Stretching for Dancers

by the International Association for Dance Medicine and Science 
www.DanceScience.org 

This paper is intended to provide information on Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF). Each
stretching, more formally known as flexibility training. It type of stretch has advantages and disadvantages, as
will discuss briefly the different types of stretching, along described in the scientific literature. They are all effective
with their advantages and their disadvantages. It will also at increasing range of motion; however, some of them are
provide practical applications to the dancer: when to better than others, either for effectiveness, or to reduce the
stretch, which tissues to stretch, how much and how often risk of injury. There are numerous research articles that
to stretch, as well as information on age and gender compare short-term and long-term gains in flexibility from
differences. using the various types of stretch.5-10 Dancers should
experiment carefully under the direction of experienced
Flexibility Versus Range of Motion teachers or health care professionals to find the optimal
Range of motion (ROM) is the degree of movement that stretching technique for their physique.
occurs at a given joint. It is determined by each joint’s
Ballistic Stretch
unique anatomical structure and the movements required
at that joint.1 This anatomical structure provides stability Ballistic stretch consists of repetitive bouncing, or using
and structure to the body, and allows for everyday the swinging momentum of the trunk or limb, to provide a
movement. The ROM is determined by a number of stretch force. The end position of the stretch is not held.11
anatomical, biomechanical and physiological factors such Dance involves many ballistic movements. For example, a
as shape of bones involved, the connective tissues (joint grand battement involves a ballistic stretch of the
capsule and ligaments) which stabilize and restrict joint hamstrings. Similarly, swinging the trunk toward the front
movement to a safe range, muscle mass and neurological of the thighs and then bouncing to touch the floor is also
tissue. ballistic stretching of the hamstrings.
Flexibility is the ability of the soft tissue structures Ballistic stretching can increase flexibility in the short-
(muscles, tendons and connective tissue) to elongate term.2 However, the problem with ballistic stretching is
smoothly and easily through the available ROM.2 that is not well controlled, so it is easy to exceed the
Flexibility is divided into two components, dynamic and extensibility limit of the soft tissue. These movements
static flexibility. Simply expressed, dynamic flexibility is should only be performed when the dancer is well warmed
the available active range of motion (AROM)–the body’s up or they could potentially cause an injury to muscle
ability to move the joint by contracting muscles. Static tissue, tendon or muscle connective tissue.12,13
flexibility is the total movement achieved during a passive
Sensory receptors throughout the muscle, tendon and
movement–an external force producing movement without
connective tissues constantly inform the central nervous
the muscle contracting.3,4 For example, a dancer’s
system of joint position, pressure, temperature and forces
dynamic flexibility is exhibited in the height of a grand
sustained by muscles and tendons. The stretch receptors
battement. Static flexibility is demonstrated when a dancer
that detect changes in skeletal muscle length are called
uses a hand to pull the passive leg up further than the
muscle spindles, due to their microscopic shape. The more
maximum height of the grand battement. While both are
rapid the stretch is, the greater is the spindles’ firing back
important components of flexibility, static flexibility is
to the central nervous system. This, in turn, causes a reflex
important in injury prevention since it is the amount the
contraction of the stretched muscle as a safety mechanism
muscle can stretch when an external force is placed upon
to protect the muscle from injury. During a ballistic
it.2
stretch, the fast stretch rate produces a high muscle tension
Types of Stretching and requires more of the stretch energy to be absorbed by
the muscle at the end of the motion.13 Consequently,
There are several different techniques for stretching
muscles including ballistic, dynamic, static and
muscle spindle activation causes the muscles to react to a connective tissue lengthening (see “How Long to Stretch”
rapid stretch by tightening rather than relaxing. below). There are short-term gains in flexibility and
decreases in muscle resistance to stretch when using a 30-
Dynamic Stretch second static stretch, but these adaptations disappear
Dynamic stretch is often confused with ballistic stretch; quickly (within one hour).19 If the stretch is used
however there are some important distinguishing factors. consistently, flexibility gains can be maintained.
Dynamic stretch is a controlled stretching exercise that
Prolonged Stretch
uses dance-specific movements to prepare the body for
activity. These stretches emphasize the movement Prolonged stretch is very similar to static stretch, in that
requirements of rehearsals, classes and performances. As the stretch is held without moving. However, it is held for
an example of dynamic stretching, a controlled développé a significantly longer period of time, several minutes
to the front or side dynamically stretches the hamstrings as instead of seconds.20,21-24 These stretches are used by
it reaches maximal height. Advantages of dynamic medical professionals for very specific and serious
stretching are: it promotes dynamic flexibility; it involves medical pathologies and are not appropriate for dancers.
multiple joints; it replicates movement patterns that are They elongate anatomical structures that are supposed to
required during dancing; it provides neuromuscular stabilize the joints, i.e. ligaments and joint capsules.
training to improve coordination;14 it strengthens the Dancers should avoid these stretches as they can lead to
contracting muscle; and it keeps the core body loss of stability and serious injury (See “Which tissues to
temperature elevated so that muscles and surrounding stretch”).
tissues remain pliable.1
Dancers frequently use these stretches (either intentionally
Dynamic stretching is not as effective as static stretching or unintentionally) when they sit on the floor between
for producing long-term gains in muscle length and classes or while doing homework, maintaining their legs
flexibility, but it serves a purpose in getting the body in various stretch positions for long periods of time. For
ready for activity. Dynamic stretching should be example, lying forward while in second position for
performed only after a proper warm-up (elevated body extended periods places undue compression of the hip
core temperature indicated by a light sweat). Dynamic labrum, potentially contributing to future injury.
stretching should start slowly and gradually increase in the
speed and power of the movement. Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)
PNF techniques were developed by physical therapists in
Static Stretch
the 1950s to treat patients who were weakened by diseases
Static stretch involves elongating the muscle to its such as polio.25,26 These techniques have now been
tolerance. Once in the stretch position, remain in that modified (straight planes versus diagonals) for use in
position for 30 seconds, then relax. Each stretch should be athletes and dancers. There are many types of PNF
repeated three to four times.15 Static stretches should never stretching techniques; each technique has three phases
create a sharp or painful feeling. As one relaxes into the with variations on contracting and relaxing opposite
stretch, there may be a very slight lengthening of the muscle groups.
muscle (stress-relaxation),13 but there is no rapid limb
PNF techniques are effective for producing short-term
movement as in ballistic stretch. The stretching force is
increases in flexibility;5,6 however, it takes some skill and
often created by gravity acting on the body, but the force
creativity to perform them correctly. As they do present
can be generated by another external force such as a wall,
risk of injury, they should only be undertaken under the
the floor, the barre or a friend. This force is applied in a
guidance of a health-care professional.
slow and steady manner, and it is important to continue
regular breathing throughout the stretch. Static stretching When to Stretch
is gentler than ballistic or dynamic methods, so it is less
likely to cause muscle, tendon or muscle connective tissue Stretching is not the same as warming up. The purpose of
tears or strains.1,13,16 a warm-up is to increase the temperature of the core and
muscle tissue. An indication that the body temperature has
There have been numerous scientific studies to determine increased is a slight sweat appearing on the skin. The time
how long a static stretch should be held.14,17-19 It is prior to class should not be used to increase flexibility.
recommended that the stretch be held for 30 seconds. It Warm muscles are more extensible and responsive, so it is
provides sufficient time for the muscle to relax, but far better to stretch immediately AFTER class or rehearsal
probably not enough time to produce permanent when muscles have been exercised for 1-2 hours. Research

Stretching for Dancers –2– www.iadms.org

has shown that applying a small amount of stretch force to untrained recreational athletes.49-51 There are no gender
warm connective tissues lengthened them more effectively differences in these performance deficits.51
than larger stretch forces (four times larger) applied to the
In summary, it is safe and effective to move through the
same tissues at normal body temperature.27 Long-term
body’s normal range of motion before class, rehearsals
retention of tissue length lasted more than twice as long
and before performances. Brief stretches of less than 15
when the low-load stretch was applied to warm tissue.
seconds are unlikely to cause performance problems.
Additionally, stretching with higher tissue temperatures,
Dynamic stretches, such as dance movements, are less
as seen following class or rehearsal, resulted in fewer
detrimental to performance than static stretching.45 If
injuries.27 Holding the stretch while cooling down allows
increasing flexibility is a goal, it should occur over time
even greater increases in tissue length to be achieved.28
(at least six weeks) and should occur following class,
Even when warm, it is not advisable to do major rehearsal or performance when the muscles are already
stretching before a demanding class, performance or warm and more likely to make permanent changes to
rehearsal. Stretching has been shown to impair subsequent increase flexibility. Research in this area is likely to
performance parameters, such as strength,29,30 power,31 continue to evolve as we learn more about the effects of
endurance,32 balance,33 grip strength,34 sprint time,35 stretching and performance.
jumping height,36-38 reaction time and movement time.33
Probably of most concern to dancers, the magnitude of the Which Tissues to Stretch
jumping deficit is 5-30%,39 accompanied by a decrease in Stretching is useful for increasing the flexibility of
ankle plantar-flexion strength (25% decline straight after a muscles and their associated connective tissues (fascia).
30 minute stretch).30,39 The deficit in jump height does not The connective tissues in muscle include the muscle cell
differ amongst short stretch durations;40 however, longer membrane (sarcolemma), the covering around individual
duration of stretch seems to cause progressively more muscle fibers (endomysium), the covering around and
impairment in jump height.38 Jump height decrement was between bundles of muscle fibers (perimysium) and the
shown to be greatest at 28% straight after a 30 minute covering around the whole muscle (epimysium). Although
stretch. It significantly declined as stretches shortened, to some resistance to stretch comes from stable bonds
a 4% decrement after a 30 second stretch.37,40-42 However, between the muscle’s contractile filaments (actin and
even a 15-30 second stretch can cause a decline in muscle myosin),52 the majority of the resistance to stretch comes
force.40 These changes within the muscle during a stretch from these fascia layers.53,54 In order to increase the length
are thought to be both mechanical and neurological.30 of the muscle, thus increasing the flexibility, these
Mechanically, a stretched muscle may not transmit force connective tissues need to be stretched.
as effectively to the bones.43 Neurologically, a recently
stretched muscle may exhibit less activation of the stretch Tendons connect the muscle to bone, producing a lever
reflex of the muscle’s contractile force.44,45 Certain system within the body to cause movement. They are
positions of stretch compromise nerves more than others, made up of connective tissue; however, they are bundles
and subsequently interfere with muscle activation. A sign of dense connective tissue, which do not stretch as easily
of nerve compromise is a feeling of pins and needles in as the loose connective coverings surrounding the muscle.
the toes or fingers during a hamstring stretch or a shoulder Therefore, most of the changes from stretching occur in
stretch, respectively, and stretches that elicit these the muscle itself and the fascia surrounding it, and not in
symptoms should be avoided, especially prior to the tendon.55
performing demanding choreography where fine control is Conversely, it is important NOT to “stretch” (elongate)
important. ligaments and joint capsules. Ligaments and joint capsules
Luckily, the detrimental effect of stretching on subsequent are intended to provide stability to the joints. If ligaments
muscle performance dissipates over time. The neural and capsules are healthy (not injured), they are the correct
activation recovers approximately 15 minutes after a static length for this purpose. “Stretching” these tissues can
stretch, but the muscle properties may not recover for up permanently elongate them, making a joint hyper-mobile
to one hour after a they have been stretched for 30 and less stable.56 Less joint stability requires muscles to
minutes, according to some researchers.30 Additional work harder to hold the joint in a stable position, thus
activity between stretch and performance has NOT been making the joint’s movement properties less efficient. For
shown to prevent these stretch-induced problems,46-48 but example, the fibular (peroneal) muscles may need to work
this question is still a topic of current research. The effects harder to stabilize an ankle that has become unstable after
may also be less detrimental in trained athletes than in being over-stretched through repetitive sprains.57

Stretching for Dancers –3– www.iadms.org

 How Much to Stretch Age and Gender Issues
Every dancer’s body is different. Some dancers are In general, females are more flexible than males at the
inherently less flexible. Dancers with “tight” bodies are same age.69 While it may not be desirable to make males
built for stability, with dense connective tissues. Their as flexible as female dancers, male dancers need to
muscles are less extensible.63 Conversely, some dancers develop enough flexibility to prevent injuries.
are innately more flexible. The hyper-mobile physique has
The most comprehensive study of childhood flexibility
an increased risk of injury.58-62 They have a larger joint
was performed on 4,500 Baltimore (USA) school children,
range of motion, but they are also more vulnerable to
ages 5-18 years.70 Boys and girls performed two flexibility
serious ligament sprains.63,64 Hence “loose” dancers
tests: sitting reach for toes and sitting head to knees. For
should spend less time stretching than “tight” dancers.
each age, Kendall recorded the percentage of children who
Loose dancers should spend that time on strengthening
could successfully perform each test. On the sitting reach
exercises instead. It is important to avoid comparing the
(sitting with knees straight and reaching fingers toward
flexibility of one dancer with that of other dancers.
toes), 100% of 5-year-olds could do it. However, by age
Instead, work on what each individual dancer needs –
12, only 30% of children could do so. The low point in
strengthening/stabilizing exercise for the loose dancer,
flexibility occurred at age 12 for boys and age 13 for girls.
stretching/flexibility for the tight dancer. When stretching,
Flexibility then increased again, with approximately 60%
it is vital to not push the body too hard. Pushing stretches
success on this test in 18-year-olds. Graphs of more
too hard may cause a muscle strain (tear), so is important
detailed results, with each gender plotted separately at
to be cautious. Stretches should be held to a point of mild
each year, are available in the article for the interested
discomfort, not pain.
reader. (On the forehead to knees test, very few children
How Long to Stretch of any age could perform the test, unless they had dance or
gymnastics training.)
Holding a static stretch for 30 seconds is enough to
maintain joint range of motion and current flexibility. Why is there a loss of flexibility in children of both
Typically, each stretch is repeated 3 to 5 times in a single genders, with minimum flexibility being reached at 10-12
stretching bout. But, if increasing flexibility is the goal, years? 69 This age coincides with the skeletal growth spurt,
then deformation of the connective tissue is necessary to so muscle tissues are shorter relative to bone length until
produce permanent muscle length change. When trying to muscle growth catches up to bone growth. Dance teachers
increase flexibility, it is important to employ stretching need to recognize that young dancers will go through a
AFTER dancing or other activity when muscles and phase of apparent loss in flexibility. During this time there
connective tissues are warm. Avoid stretching structures is also an increased chance of injury to muscles.71 The age
that shouldn’t be stretched (see above “Prolonged Stretch” at which this occurs in dancers may be different from non-
and “Which Tissues to Stretch”). dancers, since female dancers may have delayed onset of
puberty. Additionally, age at puberty has also changed in
How Often to Stretch the 60 years since Kendall’s study, tending to occur earlier
now.
The benefits gained from a single bout of stretching last
for a brief period of time, approximately five minutes. In At the other end of the age spectrum, aged adults also
contrast to a single bout, a multi-week program of become less flexible with the passing years. Allander et al.
stretching creates benefits that last for several weeks after found that males lose 1.8 degrees of hip motion and 2.2
stretching is discontinued.64-66 Stretching just once a week degrees in shoulder and wrist motion every five years.71
is sufficient to maintain current flexibility.67 Other These age-related flexibility losses are likely to be because
research showed that increasing the frequency of stretch the connective tissue loses elasticity.56 There is reduced
from once per day to three times per day did not increase maximum tensile strength (resistance to stretching before
range of motion.68 Additional benefits can be gained by tearing), and the rate of adaptation to stress is lower with
doing up to four repetitions within a bout of stretching.13 age.72
There appears to be little benefit in doing more than four
repetitions of stretch per bout.

This paper is dedicated to the memory of Marjorie Moore, Ph.D.

Stretching for Dancers –4– www.iadms.org

 Stretching for Dancers – Summary
Ballistic stretch: A brief, bouncing, swinging stretch
• Advantage – useful for coordination
• Disadvantage – high risk of injury

Dynamic stretch: Controlled, dance-like movements that prepare the body for activity
• Advantage – improves coordination without risk of injury
• Disadvantage – not as effective as static stretch in producing long-term gains in flexibility

Static stretch: Held for 30 seconds

• Advantage – useful in maintaining flexibility
• Disadvantage – needs to be regular to produce long-term gains in flexibility

Prolonged stretch: Held for 20 minutes or more

• Should be avoided

PNF (Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation)

• Advantage – effective in producing long-term flexibility over time
• Disadvantage – needs professional guidance to avoid risk of injury

When to stretch
• DO stretch after class when muscles are warm
• DO NOT stretch preceding performance or a major rehearsal, due to detrimental effects on jumping

What to stretch
• DO stretch muscles and their connective tissue (fascia)
• DO NOT elongate ligaments and joint capsules

How long to stretch

• Three to five bouts of 30 seconds static stretches are sufficient to stretch muscle tissue

How much to stretch

• Depends on your body
• “Tight” dancers need to stretch more than “loose” dancers
• Increasing “loose” dancers’ hyper-mobility can reduce their joint stability

How often to stretch

• Once a week to maintain joint range of motion
• Three to five times per week to increase range

Gender issues
• Females are generally more flexible than males of similar ages

Age issues
• Children become less flexible during their skeletal growth spurt
• Adults become less flexible with increasing age

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Design: David S. Weiss 19 February 2012

Stretching for Dancers –7– www.iadms.org