies that involve teaching through dance, or the instrumen-
tal uses of dance, fall under Outcome II. The studies covering teaching in dance fall pri-
marily under Outcome I. And the studies involving teaching about dance tend to meet
the expectations under Outcomes II, III, and IV. Few studies in dance education deal
with teaching about dance; the majority of studies cover teaching students to dance or
using dance to teach in other academic areas.
Therefore, the research does not entirely reflect the priorities for dance education as
defined by the state of Maryland. Part of the reason for this discrepancy has to do with
the natural curiosity of dance educators (who do most of their own research; very little is
done in dance that is initiated from outside of the field). The questions that interest prac-
BETTER DANCE EDUCATION v

INTRODUCTION
titioners are those that relate to practice. For dance educators who have had to deal with
an injury or other type of physical challenge, exploring why that happened or how oth-
ers have dealt with similar challenges is of natural interest. And for dance educators who
can see how dance has enhanced cognitive and social skills in themselves or in their stu-
dents, discovering how that process works is of inherent concern.
The other part of the equation is the state’s interest in dance curricula that are about dance.
Dance history, dance in other cultures, and dance criticism predominate as areas of study in
the ELOs. It is not the purpose of this document to speculate on why that is so; it is inter-
esting to note the dearth of research studies in teaching and learning about dance.
Dance Education Research
Research, in recent years, reflects practice as much as it informs practice. The recent and
useful studies in dance are more robust than the anecdotal reflections of years past, yet
they are still grounded in real classrooms and with real children. Many of the current
approaches to unpacking the nature and degree of learning taking place in the dance class-
room/studio involve action research, or teacher-evaluated learning. Therefore, while
there are exciting and provocative quantitative studies on the effects of dance in the class-
room (Rose, Gilbert, Minton), there are also studies that draw upon the analytic and crit-
ically reflective skills of the dance educator herself.
Despite the current administration’s call for “scientifically based research,” much of what
is happening on the research front (in all fields, not simply the field of dance) draws upon
the notion of emergent design. Emergent design defines the researcher’s use of analytic
and synthesizing skills to gather data and then to reflect upon the data as a whole body
of information. The design and sometimes the variable to be assessed emerge from the
data as a whole. In other words, sometimes we have to see the children create dances, and
then we can look at the body of work to decide what elements of the project are salient
to their learning. The teacher-researcher may, in the example given, note that students
may best reveal what they have learned through a journaling experience, a drawing expe-
rience, a video analysis, or small group discussions.
Therefore, the pretest, followed by exposure to a dance experience, followed by a posttest,

still occurs, but it is not the only, nor may it be the best, way of unpacking learning.
Children do not live in Petri dishes, nor are their days simple and straightforward. It is dif-
ficult to provide the kind of pure environment that good quantitative research requires. It
is also difficult, especially with dance, to provide the numbers of subjects that high-quality
vi BETTER DANCE EDUCATION

research requires, such as matched control group subjects. But the biggest problem with
much of the research in dance education that is quantitative in design lies in defining the
dance experience. Several studies linking dance with creative thinking skills are included
because they indicate where research needs to go next in order to demonstrate what dancers
are learning. But it is unclear what aspects or elements of the act of dancing or creating
dance foster that learning. There are exceptions; these are noted below.
Somatics, or Embodied Learning
A subdiscipline that is emerging in the literature and ongoing discussions within the field
is somatics, or body-based learning. This area of dance studies evolves from both devel-
opmental and physiological bases. Because early learning derives from the kinesthetic
interactions of physical movement and feedback from the environment, patterns, propen-
sities, and aptitudes unfold as the “dance” of development proceeds. Even in very young,
preverbal children, patterns of learning style, relationship modes, personality, and skill
sets are evident in movement. Research in which these types of proclivities are assessed
reveals uniqueness and commonalities that can inform the classroom teacher in many
areas, not only dance.
The physiology of movement is another area of research that influences the training of
dancers and other learners. How children and adolescents’ physiology is affected by and
affects dance techniques, especially in elite ballet schools, has implications for dance in
public schools as well. Nutrition, exercise (both anaerobic and aerobic), weight-bearing
and impact effects, and environmental factors such as flooring, temperature, and room
size all contribute to the picture of learning in dance.
The somatics field, which combines information from developmental and physiological
knowledge, offers a rich resource for future research on embodied learning. Whether we
are curious about how movement study affects learning or how the learning environment
affects movement study, students will benefit from a deeper understanding of healthful
dancing.
Karen Bradley, MFA

2003
BETTER DANCE EDUCATION vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents
Foreword iii
Introduction iv
Teaching Through Dance
Interdisciplinary Learning Through Dance 2
Jazz Dance: Teaching an African American Dance Form 4
Dance Education Enhances Physical Self-Concept 6
Gender Issues: A Study of Culture Through Dance 9
Teaching In Dance
Teaching with Dance Images 12
Laterality: A Dance Teacher’s Approach to Balanced Teaching 14
Recalling Dance Sequences 15
Motif Writing 16
Developing Student Choreographers 17
Developing Creativity in Dancers 18
Dance Performance as a Tool for Learning 20
Teaching About Dance: Studies in Dance Analysis, Health,

and Applied Movement Theory
Dance Wellness 24
Science and Somatic Influences on Dance Education 25
Ideokinesis and Dance Education 26
Improving Dancer Endurance 29
The Impact of the Quest for an Ideal Ballet Dancer Physique on Nutritional Habits 30
Motor Learning Applications for the Dance Educator—Forward and Backward

Chaining Strategies 33
viii BETTER DANCE EDUCATION

Teacher Effectiveness
Dance Teachers—Linking Research to Practice 36
Teaching Behaviors Related to Student Performance 38
Professional Development in Dance for Classroom Teachers 39
Assessment in the Ballet Class 40
Advocacy Policy
Student Perceptions of Dance Classes 44
Special Programs
Dance Education for At-Risk Youth 48
Students with Special Needs: Creative Dance as a Tool of Expression for Individuals
with Disabilities 49
Students with Special Needs: Data-based and Creative Dance Approaches to Learning 51
Students with Special Needs: Creative Dance Facilitates the Attainment of Balance Skills 52
BETTER DANCE EDUCATION ix

BETTER DANCE EDUCATION
Teaching
Through Dance
Interdisciplinary Learning Through Dance
Jazz Dance: Teaching an African American Dance Form
Dance Education Enhances Physical Self-Concept
Gender Issues: A Study of Culture Through Dance
BETTER DANCE EDUCATION 1

TEACHING THROUGH DANCE
Interdisciplinary Learning
Through Dance
T H E O R Y
Teachers who use creative dance as a tool to facilitate learning in other school subjects promote learning
and retention. An explanation for this phenomenon comes from the research and writings of Howard
Gardner (1989).
The theory of multiple intelligences includes discrete intelligences that deal with language, logic and
mathematics, music, spatial information, bodily kinesthetic information, knowledge about other persons,
and knowledge about oneself (Gardner, 1989).
Each form of intelligence resides to some degree in all individuals, but individual profiles differ because
of genetic and environmental factors. Some individuals have high levels of musical intelligence, while
others have higher levels of interpersonal knowledge.
Educators design learning activities to enhance student
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E capacities in the various intelligences. Creative dance, which
Teachers who use creative dance as a means of utilizes the body as a tool for exploration and expression, hones
teaching other subject matter enhance learning bodily kinesthetic intelligence. Creative dance can also be a
device for learning through the bodily kinesthetic intelligence.
across the curriculum. Dance has assisted students to learn math, reading, science, and
social studies.
Collaboratively designed units of instruction often incorporate creative dance. Specialists in a variety of
subjects work side by side to design specific thematic units. For example, preschoolers in a 10-week
program explored a collaboratively designed unit—the Octopus Project (Bond, 1997). Specialists in
dance, early childhood theory and practice, language development, mathematics, music, science, and
visual art created a multidisciplinary learning environment. The preschool children expressed their
perceptions and understanding of animal forms through dance and visual art.
Teachers can develop interdisciplinary units of study by enabling students to transform the curricular
content into movement. For example, the exploration of clouds can help students develop a connection
between the various types of clouds and kinds of movement (cirrus—light, airy clouds; movement—light
force, smooth movement).
One research project divided 40 beginning readers into experimental and control groups. Both groups
were pretested on vocabulary words and comprehension of two stories. The experimental group was
taught reading with the use of creative dance; the control group was taught in a more traditional way.
The posttest scores of the experimental group were significantly higher than those of the control group.
The medium of dance enhanced learning of the vocabulary words and comprehension of the stories
(Overby, 1975).
Interdisciplinary teaching through dance links to kinesthetic intelligence and has been demonstrated to
enhance learning and retention in other subject areas.
2 BETTER DANCE EDUCATION

Howard Gardner (1989) observes that young children are capable
of a great deal of self-generated learning in the arts. We just
need to give them space and time. (Bond, 1997, p. 370)
R E F E R E N C E S Zamdmer, M. (1994). Learning to read through the arts: Its emergence in con-
text. ERIC No. 378103.
Bond, K., & Deans, J. (1997). Eagles, reptiles and beyond: A co-creative jour- The use of the arts as a core for teaching reading and writing skills to under-
ney in dance. Childhood Education, 366-371. achieving students in grades 2 to 7.
A collaborative interdisciplinary project involving preschool-age children. The
study illuminates children’s perception of dance. State Standards for the Arts, Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes
Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the Elementary School
Gardner, H. (1989). Zero based arts education: An introduction to Arts Propel. Outcome II: Historical, Cultural, and Social Context
Studies in Art Education: A Journal of Issues and Research 30 (2), 71-83. The student will demonstrate an understanding of dance, its relationship to
A report and update of the activities of Project Zero from the 1970s to 1989. other significant components of history and human experience, and ways that it
The project, led by Howard Gardner at Harvard University, provides a research provides opportunities for individual, cultural, and creative expression.
basis demonstrating the positive effect of the arts. Recent efforts of the project Expectation C: The student will demonstrate the ability to relate dance experi-
attempt to influence school reform through arts education. ences to other disciplines.
Overby, L. (1975). The effects of creative dance as reinforcement for reading National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
skill. Unpublished master’s degree thesis, The George Washington University, Be Able to Do in the Arts
Washington, DC. Content Standard 7: Making connections between dance and other disciplines.
A comparison of the effects of learning to read through dance and learning to
read with traditional methods. Children who learned through dance achieved
significantly higher posttest scores on vocabulary and reading comprehension.

Jazz Dance: Teaching an African

American Dance Form
T H E O R Y
Jazz dance, with its roots in both Africa and America, offers a glimpse of a largely unexplored aspect of
American history. Jazz dance combines the influences of African-American social dance with modern
and ballet dance.
Many schools cover American history in the 5th, 8th, and 11th grades, but jazz dance is usually not
included in textbooks for those grades. Higher education has assigned jazz dance a lower class ranking,
after modern and ballet. Jazz dance has been treated in this way because of the Eurocentric bias in
American educational institutions (Otto, 1995, p. 160).
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E
In teaching jazz dance, the social dances of the various eras of
Teachers who teach jazz dance from a historical
history may be described, performed, and placed within the
perspective promote the integration of context of American history. For example: “The dancers of the
knowledge about dance into a cultural context. 1960s were similar in their accomplishments: the twist, frug,
jerk, pony, monkey and watusi allowed whites to cast off the
rigidity of the 1950s for a more open-spirited and flexible approach to social life” (Hazzard-Gordon,
1991, p. 48). Jazz dance derived from the social dances is characterized by elements of form, rhythm,
identity, and expression.
Form
The African American social dance embraced by jazz dance includes elements of improvisation,
embellishment, originality, and call and response. Syncopation is also evident—a musical form where the
accent falls on a beat other than the first. Swing dance exemplifies this musical characteristic.
Call and response, an African form, is prevalent in the Big Apple; it was a popular dance of the 1920s
performed in a circle, with a leader and group response to specific dance steps. Improvisation was also
included when leaders directed individuals to execute a break.
Rhythm
Rhythmic syncopation and intonation are unique to African and African American music and dance
traditions (Otto, p. 105). The rhythms of Africa make up an integral part of jazz dance and of the dance
forms of each successive decade.
Identity
African American dance allows the individual to express identity, which might be authentic, or a masking
of true identity, as in the cakewalk of the 1800s, in which slaves performed an elaborate version of the
popular ballroom dances of their masters. Dance has always been an area of pride for some African
Americans, who created and performed dances that became mainstreamed and ultimately incorporated
into the vocabulary of jazz and musical theatre.
Expression
Jazz dance is a high-energy, creative form of expression. The roots of the expression, undeniably African,
are characterized by strong syncopated rhythms and fast percussive movements. It is an uplifting
expression of a youthful, strong people.
Teaching jazz dance from a historical perspective helps students become aware of the contributions of
Africans to this distinctly American art form.

Dance education today would be well served by
educators’ efforts to reiterate the essential
roots of jazz dance and jazz music.
(Otto, 1995, p. 161)
R E F E R E N C E S State Standards for the Arts, Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes
Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the High School
Hazzard-Gordon, K. (1991). Dancing to rebalance the universe. Journal of Outcome III: Historical, Cultural, and Social Context
Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 62 (2), 36-39, 48. The student will demonstrate an understanding of dance, its relationship to
A description of the characteristics of African dance and their reflection in secu- other significant components of history and human experience, and ways that it
lar dance forms. provides opportunities for individual, cultural, and creative expression.
Expectation A: The student will develop the ability to recognize dance as a form
Otto, P. (1965). Social dance forms of the Harlem Renaissance: Embracing a of individual and cultural expression.
deeper understanding of jazz dance and aesthetic principles. Impulse 3 (3),
159-171. National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
The interplay of values that includes characteristics of Harlem Renaissance Be Able to Do in the Arts
dances and jazz dance. The author emphasizes the need for educators to pro- Content Standard 5: Demonstrating and understanding dance in various cul-
vide a more complete picture of this period of American history. tures and historical periods.

Dance Education Enhances

Physical Self-Concept
T H E O R Y
Dance educators assert that dance education has a positive impact on self-esteem and body image. Much
of the dance and body image research, however, has yielded equivocal results (Overby, in press). Many of
these studies lack dance movement instrumentation, and their insensitive project designs do not allow for
the analysis of various types of data.
Riley (1987) conducted a study that utilized both quantitative
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E and qualitative approaches to investigating the connection
Teachers who teach creative dance promote between dance self-esteem and body image. The purpose of
the study was to explore the interrelationships and effects of
physical self-esteem and positive body image.
creative dance on physical self-esteem, body image, and
problem-solving skills of fourth-grade children. Case study
methodology determined the impact of a six-week creative dance program on 30 boys and girls. The
students were administered a body image scale, a body build test, and the culture-free inventory before
and after the program. The study indicated the following:
1. Physical self-esteem
Dance performance and fitness activities were perceived as fun while building healthy self-esteem in boys
and girls.
2. Self-esteem gains higher in girls
Interview data provided an explanation for the differing scores. Fifty percent of the boys mentioned
nervousness about the creative dance program. They appeared to have some conflicts with the
experience, stating, “Girls like dance the best,” and “Boys think dance is baby stuff. They like playing
football where you roll in the mud” (Riley, 1987, p. 38). Teachers also confirmed a difference in the
experiences of girls and boys, commenting on the willingness of girls to take risks and the reluctance of
boys to be different. Boys enjoyed dance but felt more at risk, which affected the lack of change in their
physical self-esteem.
3. Expressive behavior is enhanced
Boys and girls demonstrated the ability to verbalize an image produced by dancing, and an action and
feeling related to that image.
4. Positive attitudes toward teacher
Boys and girls commented positively about the dance teacher, which contributed to their positive attitude
toward the creative dance program. The study confirms the beneficial effects of creative dance on physical
self-esteem and body image.

Creative dance can open up for you and your students new worlds of
knowledge, creativity, and self-expression. Creative dance can be a
powerful tool toward peace because people learn to solve problems,
express feelings, cooperate, accept and value individual
differences, gain an awareness of their own and others’ cultures
and engage in an activity that increases, rather than decreases
their self-esteem.
(Gilbert, 1992, p. 4)
R E F E R E N C E S The lack of appropriate methodologies in creative dance research. The author

suggests that a responsive research design can provide a more complete pic-
Gilbert, A. (1992). Creative Dance for All Ages. Reston, VA: National Dance ture of the impact of creative dance on the child.
Association of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation
and Dance. State Standards for the Arts
A conceptual approach to teaching creative dance. This detailed resource pro- Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes
vides a method of teaching creative dance that combines skill development Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the Elementary School
with exploration and improvisation. Outcome III: Creative Expression and Production
The student will demonstrate the ability to create dance by improvising, organ-
Overby, L. (in press). The body image: A review of the literature in L. Y. Overby izing dance ideas, and performing.
& J. H. Humphrey (Eds.), Dance: current selected research (Vol. 4). New York: Expectation A: The student will develop the ability to produce spontaneous
AMS Press. movement from various stimuli.
A survey of research in body image of dancers. Conclusions point to the need
for more dance-specific instrumentation and methodologies. National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
Be Able to Do in the Arts
Riley, A. (1987). Is creative dance responsive to research? Design for Arts in Content Standard 3: Understanding dance as a way to create and communi-
Education 36-40. cate meaning.

When moving images created by dancers violate expected male

and female roles and their conventional expressions, the
novel signs on stage charge the atmosphere and stimulate
performers and observers to confront the possibility of
altered life-styles. (Hanna, p. xiii, 1988)

Gender Issues: A Study of
Culture Through Dance
T H E O R Y
For any given individual the experience of gender identity is an absolute boundary that is existentially
insurmountable (Polhemus, 1993). The study of dance provides a rich venue for analysis and
interpretation of gender issues. Regardless of the cultural domain, male and female dancers are relegated
to differing roles and expressions. For example, Ghanaian men demonstrate differing dance styles from
Ghanaian women. Differences are very evident in classical ballet as the female ballet dancer performs on
pointe, while during the pas de deux the male dancer supports her movements. Ballroom dancers
provide another example of gender role distinction, as the male dancer takes the lead.
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E Dance styles and choreography can offer students a data source for analyzing
gender roles. The choreography of Martha Graham provides a variety of
Teachers should present dance as a
cultural settings for female characterization. For example, in work
rich arena for the cultural study of choreographed for the 1935 production of Frontier, Graham portrayed the
gender issues. female as both powerful and dangerous in such roles as Jocasta in Night
Journey, who is incestuous, and Medea in Cave of the Heart, who murders her
children. In 1958 she portrayed Clytemnestra, who murders her husband (Burt, 1998).
Hanna (1988) analyzes in detail styles of dance that reveal gender biases. For example, classical ballet
tends to present two contrasting images of woman—the unattainable, idealized, or repressed virginal love
and the passionate heartthrob (p. 173). There are many gestures and movements in ballet that symbolize
stereotypical male and female behavior.
Recent choreography has challenged the stereotypical definitions of dance by portraying males and
females in alternative roles. Men and women choreographers have portrayed women in roles of stature,
in the reality and illusion of exerting physical strength, and even in lesbian relationships. For example, in
the dance Intentional Divisions/Implicit Connections, choreographer Bill T. Jones, a tall, muscular man, is
flipped over by a diminutive woman who is less than one-half his height and weight (Hanna, 1988).
Dance teachers should promote discussion and analysis of gender issues as displayed through dance. As
students learn about the impact of culture on the expression of gender issues, they will be able to
approach gender biases with knowledge and understanding. Through the study of choreography, dance
styles, and ethnic dance forms, dance becomes another powerful tool for creating new cultural realities
for male and females.
R E F E R E N C E S provides many examples of social and ethnic dance as expressions of the inter-
section between gender and culture.
Burt, R. (1998). Alien Bodies: Representations of modernity, “race,” and
nation in early dance. New York: Routledge. State Standards for the Arts, Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes
Hanna, J. (1988). Dance, Sex, and Gender. Chicago: The University of Outcome II – Historical, Cultural, and Social Context
Chicago Press. The student will demonstrate an understanding of dance, its relationship to
Information on dance, sex, and gender issues, including the continuing reconsti- other significant components of history and human experience, and ways that it
tution of gender roles and meanings that bear on the human struggle with provides opportunities for individual, cultural, and creative expression.
questions of self-identity and interpersonal relationships. Expectation A: The student will analyze the ways people use dance as a means
Kahlich, L. C. (2001). Gender and dance education. Journal of Dance of communication and expression.
Education 1 (2), 45-47. National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
Editorial encouraging dance educators to reflect on gender biases incorporated Be Able to Do in the Arts
in their teaching. Content Standard 4: Applying and demonstrating critical and creative thinking
Polhemus, T. (1993). Dance, gender, and culture. In H. Thomas (Ed.), Dance, skills in dance.
gender and culture. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Content Standard 5: Demonstrating and understanding dance in various cul-
Gender constrains responses in general, and specifically in dance. Polhemus tures and historical periods.

Teaching
In Dance
Teaching with Dance Images
Laterality: A Dance Teacher’s Approach to Balanced Teaching
Recalling Dance Sequences
Motif Writing
Developing Student Choreographers
Developing Creativity in Dancers
Dance Performance as a Tool for Learning

TEACHING IN DANCE
Teaching with
Dance Images
T H E O R Y
Many dance teachers use mental imagery in planning, implementing, and evaluating technique and
choreography. Researchers have noted that dance teachers rely on imagery with beginning, intermediate, and
advanced dancers. The images are visual; the dancer forms a mental picture of the movement or kinesthetic
and imagines the feeling of a movement. An image may be direct or a practice mental image of a specific
movement, or it can be indirect or metaphorical: “Imagine walking and turning as if there were no gravity to
keep you earthbound.” Teaching with mental practice imagery can enable students to recall movement
sequences. Physical practice can precede a few minutes of mental practice to enhance the learning and
performance of a movement sequence. Metaphoric imagery can
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E enhance the qualitative performance of a movement and add meaning.
Teachers who use mental imagery in their For example, a metaphoric statement to “run as if you were running in a
pool of water” changes the quality of the execution of the run.
teaching promote learning because images Metaphoric images also enhance choreography (Hawkins, 1964).
enhance the recall and performance of
Recent research has revealed that modern dance teachers use more
movement. imagery than jazz dance teachers do. Both mental practice and
metaphoric imagery can be useful in structured (folk dance, line dance) and unstructured dance forms
(creative, improvisation). Guidelines for teaching both types of images follow:
1. Provide an accurate demonstration of the skill. The learners must be able to form an image of the
space, time, force, and specific movement of the skill.
2. Articulate the critical elements of the skill and point out its important components. For example, in
teaching a port de bras, the spatial relationship of the arms and body position is described. In a first
port de bras, the avant position (front), the hands face one another and are lower than the shoulders.
The hands are positioned no higher than the base of the sternum. By pointing out the critical
elements, the teacher allows the learner to focus on the correct execution of the skill.
3. After observing a demonstration and focusing on the critical components of the skill, the learner
should physically practice the skill several times.
4. Give feedback to provide information about the success of the movement and what must be done in
a succeeding performance.
5. Provide direct imagery practice. Direct mental practice imagery provides students with a method of
rehearsing the skill. Now is the time to guide students through the dance image. Students should be
focused, receptive, and physically still during the delivery of the dance image.
6. Have students physically practice the skill. Physical practice immediately follows mental practice.
7. Present indirect metaphoric images, but be certain that they are part of the student’s experience. Can
the learner form a mental picture of the desired image from the port de bras example? Provide the
metaphoric image while the student is moving.
Teaching dance images adds important dimensions to the pedagogic strategies available to the teacher or
choreographer. Images appeal to the multidimensional aspects of the learners, including their visual,
kinesthetic, and auditory senses.

Imagery is another excellent means of experiencing tension states.
For example, have students try moving with the images in mind of
walking in deep sand or of floating like a feather in the air. Images
such as these may be the motivation for short improvisations that
will call for various tension states and, thus different movement
qualities. (Hawkins, 1964, p. 36)
R E F E R E N C E S Coaches and dance teachers differ in their use of kinesthetic and metaphoric
imagery. Dance teachers use more metaphoric imagery than figure skating and
Hawkins, A. (1964). Creating Through Dance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- soccer coaches do.
Hall, Inc.
A comprehensive view of dance technique and creativity. State Standards for the Arts
Minton, S. (1996). Assessment of the use of imagery in the dance classroom. Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the Middle School
Impulse 4 (4), 276-292. Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding—Aesthetic Education
A survey of modern and jazz teachers to determine differences and similarities The student will demonstrate the ability to use perceptual skills through per-
in imagery use. forming and responding in dance.
Overby, L. (1990). The use of imagery by dance teachers—Development and Expectation C: The student will demonstrate understanding of the language of
implementation of two research instruments. Journal of Physical Education, dance, including technical skills, terminology, and refined physical abilities, by
Recreation and Dance 61 (2), 24-27. executing increasingly complex movements.
Two research instruments for the assessment of imagery use are introduced. National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
Overby, L., Hall, C., & Haslem, I. (1998). A comparison of imagery used by Be Able to Do in the Arts
dance teachers, figure skating coaches, and soccer coaches. Imagination, Content Standard 1: Identifying and demonstrating movement elements and
Cognition and Personality 17 (4), 323-337. skills in performing dance.

TEACHING IN DANCE
Laterality: A Dance Teacher’s

Approach to Balanced Teaching
T H E O R Y
Bilateral transfer relates to learning a motor skill or task on the opposite side. During a dance class,
teachers typically teach a combination of movements on one side only. They expect students to perform
the movement sequences on the other side without a previous demonstration. In a study by Puretz, the
dancers learned two complex dance movement sequences in eight treatment conditions. The treatment
conditions included naive and experienced dancers, right or left side preference, and transfer of one-trial
training versus practice time. Surprisingly, the results of the study supported the strategy of teaching to
the nondominant side first.
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E Teachers should demonstrate dance sequences on the nondominant

side. The students should be allowed to practice to a mastery level on
Teachers who promote bilateral transfer
that side. Students should then be able to easily transfer to the
by teaching to the nondominant side dominant side.
enhance the ability of dance students to
perform on both sides.
Dance teachers should teach to the

non-preferred side (i.e., the left side)
to maximize learning through bilateral
transfer. (Puretz, 1989, p. 247).
Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the Middle School
Puretz, S. (1983). Bilateral transfer: The effects of practice on the transfer of Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding—Aesthetic Education
complex dance movement patterns. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, The student will demonstrate the ability to use perceptual skills through per-
54 (1), 48-54. forming and responding in dance.
This study is reported above. Expectation C: The student will demonstrate understanding of the language of
Puretz, S. (1989). The psychology of dance. In L. Y. Overby & J. H. Humphrey dance, including technical skills, terminology, and refined physical abilities, by
(Eds.), Dance: current selected research (Vol. 1). New York: AMS Press. executing increasingly complex movements.
Review of research literature in psychology of dance, specifically self-concept, National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
body image, motor learning creativity, and clinical considerations. Be Able to Do in the Arts
Skriner, M. (1984). Motor learning research may help the dancer. The Dancer Content Standard 1: Identifying and demonstrating movement elements and
as Athlete. Olympic Scientific Congress Proceedings, (Vol. 8), 187-194. skills in performing dance.
The state of the field of dance research/motor learning research, especially per-
ceptual skills, learning, instructional cue use, and transfer.

Recalling Dance
Sequences
T H E O R Y One suspects then that very skilled creative

Experts are more capable of recalling modern dancers must develop an ability to recall
information specific to their skill. This
any and all movement sequences, not simply those
effect has been demonstrated in many
sport skills, including chess and field constrained by traditional structure.
hockey. Starks, Caicco, Boutilier, and (Starks, Caicco, Boutilier, & Sevsek, 1990, p. 318).
Sevsek (1990) compared the ability of
expert young ballet dancers to recall structured and random ballet sequences with that of nondancers.
The expert dancers were able to recall the dance sequences significantly more accurately than the novice
dancers. The researchers also noted the lack of primacy and recency effects, which include the tendency
to recall the first and last items in a list more accurately than the items in the middle.
In a later experiment, creative modern dance served as the movement for study. Unlike ballet, creative
modern dance does not have specific verbal labels for each movement. Expert dancers again were
compared with novice dancers. The expert dancers recalled the creative modern dance sequences more
accurately than the novice dancers. The primacy-recency effect was also evident in this experiment, as the
first and last movements were recalled more accurately than the middle movements.
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E Experience contributes to the ability of dancers to recall and

perform movement sequences more accurately than novice
Teachers who teach dance help dancers recall
dancers.
structured and unstructured dance sequences
more accurately than nondancers can.
R E F E R E N C E S State Standards for the Arts

Crisp, F. (1987). Motor versus verbal recall of ballet sequences by young expert Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the Middle School
dancers. Journal of Sport Psychology 9, 222-230. Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding—Aesthetic Education
A comparison of the ability to recall choreographed ballet sequences of expert The student will demonstrate the ability to use perceptual skills through per-
young ballet dancers and novice young dancers. The two groups did not differ forming and responding in dance.
in the unstructured trials, but the expert dancers performed significantly better Expectation C: The student will demonstrate understanding of the language of
than the nondancers in the structured, motor, and verbal sequences. dance, including technical skills, terminology, and refined physical abilities, by
Starkes, J., Caicco, M., Boutilier, C., & Sevsek, B. (1990). Motor recall of executing increasingly complex movements.
experts for structured and unstructured sequences in creative modern dance. National Standards for the Arts
Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 13, 317-321. What Every Young American Should Know and Be Able to Do in the Arts
A comparison of the ability of expert modern dancers and novice dancers to Content Standard 1: Identifying and demonstrating movement elements and
recall performance of structured and unstructured movement sequences. The skills in performing dance.
expert dancers performed better than the novice dancers in both conditions.

TEACHING IN DANCE
Motif
Writing
T H E O R Y
Motif writing is a symbol system for writing movement concepts. The purpose of motif writing is to
stimulate creative movement exploration (Guest, 1995; Venable, 1998). When dance educators
introduce motif writing, their students are able to improvise and document dances by moving and
writing. The written record encourages retention of the created movement sequences. The students have
a final product that includes a dance score and a movement vocabulary, and are able to share the
information with other dancers, parents, and friends.
Motif writing has been used with children as young as 4 years.
Teachers who use motif writing to develop
At the Posey School in Northport, New York, teachers combine
dance literacy provide a visual representation creative dance, motif writing, and storytelling (Bucek, 1998). At
of movement experiences to enhance learning. the Duxberry Park Arts IMPACT Elementary School in
Columbus, Ohio, teachers utilize motif writing and
interdisciplinary learning, combining geography with cultural dances, and helping kindergarten students use
motif symbols to dance and to notate literature (Bucek, 1998).
Motif writing provides dance educators with a tool for developing dance literacy for students of all ages.
Students learn to combine creative problem solving with a visual representation of movement sequences.
Motif writing provides a means for students to

put down their core ideas to contemplate,
compare, or share with others. (Venable, 1998, p. 33)
Bucek, L. (1998). Developing dance literacy. Journal of Physical Education, Outcome II: Historical, Cultural, and Social Context
Recreation and Dance 69 (7), 29-32. The student will demonstrate an understanding of dance, its relationship to
Motif writing as an intellectual framework for movement that builds children’s other significant components of history and human experience, and ways that it
ability to conceive of movement in a system of symbols. Motif writing is also provides opportunities for individual, cultural, and creative expression.
described as a way of blending various school subjects. Expectation A: The student will develop the ability to recognize dance as a form
Guest, A. (1995). Your move: a new approach to the study of movement and of individual and cultural expression.
dance (3rd ed.). New York: Gordon and Breach. National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
A comprehensive description and application of motif writings. Be Able to Do in the Arts
Venable, L. (1998). Demystifying motif writing. Journal of Physical Education Content Standard 3: Understanding dance as a way to create and communi-
Recreation and Dance 69 (6), 32-36. cate meaning.
The history of motif writing and an explanation of its symbols. The author also
traces the growth of motif writing in schools in Columbus, Ohio, over the past
three decades.

Developing Student
Choreographers
T H E O R Y For dance students to gain the

Student choreographers are expected to produce unique maximum benefit from their
and expressive dance works. Teachers can create a
choreographic experience it is
learning environment that promotes inventive problem
solving and reflective thinking. James Penrod of the important for faculty not to let the
University of California, Irvine, and Larry Lavender and Mentoring process become one of
Jennifer Predock-Linnell of the University of New
dictating rather than facilitating
Mexico, Albuquerque, offer two approaches.
the students’ artistic development.
Penrod devised a series of workshops for second-year
(Lavender & Predock-Linnell, 1996, p. 235)
choreography students to enable them to find fresh
approaches to discovering their own movement
preferences and to organize them into a meaningful choreographic structure (p. 11). The workshops
offered a number of perspectives, including Laban movement analysis, Bartenieff fundamentals,
psychology, Gendlin focusing, dance therapy, Stanislavski actor training, and choreographic craft and
structures. The 10-week course revealed that students were able to expand their personal boundaries,
increase their personal risk taking, and choreograph some
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E powerful dance movements based upon their own deeply felt
Teachers who promote a student-centered life experiences.
environment in their classes develop creativity Another paper, “Standing Aside and Making Space: Mentoring
in student choreographers. Student Choreographers,” supports the notion of establishing a
learning environment that promotes creative problem solving
and reflective thinking. The paper discusses the role of mentor as an active and reflective process. A
good mentor has effective listening and questioning skills. The mentor enables the student
choreographer to recognize when to revise artistic choices.
Assisting student choreographers in developing dance works promotes positive outcomes for the
teacher/mentor, the student choreographer, and the audience.
R E F E R E N C E S and perform dance ideas and themes.

Outcome IV: Aesthetic Criticism
Lavender, L., & Predock-Linnell, J. (1996). Standing aside and making space. The student will demonstrate the ability to identify, analyze, and apply criteria
Mentoring student choreographers. Impulse 4 (3), 235-252. for making aesthetic judgments in dance.
Penrod, J. (1994). Expression in dance: Teaching beyond technique. Impulse 2 Expectation B: The student will develop the skills and sensitivity to examine
(1), 3-15. personal efforts in choreography and performance.
State Standards for the Arts National Standards for the Arts
Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes What Every Young American Should Know and Be Able to Do in the Arts
Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the High School Content Standard 2: Understanding choreographic principles, processes, and
Outcome III: Creative Expression and Production structures.
The student will demonstrate the ability to create dance by improvising, organ- Content Standard 4: Applying and demonstrating critical and creative thinking
izing dance ideas, and performing. skills in dance.
Expectation B: The student will apply fundamentals of composition to design

TEACHING IN DANCE
Developing Creativity
in Dancers
T H E O R Y
Dancers, like other artists, exhibit creative behaviors. Teaching dance in a creative manner enhances creativity.
Creative dance and improvisation incorporate problem solving and movement explorations as integral
aspects of training in modern and creative dance. Dancers explore the elements of movement in
designing movement studies. Creative dance, which is most often taught to students in preschool
through grade 5, focuses primarily on exploration and understanding the elements of movement.
Students of all ages are encouraged to develop brief movement studies based on a particular element.
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E Modern dance, which emphasizes technical development, also

incorporates improvisation in training. Modern dancers develop
Dance teachers can contribute to the movement vocabularies essential for performance and choreography.
development of creativity in dancers by
Composition and choreography directly relate to the application of
carefully planning for creative experiences. creative behaviors. Teachers of dance composition provide students
with specific tools for developing unique works of art.
Investigations of the behavior of dancers find that dancers are creative. Like other students in the
performing arts, dancers may be characterized as self-confident, flexible, achieving, and dominant.
Standardized tests of creativity (Brennan, 1985, and Alter, 1990) have measured the creativity of dancers.
Brennan developed a movement test based on the Torrance creativity measures (Torrance, 1965). Torrance
developed a movement instrument consisting of tests of position, composition, and movement creativity.
Another measure, developed by Alter (1990), provides information on the high-energy tendencies of
creative performing artists.
Teachers can use Torrance’s seven guides to creativity when devising creative experiences for dance classes.
1. Do not leave creative development to chance.
2. Encourage curiosity and other creative characteristics.
3. Be respectful of questions and unusual ideas.
4. Recognize original, creative behavior.
5. Ask questions that require thinking.
6. Build on the learning skills that pupils already have.
7. Give opportunities for learning in creative ways.
Although creative activities are often left to the modern dance or creative dance teacher, teachers of other
types of dance should also incorporate a creative component as part of the class.

The performing arts students can be described as creative.
They are self-confident, flexible, achieving, dominant, and
interested in change. (Alter, 1990, p. 97)
R E F E R E N C E S Torrance, E. P. (1965). Seven guides to creativity. Journal of Health, Physical

Education, Recreation and Dance 26, 68.
Alter, J. B. (1990). Performing arts students: Their creative potential, prefer- The positive effect of creative dance on the creativity of young children. The
ence for high energy activities and personality characteristics: An analysis of paper describes seven guidelines to develop creative thinking abilities through
variance. Dance: Current Selected Research 2, 69-104. movement.
Brennan, M. (1985). Dance creativity tests and the structure of intellect mod- State Standards for the Arts
els. The Journal of Creative Behavior 19 (3), 185-190. Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes
Brennan constructed a dance creativity instrument based on Guilford’s Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the High School
Structure of Intellect (SI) framework. This framework stipulates three main Outcome III – Creative Expression and Production
parameters of intellect—operations, content, and products. The instrument The student will demonstrate the ability to create dance by improvising, organ-
encompasses the positions test, the composition test, and the improvisation izing dance ideas, and performing.
test. The purpose of the study was to assess the reliability of the measures. Expectation B: The student will apply fundamentals of composition to design
Results indicated that reliable dance measures could be constructed by and perform dance ideas and themes.
employing the categorical organization of the model.
National Standards for the Arts
Isaksen, S. G., & Parnes, S. J. (1985). Curriculum planning for creative thinking What Every Young American Should Know and Be Able to Do in the Arts
and problem solving. The Journal of Creative Behavior 19 (1), 29. Content Standard 2: Understanding choreographic principles, processes, and
A survey of 150 curriculum planners about their knowledge, attitudes, and structure.
behavior in regard to the development of creative thinking. Results contributed Content Standard 4: Applying and demonstrating critical and creative thinking
to a creative problem-solving model to engage in curriculum planning for cre- skills in dance.
ative learning.

TEACHING IN DANCE
Dance Performance as a
Tool for Learning
R A T I O N A L E
Participation in dance performances and attendance at performances by dance companies can effectively
teach curricular content.
In a program on the history of dance, fifth-grade students were pretested and posttested to determine
their knowledge of African American dance and their attitudes toward it as a historical entity. A narrated
performance showcased specific dances, including the cakewalk, tap, the Charleston, and the Lindy Hop,
placed in historical context. After viewing the performance, the students improved in their knowledge
and appreciation of African American dance history (Overby & Durr, 1993).
A second program presented a dance pantomime experiment that introduced the health concepts of
nutrition, mental health, bicycle safety, and anatomy to elementary school children. Experimental groups
observed two 45-minute presentations. The third-grade
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E students in the experimental group were pretested, viewed the
performance, and then were posttested on the health concepts
Teachers who require attendance at dance
presented in the dance performance. The control groups did
performances and participation in dance not observe the dance pantomime but received written
promote student learning by engaging students materials on the topics. The study indicated improved concepts
of anatomy and bicycle safety. The scores of the experimental
in an artistic and educational experience.
group were significantly higher than those of the control group.
A third presentation demonstrated integration of physical science concepts with dance and theatre. The
performance, entitled Kinetic Energy, focused on the concepts of kinetic and potential energy, gravity,
inertia, and friction. The program was based on the Michigan Science Standards and Objectives for
elementary school students. A survey of fourth-grade students indicated that they gained knowledge of
kinetic energy, potential energy, and gravity while experiencing an artistic production.
The three programs demonstrate the potential for dance performance to affect learning. As teachers look
to more interdisciplinary approaches, the dance performance offers a viable option for learning both in
and through the arts.

Dance is recognized as a useful tool in the communication of many
thoughts and ideas. With patience, preparation, and imagination, it
can be employed successfully in the elementary school setting to
augment and enrich the educational experience, and to affect
measurable cognition as well. (Hoover, 1980, p. 146)
R E F E R E N C E S the schools to encourage introduction and follow-up activities. A survey of

fourth-grade students recorded their understanding of scientific concepts pre-
Hoover, C. F. (1980). The effectiveness of a narrated dance/pantomime pro- sented in the program.
gram in communicating selected health concepts of third graders.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon, Eugene. State Standards for the Arts, Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes
The effects of a dance pantomime program on the health knowledge of third Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the Elementary School
graders. The students became more knowledgeable regarding anatomy and Outcome II – Historical, Cultural, and Social Context
bicycle safety. The student will demonstrate an understanding of dance, its relationship to
other significant components of history and human experience, and ways that it
Overby, L., & Durr, D. (1993, October). Dance in America: An African- provides opportunities for individual, cultural, and creative expression.
American Journey. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Midwest Expectation A: The student will develop the ability to recognize dance as a form
Popular Culture and Midwest American Culture Association, East Lansing, MI. of expression and understand why people dance.
Touring company of collegiate dancers performed in 20 schools throughout Outcome IV: The student will demonstrate the ability to identify, analyze, and
Michigan. Educational materials were distributed to the schools in preparation apply culture for making aesthetic judgments in dance.
for the performance. Students and teachers in fifth grade were pretested and Expectation A: The student will discuss reactions to dance performance.
posttested on their knowledge and attitudes. Results indicated that the children
gained in their knowledge of African American dance and in their attitudes National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
toward African American dance. Be Able to Do in the Arts
Content Standard 1: Applying and demonstrating critical and creative skills in
Overby, L. (1999, July). Presentation of the science education standards dance.
through theatre and dance. The 10th International Conference on Creativity in Content Standard 5: Demonstrating and understanding dance in various cul-
Colleges and Universities. Midland, MI. tures and historical periods.
Touring company of collegiate dancers performed in 20 schools throughout Content Standard 7: Making connections between dance and other disciplines.
Michigan. The dance and theatre program was designed around the physical
science objective of motion of objects. Educational materials were delivered to

Teaching About
Dance: Studies in
Dance Analysis,
Health, and Applied
Movement Theory
Dance Wellness
Science and Somatic Influences on Dance Education
Ideokinesis and Dance Education
Improving Dancer Endurance
The Impact of the Quest for an Ideal Ballet Dancer Physique on Nutritional Habits
Motor Learning Applications for the Dance Educator—Forward and Backward

Chaining Strategies

TEACHING ABOUT DANCE
Dance
Wellness
T H E O R Y
The phrase “dance wellness” encompasses all aspects of human health and well-being. Dance wellness
programs include anatomy, physiology, kinesiology, biomechanics, body therapies, dance injuries,
nutrition, personal health, psychology, and motor learning.
The four major strategies for implementing dance wellness curricula are specificity, balance, integration,
and a multidisciplinary approach. A recent survey of 70 schools by Cardinal and Hilsendager (1996)
determined that 57.1% of the schools maintained dance wellness programs. Not all aspects of dance
wellness, however, were covered. Anatomy and kinesiology were offered in 80% of the schools and
psychology in only 60.5%. The third most prevalent component is the body therapies, or somatics. The
majority of dance wellness programs are located in undergraduate programs.
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E To enable dancers to perform with good physical and emotional

heath, a strong program of technique and wellness information is
Teachers who include comprehensive dance
needed. Educators can utilize a multidisciplinary approach to
wellness programs promote beneficial develop a program with components of technique supported by
behaviors in dancers. knowledge of wellness principles and ways of learning.
Dance Wellness is an area of dance composed of a wide array of

components that share as a common goal the overall health and
well-being of the dancer, as related to increased qualitative and
quantitative performance potential. (Cardinal & Hilsendager, 1996, p. 239)
Cardinal, M., & Hilsendager, S. (1996). Dance wellness curricular model for Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding—Aesthetic Education
higher education. In L. Y. Overby & P. Cote-Laurence (Eds.). Dance education a The student will demonstrate the ability to use perceptual skills through per-
lifetime of experiences—Proceedings of the First Biannual Dance Education forming and responding in dance.
Conference (pp. 52-53). Reston, VA: National Dance Association of the Expectation C: The student will demonstrate proficiency in dance form and
American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. technique, discuss ways in which proficiency affects dance performance, and
A curricular model for dance wellness programs. The needs of the whole stu- describe how training to achieve proficiency translates to personal life experi-
dent are taken into account—mind, body, and spirit. ences.
Cardinal, M., & Hilsendager, S. (1995). Incorporating dance wellness-related National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
components into higher education dance programs. Impulse 3 (4), 238-248. Be Able to Do in the Arts
A survey of dance programs. The author promotes more comprehensive, multi- Content Standard 6: Making connections between dance and healthful living.
disciplinary training of the dancer.

Science and Somatic Influences
on Dance Education
T H E O R Y
The field of somatics encompasses such body disciplines as the Alexander technique, Feldenkrais, Pilates,
and Bartenieff fundamentals, ideokinesis, and body-mind centering. The focus of each of these body
disciplines is awareness of the body. When science and somatics are integrated into specific techniques
like stretching, a dancer’s flexibility, movement efficiency, and movement quality improve. Somatics
works by developing awareness of and responsiveness to the dancer’s reactions and sensations.
Body therapies utilize images, directions, and verbal cues to actively and passively enhance body
awareness. An example of a body therapy is the Alexander technique. Alexander, an actor, developed a
technique for changing habits of use through inhibition and
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E direction. When applied to dance, the student learns to inhibit
Teachers who understand somatics promote
poor movement habits and to utilize directions that lead to
more efficient body use. The Alexander technique focuses on
technical learning by leading students to the movement of the head, neck, and back as the primary
increase their body awareness. target for re-establishing greater control and efficiency of the
body (Richmond, 1994).
Dance science and somatics have entered the curriculum of higher education programs. Because the
inclusion of dance science and somatics as viable teaching tools is a relatively new phenomenon, many
dance teachers need to take advantage of workshops and summer courses (Plastino, 1995). Dance
teachers may also collaborate with somatic specialists to
ensure integration of the concepts into technique classes. The hallmark of somatics is that the
body learns improved movement
Teaching that relies on science and somatics promotes
self-understanding and leads to more authentic aesthetic organization and movement quality
expression. by consciously sensing and directing
sensory awareness while moving or
in thinking about moving.
(Batson, 1993, p. 132)
R E F E R E N C E S higher education. Funding and personnel requirements for dance science and
wellness programs are discussed.
Batson, G. (1993). Stretching technique: A somatic learning model. Part l:
Training Sensory Responsibility. Impulse 1 (2), 126-140. State Standards for the Arts
The use of somatics to enhance dancers’ physiological flexibility. The Alexander Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes
technique is applied to stretching. Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the High School
Richmond, P. (1994). The Alexander technique and dance training. Impulse 2 The student will demonstrate the ability to use perceptual skills through per-
(1), 24-38. forming and responding in dance.
The Alexander technique and its applications for use with dancers to increase Expectation A: The student will investigate ways that changes in perception
coordination. affect dance experience.
Plastino, J. G. (1995). Moving to the 21st Century: Dance Science and Higher National Standards for the Arts
Education. What Every Young American Should Know and Be Able to Do in the Arts
Impulse 3 (4), 249-252. Content Standard 6: Making connections between dance and healthful living.
The evolution of dance science as an integral part of the dance curriculum in

Ideokinesis and
Dance Education
T H E O R Y
Ideokinesis is a form of imagery based on the location, direction, and forces required to perform a
movement efficiently. The movement images are used to gain subcortical control over spinal
musculature. Ideokinesis enhances alignment and improves the execution of dance skills.
Dance teachers can apply this use of imagery to many dance forms. Ideokinesis works because of the
relationship of the images (ideokinetic facilitators) to anatomical structure and function. This body
therapy is especially conducive to correcting faulty alignment. The images are anatomical and
metaphorical lines of movement that are global, visual, and kinesthetic.
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E Researchers have verified that ideokinesis improves alignment

(Krasnow, Chatfield, Barr, Jensen, & Dufek, 1997; Fairweather
Instructors who teach dance through & Sidaway, 1993; Sweigard, 1975) and technique (Hanrahan,
ideokinesis promote the execution of 1994).
anatomically correct technique and alignment. The following example applies ideokinesis to technique:
“Imagine a strong gust of wind brushing down your back,
gushing into your pelvis and blowing through your whole body and out through your head, arms, down
through your supporting leg, and gushing through and out in front of you” (Hanrahan, 1994, p. 136).
Teachers can create their own images (ideokinetic facilitators) by following these guidelines:
1. Determine which parts of the body should be moving and in which direction.
2. Identify a positive, specific goal.
3. Identify the desired movement qualities and dynamics.
4. Find an existing form of energy appropriate to the desired movement dynamics.
5. Determine where the image is located in relation to the body.
6. Determine the desired direction of the flow of energy in the image.
7. Create an image with an appropriate energy directed toward a specific movement goal and located
appropriately in the body.
8. Ensure that the chosen image does not have negative connotations or undesirable effects (Hanrahan,
1995, p. 35).

The following example applies ideokinesis to technique:
“Imagine a strong gust of wind brushing down your back, gushing
into your pelvis and blowing through your whole body and out
through your head, arms, down through your supporting leg, and
gushing through and out in front of you”
(Hanrahan, 1994, p. 136).
R E F E R E N C E S conditioning, and conditioning only, in terms of dynamic alignment and perform-

ance competence. The results confirmed imagery and conditioning as a means
Fairweather, M. M., & Sidaway, B. (1993). Ideokinetic imagery as a postural of enhancing the dynamic alignment of dancers.
development technique. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 64 (4),
385-392. Sweigard, L. (1975). Human movement potential: Its ideokinetic facilitation.
The effectiveness of ideokinetic imagery and flexibility combined with abdominal New York: Dodd, Mead & Company.
strength training to correct the spinal angles of lordosis and kyphosis, and to The theory of ideokinesis, with exercises for adapting it in teaching and therapy.
reduce back pain. The results support the use of ideokinetic imagery to Sweigard coined the term “ideokinesis.”
improve poor posture and reduce lower back pain.
State Standards for the Arts, Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes
Hanrahan, C. (1994). In search of a “good” dance image. Impulse 2 (2), Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the Middle School
131-144. Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding—Aesthetic Education
The effectiveness of dance images used in an experimental study. Several The student will demonstrate the ability to use perceptual skills through per-
imagery presentation strategies, including the constructive rest position and forming and responding in dance.
choice of music, as well as drawings, verbal explanations, and an audiotaped Expectation C: The student will demonstrate understanding of the language of
imagery guide, were perceived by the dancers to be effective. dance, including technical skills, terminology, and refined physical abilities, by
executing increasingly complex movements.
Hanrahan, C . (1995). Creating dance images: Basic principles for teachers.
Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 66 (1), 33-39. National Standards for the Arts
Principles for constructing images to enhance specific movements. What Every Young American Should Know and Be Able to Do in the Arts
Content Standard 1: Identifying and demonstrating movement elements and
Krasnow, D., Chatfield, S., Barr, S., Jensen, J., & Dufek, J. (1997). Imagery and skills in performing dance.
conditioning practices for dancers. Dance Research Journal 29 (1), 43-63.
A comparison of the effectiveness of mental imagery alone, mental imagery and

In order to achieve a larger improvement in aerobic power from

which performance would benefit, dance training should put more
emphasis on training of the cardiovascular system.
(Dahlstrom, Inasio, Jansson, & Kaijser, 1996, p. 208)

Improving Dancer
Endurance
T H E O R Y
Dance performance requires a high level of cardiovascular fitness. Dancers are often required to rehearse
and repeat dances for several hours, and to perform at a high level of intensity during performance.
Several researchers have studied the physiological demands of dance performance. In a recent study by
Rimmer, Jay, and Plowman (1994), dancers wore a heart rate monitor as they prepared for a ballet
performance and during the performance. The study indicated that the ballet dancers achieved moderate
aerobic and anaerobic training levels by participating in ballet dance classes and performances.
A study by Dahlstrom, Inasio, Jansson, and Kaijser (1996) demonstrated 20% improvement in
cardiovascular fitness over a period of three years in ballet, modern, jazz, and character dances. They
suggested that levels could be even higher if more aerobic types of activities were included in the daily
class work. Teachers can improve the endurance of dancers by planning specifically for improvement in
this area. A few suggestions follow:
1. Include an aerobic component in each dance class.
Teachers who teach ballet, modern, and jazz 2. Keep dancers moving. There should be no long breaks
while giving feedback or making corrections.
techniques can enhance the endurance of
dancers by developing cardiovascular endurance 3. Make performance an integral part of every class by
including a long dance sequence. This will enable the dancers
during class time.
to develop endurance while achieving artistic expression.
Dance training can benefit from research findings in the area of exercise physiology.
Since the intensity level of dance performance resembles that of athletic competition, the training
regimens of dancers may benefit from similar training guidelines for cardiovascular fitness.
R E F E R E N C E S Performance. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance 26-27.

Suggestions for incorporating scientifically sound components into the tech-
Dahlstrom, M., Inasio, J., Jannson, E., & Kaijser, L. (1996). Physical fitness nique class.
and physical effort in dancers: A comparison of four major dance styles.
Impulse 4 (3), 193-209. State Standards for the Arts, Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes
The results of this study are reported above. Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the High School
Rimmer, J., Jay, D., & Plowman, S. (1994). Physiological characteristics of trained The student will demonstrate the ability to use perceptual skills through per-
dancers and intensity level of ballet class and rehearsal. Impulse 2 (2), 97-105. forming and responding in dance.
The results of this study are reported above. Expectation C: The student will demonstrate proficiency in dance form and tech-
Rimmer, J., & Rosentswieg, J. (1981). The maximum oxygen consumption in nique, discuss ways in which proficiency affects dance performance, and describe
dance majors. Dance Research Journal 14 (1 & 2), 29-31. how training to achieve proficiency translates to personal life experiences.
Investigation of the aerobic capacity of highly trained female dancers. Finding: The National Standards for the Arts
dance majors at Texas Woman’s University have a high maximum oxygen intake. What Every Young American Should Know and Be Able to Do in the Arts
Plastino, J. (1990). Integrating Dance Science into Technique Class and Content Standard 6: Making connections between dance and healthful living.

Impact of the Quest for an Ideal Ballet

Dancer Physique on Nutritional Habits
T H E O R Y
Ballet dancers are required to maintain very lean bodies. Choreographers and ballet masters select
dancers who fit the ideal physique of long legs, arms, and neck, and an extremely thin body. Many
classical dancers attempt to match calorie intake with energy expenditure. They do not know
appropriate strategies to maintain leanness, or the detrimental effects of this eating pattern.
Several studies have investigated the energy expenditure of ballet dancers. They demonstrate that ballet
dancing is primarily an anaerobic activity. While dancing in a ballet class, activity occurs intermittently
and at low energy levels. Bursts of energy are required in rehearsal and performance. Dance exercise alone
often is not sufficient to achieve the desired body leanness.
Ballet dancers are prone to disordered eating patterns. They
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E limit caloric intake drastically, and they binge and purge. The
Teachers facilitate appropriate eating and nutritional habits of dancers have been investigated through
exercise patterns by promoting proper surveys and studies.
nutritional practices. To do this, they monitor Bonbright (1989) studied the dieting habits of ballet dancers
diets and provide educational literature, helping
for five days. The majority of the 31 subjects tended to
consume foods low in energy value and nutritional density.
ballet dancers maintain lean body physique. Nutrition is an important topic for dance educators, who need
to inform dancers about nutritional intake necessary to meet
energy requirement, tissue repair, and growth. Bonbright (pp. 12-13) recommends the following:
1. Eat sufficient food daily to meet the body’s energy requirements for growth, tissue repair, and
physical activity. The body needs approximately 15 kcal/day to function under normal
circumstances, and an additional 200-300 kcal/day to meet the physical demands of ballet class,
rehearsal, and performance.
2. Be aware of the caloric and nutritional value of foods in order to make wise, more diverse food
selections.
3. Consume complex carbohydrates, which are the energy base of the dancer’s diet. They are slowly
reduced to glucose, providing a sustained energy release over a greater time.
4. Consume liberal amounts of water daily.
5. Incorporate a well-balanced multiple vitamin and mineral supplement in the diet for nutritional
insurance.
6. Incorporate an endurance activity in the training program to compensate for the nonendurance
component of ballet activity.
7. Consult a nutrition specialist and/or qualified physician if either a significant weight gain or weight
loss is necessary.
The teacher plays an important role in the health and well-being of dancers. By providing nutritional
information to the young dancer, the teacher can promote healthful dietary practice and contribute to
attaining the desired body leanness.

Ballet masters recognize that extreme leanness enables the dancer
to become more energy efficient, physically articulate, and agile; it
facilitates partnering and pointe dancing; and projects an
aesthetically pleasing athletic or sylph-like image to the public that
subsidizes the art. (Bonbright, 1989, p. 9)
R E F E R E N C E Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding—Aesthetic Education

Expectation C: The student will demonstrate proficiency in dance form and tech-
Bonbright, J. (1989). The nutritional status of female ballet dancers 15-18 niques, discuss ways in which proficiency affects dance performance, and describe
years of age. Dance Research Journal 21 (2), 9-14. how training to achieve proficiency translates to personal life experiences.
This study is reported above.
National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
State Standards for the Arts, Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes Be Able to Do in the Arts
Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the High School Content Standard 6: Making connections between dance and healthful living.

Although learning the sequence is part of the challenge, dance teachers

generally want students to learn more than just the sequence; they
want students to dance the sequence by attending to more than the
simple order of steps and general shape of the movements.
(Welsh, Fitt, & Thompson, 1994, p. 262)

Motor Learning Applications for the Educator:
Forward and Backward Chaining Strategies
T H E O R Y
Findings of motor learning research can be applied to the teaching and learning of dance skills. Motor
learning involves a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from practice. Forward chaining
and backward chaining are opposite strategies for learning a sequence of movements. Forward chaining
is a systematic procedure for teaching the beginning of a sequence and teaching each component in
succession. The learner practices the first component of the chain, then the first and second components
together, then the first, second, and third components, and so on, until the entire chain is learned. Leap-
ahead, or chunking, enables teachers to present a group of movements clustered together. In backward
chaining, the learner practices the final behavior first. The next immediately prior behavior is practiced
and added to the final behavior. Additional behaviors are added and practiced sequentially and in order.
Practice always occurs in a forward direction.
B E T T E R P R A T I C E Backward chaining has been used successfully with laboratory

animals, disabled children, and adults.
Dance teachers who teach movement
A recent study evaluated a backward chaining strategy for
combinations with a forward chaining method
teaching modern dance movement sequences. Six dancers were
enhance learning and retention. taught six modern dance sequences in forward and backward
chaining conditions. They were videotaped and evaluated by
trained judges. Results indicated that dancers made fewer errors when taught with a forward chaining
progression. The learners also expressed greater ease and enjoyment during the forward chaining sessions.
The limited number of studies of forward and backward chaining strategies in the teaching of dance
technique makes it difficult to come to a definitive conclusion. The above study, however, supports the
current practice of teaching in a forward chaining manner.
When motor learning research is applied in a dance education setting, both teachers and students benefit.
R E F E R E N C E S Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding – Aesthetic Education

The student will demonstrate the ability to use perceptual skills through per-
Welsh, T., Fitt, S., & Thompson, W. (1994). A comparison of forward and back- forming and responding in dance.
ward chaining strategies for teaching dance movement sequences. Impulse 2 Expectation C: The student will demonstrate understanding of the language of
(4), 262-274. dance, including technical skills, terminology, and refined physical abilities, by
Forward chaining is superior to backward chaining. executing increasingly complex movements.
Overby, L. (1993). Motor learning knowledge in the dance education curricu- National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
lum. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 42-44, 48. Be Able to Do in the Arts
Motor learning concepts that affect the teaching of dance technique. Content Standard 1: Identifying and demonstrating movement elements and
State Standards for the Arts, Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes skills in performing dance.

Teacher
Effectiveness
Dance Teachers—Linking Research to Practice
Teaching Behaviors Related to Student Performance
Professional Development in Dance for Classroom Teachers
Assessment in the Ballet Class

TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS
Dance Teachers: Linking

Research to Practice
R A T I O N A L E
Research in dance teaching behavior provides information that enables teachers to analyze, assess, and
improve their teaching. Most ballet and jazz teachers work from a “teach as you were taught” perspective
by modeling the dance form and providing corrective feedback to the learner. Modern and creative
dance teachers teach more from a problem-solving approach. Research in the area of teacher behaviors
has focused on analyzing types of instructional cues and the delivery of feedback during a lesson. The
research closely follows education and physical education teacher behavior research, using many similar
observation instruments to collect and analyze data (Fortin & Siedentop, 1995; Lunt, 1974; Lord, 1989;
Gray, 1989; Minton, 1996). In a review of dance teacher research (1989), Lord concluded that teachers
rely on three main behaviors during technique classes—support or guidance of the student’s motor
responses, preparation for motor activities, and feedback.
Judith Gray (1989) determined through behavior research that
the dominant verbal behavior displayed by the teacher was
Effective dance teaching requires the teacher instruction, primarily stated to the class as a whole. The next
to have depth of understanding of the art form dominant nonverbal behaviors were leading, demonstrating,
and manually assisting.
and appropriate techniques for demonstration,
feedback, and goal setting. In a recent case study of a modern dance teacher’s behaviors
and knowledge of teaching, Fortin and Siedentop (1995)
acknowledged deep and broad content knowledge as necessary for teaching. They offered the following
suggestions for applying the results of this research to teachers:
1. Have a deep understanding of the art form.
2. Develop appropriate verbal cues to the specific technique or quality of movement.
3. Provide feedback to the entire group and to individual dancers.
4. Clearly articulate the goals of the dance class and/or specific exercise.
5. Provide a good demonstration of the movement.
Behavior research tools can help teachers assess and improve dance teaching.

In addition to strong competency in dance, training in the rules
that govern effective dance teaching (i.e., teaching that
facilitates learning) and learning how to apply those rules
effectively in dance studios should be the basic ingredients in all
dance teacher preparation. (Lord, 1989, p. 202).
R E F E R E N C E S
Lunt, J. (1974). A procedure for systematically describing teacher-student ver-
Fortin, S., & Siedentop, D. (1995). The interplay of knowledge and practice in bal and non-verbal interaction in the teaching of choreography. (Doctoral dis-
dance teaching: What we can learn from a non-traditional dance teacher. sertation, University of North Carolina, Greensboro.) Dissertation Abstracts
Dance Research Journal 27 (2), 3-15. International 35, 2123 (University Microfilms, No. AAC 8219619).
A case study designed to illuminate the primary influences of teacher behaviors Describes a multidimensional observation system focused on the cognitive,
on learning. affective, and psychomotor aspects of teaching choreography.
Gray, J. (1989). Dance Instruction: Science Applied to the Art of Movement. State Standards for the Arts, Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes
Human Genetics: Champaign, IL. Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the Elementary School
Provides specific teacher behavior guidelines to dance teachers. Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding—Aesthetic Education
Lord, M. (1989). Dance teaching research: A progress report. In L. Y. Overby forming and responding in dance.
& J. H. Humphrey (Eds.). Dance Current Selected Research (Vol. 1, pp. 201-
237). New York: AMS Press. National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
The history and present state of dance teaching research. The author recom- Be Able to Do in the Arts
mends two avenues for future research: (a) studies focused on the teaching of Content Standard 1: Identifying and demonstrating movement elements and
choreography, improvisation, and interpretation, and (b) the search for meaning skills in performing dance.
in a variety of dance teaching contexts.

Teaching Behaviors Related to

Student Peformance
T H E O R Y
Minton and McGill (1998) investigated the relationship between teacher behaviors and student
performance on the Spatial Kinesthetic Awareness Test (SKAT). The study differed from previous
research in that change in student performance was correlated with specific teacher behaviors. The
researchers used the Physical Education Teacher Assessment Instrument (PETAI) to assess teacher
instruction time and teacher management time, correlating scores from the PETAI with the results of the
SKAT. The SKAT assessment required the students to accurately reproduce 16 positions and shapes.
The results of the experiment demonstrated the importance of what is said by the teacher. The scores of
the teachers who included more response presentations and motivational feedback correlated highly with
improved student performance on the SKAT.
There was a negative correlation between monitoring behaviors (observation) and student performance.
Simple observation, without feedback, has little impact on student learning.
Creating a positive, motivating environment with upbeat statements like “good,” “better,” “nice job,” and
other specific feedback responses contributes to student learning.
Teachers who provide feedback directly
after a student performance, and give
positive motivating comments, have a
beneficial effect on student learning.
A teacher must translate observations from monitoring

sessions into relevant feedback, while creating an
environment in which students are encouraged to work
to improve their skills. (Minton & McGill, 1998, p. 48)
R E F E R E N C E Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the Elementary School

Outcome III: Creative Expression and Production. Expectation C: The student
Minton, S., & McGill, K. (1998). A study of the relationships between teacher will explore and describe the basic elements of dance by using the body instru-
behaviors and student performance on a spatial kinesthetic awareness test. ment in a variety of ways.
Dance Research Journal 30 (2), 39-52.
National Standards for Arts Education
Correlates student learning with teacher behaviors. What Every Young American Should Know and Be Able to Do in the Arts
State Standards for the Arts Content Standard 1: Identifying and demonstrating movement elements and
Maryland Essential Learner Outcomes skills in performing dance.

Professional Development in
Dance for Classroom Teachers
T H E O R Y
Professional development programs can promote competence and confidence in teachers who do not
include creative dance in their classrooms. Classroom, music, and physical education teachers may not
be familiar with creative dance. In-service programs designed to serve group needs and interests, and that
provide a specific activities with follow-up support, can affect teachers positively.
A study by Colla MacDonald (1992) offers a unique example of a professional development program in
creative dance for the classroom teacher. Eight teachers were exposed to 15 hours of creative dance
workshops. They were interviewed before the first workshop, and they maintained journals during and after
the workshops. The researcher observed the teachers in their school settings and assisted them with
problems during the study. The participants were interviewed again four months after the first workshop.
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E Results indicated that the workshops significantly helped the teachers

change their practices. The workshops and follow-up sessions provided
Teachers who participate in professional a supportive climate and practical information. Before the workshops,
development activities can change their the teachers were unclear about the nature of creative dance and how
attitudes and practices in regard to the to use it in their classrooms. After the workshops, all were able to
incorporate dance in their teaching.
teaching of creative dance.
The climate of the workshops played an important role. Initially, the
teachers felt self-conscious and reluctant. Because of the structure and supportive feedback offered by the
workshop leader, however, the teachers gained confidence.
Practicality of the workshop materials was also of great importance. The teachers could draw
immediately in their practices from the workshop examples and resources. The workshops gave the
participants the opportunity to try new ideas right away.
Student response marked another important outcome of the workshops. The researcher observed that
teachers and students responded to the new teaching method in a positive manner.
When professional development opportunities are constructed in such a way that teachers have follow-up
support, significant positive change in attitude and practice occurs.
It is not enough for in-service programs to provide teachers with knowledge and methods, nor is it
enough for teachers to experience and carry out activities during in-service programs. Rather, teachers
must receive enough information on an innovation that they feel comfortable and confident enough to
try the innovation in their classrooms. (MacDonald, 1992, pp. 112-113)
R E F E R E N C E Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding—Aesthetic Education

MacDonald, C. (1992). Effects of an in-service program on eight teachers’ atti- forming and responding in dance.
tudes and practices regarding creative dance. Elementary School Journal 93 Expectation B: The student will demonstrate an understanding of movement as
(1), 99-114. a response to experiences and the environment.
The effect of professional development on the creative dance teaching practices
of classroom teachers. The teachers benefited from the supportive structure of National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
the workshop and follow-up sessions. Be Able to Do in the Arts
Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the Elementary School Content Standard 7: Making connections between dance and other disciplines.

Assessment in the
Ballet Class
T H E O R Y
Teaching and assessment go hand in hand. Ballet is an especially demanding movement form that entails
mastering the execution of a highly stylized movement vocabulary.
Evaluation of ballet usually includes daily feedback in the form of both images and verbal cues. Specific
feedback to each student on a regular basis, however, is difficult for most dance teachers.
Kassing and Mortensen (1981-1982) designed an action research project to develop a methodology for
objectively assessing performance and providing frequent feedback. Their seven-phase evaluation
procedure covers a one-semester intermediate ballet class:
P H A S E 1 . P R E A S S E S S M E N T A N D P L A N N I N G The instructor
assessed the level of each student, identified the skills to be
Teachers who utilize appropriate assessment taught, and selected some exercises and center floor
instruments promote learning because combinations.
students improve their skills and gain a better P H A S E 2 . T E A C H I N G T H E S E Q U E N C E Three weeks before
appreciation of the art form. midsemester evaluations, the instructor taught the sequence in
two class periods.
P H A S E 3 . P R A C T I C E U S I N G S E L F - A N D P E E R E V A L U A T I O N S Students rated themselves on each
barre exercise and evaluated a peer on the center floor combinations. Students discussed the rating.
PHASE 4. MIDTERM VIDEOTAPE, SELF-EVALUATION, GROUP CRITIQUE, AND PRIORITIZING
Students were videotaped performing barre and center exercises, then rated on their performance. The
instructor rated the videotape and provided each student with a written critique with suggestions for
improvement.
PHASE 5. PRACTICE THE SEQUENCES; CONTINUE SELF- AND PEER EVALUATION Between
midsemester and final evaluations, students practiced and continued both self- and peer evaluations. The
teacher introduced new material during this time.
P H A S E 6 . F I N A L V I D E O T A P E , G R O U P C R I T I Q U E , F I N A L E V A L U A T I O N Students performed
sequences in small groups while being videotaped. The students then met with the instructor for a final
critique and suggestions for future work.

P H A S E 7. E V A L U A T I O N O F T H E P R O C E S S Students evaluated the process.
The study found that videotaped and criterion-referenced evaluations were more meaningful than a
written examination. Self- and peer evaluation during class was viewed as helpful for individuals to
improve their skills. The videotape helped students visualize their performances better and assess their
skills more accurately.
This form of evaluation had the following positive impact on teaching style:
1. The instructor got to know individual students through the midterm conferences.
2. The role of the instructor changed from the only reference for feedback on performance to one of
several sources.
3. Use of this methodology provided more accurate and adequate feedback to students and a more
defensible final evaluation.
4. Students became skilled at critiquing their own choreography and performance.
A multifaceted approach to designing and assessing a ballet class has positive implications for teaching and
learning. The results of this study can benefit those considering ways of assessing a variety of dance forms.
Through videotaped performance, self- and peer evaluations, and

instructor-led group critiques, students develop observation skills
that enable them to identify specific problem areas in their work.
(Kassing & Mortensen, 1981, p. 46)
R E F E R E N C E S The student will demonstrate the ability to use perceptual skills through per-
forming and responding in dance.
Kassing, G., & Mortensen, L. (1981-82). Critiquing Student Performance in Expectation C: The student will demonstrate proficiency in dance form and
Dance. Dance Research Journal 14 (1 & 2), 43-46. techniques, discuss ways in which proficiency affects dance performance,
and describe how training to achieve proficiency translates to personal life
Kassing, G., & Jay, D. (1998). Teaching Beginning Ballet Technique. Human experiences.
Kinetics: Champaign, IL.
A guide and reference for teaching students and evaluating beginning ballet National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
technique. Be Able to Do in the Arts
Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding: Aesthetic Education

Advocacy Policy
Student Perceptions of Dance Classes

ADVOCACY POLICY
Student Perceptions of
Dance Classes
T H E O R Y
Dance classes promote positive experiences for students in what is often a stressful, non-caring school
environment. Recent research demonstrates the value of dance education in promoting positive
perceptions among middle school, high school, and college-age students.
Students who enroll in dance classes from middle school through high school have positive experiences.
They enjoy the social interaction, creativity, and opportunity to move (Stinson, 1997). Middle school
students indicate that dance, a vehicle for transcending space and time, is a good form of stress release
(Stinson, 1997). High school students find dance class to be a
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E more positive experience than other high school classes. High
Teachers who establish a caring, motivating, school dance teachers are described as more caring, and the
and involved learning environment promote the
structure of the classes invites caring behavior by peers
(Stinson, 1993). College students take dance classes because
psychological engagement of students. they enjoy dancing, creating, and performing (Alter, 1997).
Current research suggests that students should have opportunities to find constructive activities that
deeply engage them if they are to avoid the aimlessness and despair that seem to characterize so much of
contemporary life. In addition, teachers should encourage adolescents to begin engaging in a lifelong
search for what is meaningful and purposeful (Stinson, 1997, p. 66).
Many students view dance as a different kind of school experience, and in this case, different is definitely better
because students perceive dance positively. Dance classes support cooperation, caring, and involvement.
R E F E R E N C E S How middle school students construct meaning of their experience in public

school dance classes.
Alter, J. (1997). Why dance students pursue dance: Studies of dance students
from 1953-1993. Dance Research Journal 29 (2), 70-89. State Standards for the Arts, Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes
A comparative overview of research conducted from 1953 to 1993. The paper Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the Middle School
also presents the results of a recent study of dance students conducted in nine Outcome II: Historical, Cultural, and Social Context
colleges and universities in Southern California. The student will demonstrate an understanding of dance, its relationship to
other significant components of history and human experience, and ways that it
Stinson, S. (1993). A place called dance in school: Reflecting on what the stu- provides opportunities for individual, cultural, and creative expression.
dents say. Impulse 1 (2), 90-114. Expectation A: The student will develop the ability to recognize dance as a form
How high school students construct meaning of their experience in public school of individual and cultural expression.
dance classes.
National Standards for the Art, What Every Young American Should Know and
Stinson, S. (1997). A question of fun: Adolescent engagement in dance educa- Be Able to Do in the Arts
tion. Dance Research Journal 29 (2), 49-69. Content Standard 3: Understanding dance as a way to create and communi-
cate meaning.

As a dance educator and teacher educator, I am interested in how
students make sense of their school experiences in dance as well as
in other subject areas. Part of this interest is intellectual
curiosity—an attempt to expand my own perception of what dance
education is and can do to people. Part of it is pragmatic—a sense
that teachers can be more effective if they understand how
students are perceiving what they are being taught. But still more
of my interest is fueled by what drove Miss Clavell to turn on the
light in that cherished childhood story of Madeline—a sense that
“something is not right” when we view education as only a way to
gain supremacy rather than as a way to find personal meaning and
human satisfaction. (Stinson, 1993, p. 91)

Special Programs
Dance Education for At-Risk Youth
Students with Special Needs: Creative dance as a Tool of

Expression for Individuals with Disabilities
Students with Special Needs: Data-based and Creative Dance

Approaches to Learning
Students with Special Needs: Creative Dance Facilitates the

Attainment of Balance Skills

SPECIAL PROGRAMS
Dance Education for

At-Risk Youth
T H E O R Y
Dance education can make a difference in the lives of youth at risk for school failure. The dance
experience provides youth with an exciting activity that can lead to greater learning in reading, social
studies, math, and the character skills of discipline and organization. Three nationally recognized
programs that utilize the power of dance to change lives are the National Dance Institute,
ArtsConnection, Young Talent Program, and AileyCamp.
National Dance Institute (NDI)
The mission of NDI is to provide dance to boys and girls ages 8 to 14 that would not have the
opportunity to experience dance. The dance faculty of NDI works in schools to teach dance, integrating
it with learning in other subjects. The program was created by
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E Jacques D’Amboise, a professional ballet dancer, and has operated in
Teachers who provide dance education for New York City since 1978. The program has served as a model for
at-risk youth enable them to attain both other cities and has expanded both nationally and internationally.
education and social competencies. ArtsConnection Young Talent Dance Program
This program targets at-risk youth. They learn modern, jazz, African, Spanish, and Caribbean dance,
and ballet, and are evaluated on physical development, classroom discipline, and personal development.
AileyCamp
AileyCamp links dance and academic achievement. It is an outreach program of the Alvin Ailey Modern
Dance Company that operates as a summer camp. Assessment of students indicates that their
participation enhances self-esteem and interpersonal and cognitive skills.
Teaching Applications
Teachers can adapt these successful programs to situations in any school or community. They can
incorporate a variety of ethnic dance forms that appeal to students, giving them opportunities to create
and perform. Assessment tools can evaluate the effect of the programs.
Dance teachers can make a positive impact on the lives of at-risk children by providing them with dance
as an integral part of the curriculum.
Once students are engaged in dance education, a hook and an anchor to school, other
educational options present themselves. The palpable, enveloping excitement of
dance, the discipline required, and the success achieved propels many students to
academic achievement and productive citizenship. (Hanna, 1999, p. 130)
R E F E R E N C E The student will demonstrate the ability to create dance by improvising, organ-
izing dance ideas, and performing.
Hanna, J. (1999). Partnering Dance and Education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Expectation C: The student will develop performance competencies.
Chapter 6, “Dance Education for At-Risk Youth,” describes several nationally
recognized dance programs that have successfully engaged at-risk youth. National Standards for the Arts
These dance programs serve as models for other at-risk programs. What Every Young American Should Know and Be Able to Do in the Arts
Content Standard 3: Understanding dance as a way to create and communi-
State Standards for the Arts, Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes cate meaning.
Outcome III: Creative Expression and Production

Creative Dance as a Tool of Expression for
Individuals with Disablities
T H E O R Y
Dance, a nonverbal form of communication, is an accessible art form for individuals with disabilities.
Without unnecessary props or equipment, dance movement provides a nonthreatening environment for
expression of emotions, ideas, and concepts. Children and adults with a wide range of disabilities can
benefit from the opportunity to dance.
Because of the focus on unique interpretations inherent in creative dance, individuals with severe
disabilities are capable of mature artistic expression. For example, six children with both vision and
hearing impairments involved in a dance program experienced whole body engagement, creation of new
forms, cumulative learning, and conscious self-presentation (Bond,
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E 1994). The children participated in 30-minute sessions four times
Teachers who offer creative dance to weekly for five weeks. Data included a combination of video
analysis of behavior, coding of field records of interviews with staff,
individuals with disabilities help them
and school reports. All children in the study exhibited the ability to
develop artistic expression because creative express themselves through dance, but one particular child
dance promotes the personal expression of developed movement sequences with his own personal style in a
ritualized, formal manner. He was transformed from a nonverbal
ideas, emotions, and concepts.
child to a communicative, expressive dancer.
Dancers of all ages, regardless of disabilities, can use dance to express a troubling aspect of life. Through
dance, they can release and channel pent-up emotions through artistic expression. One example is a
dancer confined to a wheelchair after a diving accident left him paralyzed. Dance provided him the
opportunity to recall and express the early stages of isolation and despair and later stages of joyful
expression. His dance movement progressed from inward shaping of despair, to more forceful movements
that demonstrated diminishing fear, to movement in circular floor patterns with changing shapes and
spins that denoted the joy of connecting to another person (Boswell, 1989).
Teachers can help individuals with disabilities to explore, within their limitations, the creative and
expressive aspects of dance. In the process, both the teacher and the student become transformed and
transformers in the dance of life.
What hidden treasures are we ignoring or denying ourselves? Participation

in creative dance can change our perspectives, lift us [from] what can
become, for both disabled and able-bodied persons, a life of dull routine.
For many disabled individuals, participation in dance could be a very
valuable opportunity for creative expression. (Boswell, 1989, p. 30)
Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the Elementary School
Bond, K. (1994). Personal style as a mediator of engagement in dance: Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding – Aesthetic Education
Watching Terpsichore rise. Dance Research Journal 26 (1), 15-26. The student will demonstrate the ability to use perceptual skills through per-
A qualitative, two-group experiment conducted with an intensive program of forming and responding in dance.
dance compared with a second group based on play. The author presents a Expectation B: The student will demonstrate an understanding of movement as
detailed description of one child involved in dance. a response to experiences and the environment.
Boswell, B. (1989). Dance as creative expression for the disabled. Palaestra: National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
The Forum of Sport, Physical Education and Recreation for the Disabled, 28-30. Be Able to Do in the Arts
A description of the creative process in designing a dance, undertaken by a Content Standard 2: Understanding choreographic principles, processes, and
nonprofessional dancer and an individual with paralysis. structure.

SPECIAL PROGRAMS
Interdisciplinary study in which dance specialists, adapted physical

educators, and special educators share knowledge is clearly needed in
order to examine methods of teaching dance to mentally retarded
students in special class settings.
(Roswal, Sherrill, & Roswal, 1988, p. 213)

Students with Special Needs: Data-based and
Creative Dance Approaches to Learning
T H E O R Y
Dance education promotes the development of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor abilities.
Structured or creative dance is taught to children with and without disabilities. Structured dance
includes folk and square line dances, which have specific steps or movements. Creative dance emphasizes
solutions to movement problems, which can vary greatly. For example, jumping, turning and leaping, or
hopping could accomplish dancing on high levels.
A data-based approach to teaching dance involves teaching each child a particular step or movement. In
accordance with data-based pedagogy, lesson plans include instruction in all skills to be taught. The data-
based approach to teaching individuals with disabilities was developed by Dunn, Morehouse, and Dalka
(1979). Each skill breaks down into three to six phases and steps. A step is a support of a phase. For
example, balancing on one foot for four counts equates to four steps. The data-based approach is
appropriate for teaching structured dances. Roswal, Sherrill, and Roswal (1988) compared skill learning and
change in self-concept that occurred when mentally handicapped children were taught 10 dance skills with
either the data-based or creative dance approach. Each child participated in an
B E T T E R P R A C T I C E eight-week study with 40 half-hour sessions of dance instruction.
Teachers who teach dance using The children in the creative dance group received no structured practice of
data-based or creative approaches specific skills. The dance skills were integrated into lessons taught with a
theme such as time, shape, space, energy, and body parts. The lessons were
foster learning of dance skills.
taught in a group format using indirect problem-solving methods.
Conversely, the students in the data-based group worked one-on-one with a teacher while the others
waited for their turns. Teachers gave specific verbal cues, modeling, positive reinforcement, and physical
assistance if needed. Students worked on the same phase or step until they could perform to mastery. The
results of the study revealed no overall significant difference between the two pedagogies. Both groups
improved significantly from pretest to posttest in the 10 dance movement skills.
Teachers should develop teaching strategies based on the goals of the specific lessons and units. While a
data-based approach may apply more to teaching structured dance, the creative approach to teaching
leads to mastery of specific dance skills and fosters cooperation and creativity.
Dunn, J. M., Morehouse, J. W., & Dalke, B. (1979). Game, Exercise, and Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding—Aesthetic Education
Leisure Sport Curriculum. Corvallis: Oregon State University, Department of The student will demonstrate the ability to use perceptual skills through per-
Physical Education. forming and responding in dance.
The data-based approach to teaching motor skills. Expectation C: The student will demonstrate understanding of the language of
Roswal, P. M., Sherrill, C., & Roswal, G. M. (1988). A comparison of databased dance, including technical skills, terminology, and refined physical abilities, by
approaches in creative dance pedagogies in teaching mentally retarded youth. executing increasingly complex movements.
Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 5, (3), 212-222. National Standards for the Arts
Investigation of the effectiveness of two forms of dance in improving the motor per- What Every Young American Should Know and Be Able to Do in the Arts
formance (including balance) and self-concept of students who were mentally Content Standard 1: Identifying and demonstrating movement elements and
handicapped. Both groups improved with no significant difference between groups. skills in performing dance.

SPECIAL PROGRAMS
Students with Special Needs: Creative Dance

Facilitates the Attainment of Balance Skills
T H E O R Y
Dynamic balance is moving balance. The child must be able to maintain equilibrium while moving.
Children with mental retardation often score lower than children with no disabilities in dynamic balance.
Creative dance that includes many experiences in static and dynamic balance can develop this ability
when teachers include specific balance experiences in their lessons.
Creative dance activities promote exploration of the elements of space, time, and effort. An example of
an exercise that relates to the development of dynamic balance is exploring swinging movement while
focusing on a particular spot on the wall.
Activities that promote integration of certain reflexes, i.e., equilibrium reactions, may also facilitate
balance skills. Examples of these movements include activities that engage the student in folding limbs
into the trunk while lying in supine positions and shapes.
Visual focusing, or spotting while turning, develops the
Teachers who create lessons to help enhance vestibular and proprioceptive systems. Stretching quickly into
the balance skills of mentally handicapped a high shape and melting slowly into a low shape also develops
the vestibular system.
students promote learning.
In a recent study, specific creative dance movements were
integrated into a dance program for mentally handicapped children. The program took place once a
week for 50 minutes over a period of 12 weeks. Dynamic balance skills of the children improved from
pretest to posttest. Improvement was also seen in comparison with a group of mentally handicapped
children in a gross-motor program (Boswell, 1993). This study confirmed previous research that
describes the positive impact of dance on the balance skills of children with disabilities (Roswal, Sherrill,
& Roswal, 1988).
When creating curricula for mentally handicapped children, teachers should design experiences especially
for developing specific motor skills and abilities.

Because development of balance skills has been
considered significant to mentally retarded
persons, it seems important to identify effective
programs for helping mentally retarded children
improve balance skills. (Boswell, 1991, p. 759)
R E F E R E N C E S Roswal, P. M., Sherrill, C., & Roswal, G. M. (1988). A comparison of data based
on creative dance pedagogies in teaching mentally retarded youth. Adapted
Boswell, B. (1991). Comparison of two methods of improving dynamic balance Physical Activity Quarterly 5 (3), 212-222.
of mentally retarded children. Perceptual and Motor Skills 73 (3), 759-764. Investigation of the effects of two forms of dance in improving the motor per-
Each group received 24 half-hour lessons for 8 weeks. Comparisons of the two formance and self-concept of mentally handicapped students. Both groups
groups indicated that both improved from pretest to posttest and did not signifi- improved with no significant differences between groups.
cantly differ from each other at posttest. Mildly and moderately retarded boys
and girls, ages 8 to 13, were assigned to either a dance group or a movement State Standards for the Arts, Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes
exploration group. Exploration improved dynamic balance. Dance Essential Learner Outcomes for the Elementary School
Outcome I: Perceiving and Responding – Aesthetic Education
Boswell, B. (1993). Effects of movement sequences and creative dance on The student will demonstrate the ability to use perceptual skills through per-
balance of children with mental retardation. Perceptual and Motor Skills 77, forming and responding in dance.
1290. Expectation C: The student will explore and describe the basic elements of
Mentally handicapped children, ages 7 to 10 years, participated in a creative dance by using the body instrument in a variety of ways.
dance (N = 12) or traditional gross-motor program (N = 13). Posttest scores
on the stabilometer indicated a significant difference, with the children in the National Standards for the Arts, What Every Young American Should Know and
creative dance program scoring significantly higher than those in the traditional Be Able to Do in the Arts
gross motor program. Content Standard 1: Identifying and demonstrating movement elements and
skills in performing dance.
Boswell, B. (1995). Enriching creative dance to facilitate balance skills of chil-
dren with mental retardation. Palaestra 11 (2), 9.
A research application summary of the Boswell, 1993, research study.


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B E T T E R

Lynette Y. Overby, PhD

James L. Tucker, Jr.

BUILDING EFFECTIVE TEACHING

MARYLAND STATE Lynette Y. Overby, PhD

James L. Tucker, Jr.

BUILDING EFFECTIVE TEACHING

Edward L. Root, President

Maryland State Department of Education

The Maryland State Department of Education does not dis-

ii BETTER DANCE EDUCATION

The information in this publication is designed as a resource to assist teachers in

BETTER DANCE EDUCATION iii

iv BETTER DANCE EDUCATION

State Standards for the Arts

Fine Arts Essential Learner Outcomes

BETTER DANCE EDUCATION v

Dance Education Research

Therefore, the pretest, followed by exposure to a dance experience, followed by a posttest,

vi BETTER DANCE EDUCATION

Somatics, or Embodied Learning

Karen Bradley, MFA

BETTER DANCE EDUCATION vii

Teaching Through Dance

Interdisciplinary Learning Through Dance 2

Jazz Dance: Teaching an African American Dance Form 4

Dance Education Enhances Physical Self-Concept 6

Gender Issues: A Study of Culture Through Dance 9

Teaching with Dance Images 12

Laterality: A Dance Teacher’s Approach to Balanced Teaching 14

Recalling Dance Sequences 15

Developing Student Choreographers 17

Developing Creativity in Dancers 18

Dance Performance as a Tool for Learning 20

Teaching About Dance: Studies in Dance Analysis, Health,

Science and Somatic Influences on Dance Education 25

Ideokinesis and Dance Education 26

Improving Dancer Endurance 29

Motor Learning Applications for the Dance Educator—Forward and Backward

viii BETTER DANCE EDUCATION

Dance Teachers—Linking Research to Practice 36

Teaching Behaviors Related to Student Performance 38

Professional Development in Dance for Classroom Teachers 39

Assessment in the Ballet Class 40

Student Perceptions of Dance Classes 44

Dance Education for At-Risk Youth 48

BETTER DANCE EDUCATION ix

Interdisciplinary Learning Through Dance

Jazz Dance: Teaching an African American Dance Form

Dance Education Enhances Physical Self-Concept

Gender Issues: A Study of Culture Through Dance

BETTER DANCE EDUCATION 1

2 BETTER DANCE EDUCATION

BETTER DANCE EDUCATION 3

Jazz Dance: Teaching an African

4 BETTER DANCE EDUCATION

BETTER DANCE EDUCATION 5

Dance Education Enhances

6 BETTER DANCE EDUCATION