Waste cooking oil

Nowadays, the main problem pertaining to the use of the recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) material in hot mix asphalt (HMA) is the ageing of bitumen, which limits the percentage of applied RAP in the HMA. In this respect, rejuvenation of bitumen binder is the major but the most costly part of recycling. This paper investigates the novelty of using waste cooking oil (WCO), which is frequently found as a polluting waste material in landfills and rivers from the food industry, to rejuvenate the bituminous binder. The physical properties of the original bitumen, aged bitumen and rejuvenated bitumen were measured and compared by the conventional bitumen binder tests including softening point, penetration and Brookfield viscosity, and statistical analyses were used to assess the results. In general, the results showed that the aged bitumen was rejuvenated by the WCO due to a change in its physical properties, which resemble the physical properties of original bitumen (80/100). The optimum percentage of waste cooking oil for the rejuvenated aged bitumen group of 50/60, 40/50, and 30/40 was recognised by adding 1%, 3-4%, and 4-5% WCO, respectively. The statistical analyses also confirm that there was no significant difference between the original bitumen and rejuvenated bitumen. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0950061812005120

Biodiesel is generally produced from various seed oils such as soybeans, rapeseed and corn. Such a diesel can be used in cars, trucks, busses, construction equipment, in jet engines and in heating and electricity generating systems, but only through blends with maximum blend up to 25% (v/v) Biofuels burn cleaner than fossil fuels. They don't produce sulphur or aromatics. Main benefit of using biodiesel is that, it reduces nitrogen oxide emissions compared to fossil fuel. This article reviews different sources for the production of biodiesel. Biodiesel is environmentally safer than petro-diesel. It is non-toxic, produces less skin irritation, it degrades four times as fast as petro-diesel, has a flash point significantly higher than that of petro diesel, thus making it safer to store and handle.

A comparative study of biodiesel production from waste cooking oil using sulfuric acid (Two-step) and microwaveassisted transesterification (One-step) was carried out. A two-step transesterification process was used to produce biodiesel (alkyl ester) from high free fatty acid (FFA) waste cooking oil. Microwave-assisted catalytic transesterification using BaO and KOH was evaluated for the efficacy of microwave irradiation in biodiesel production from waste cooking oil. On the basis of energy consumptions for waste cooking oil (WCO) transesterification by both conventional heating and microwave-heating methods evaluated in this study, it was estimated that the microwave-heating method consumes less than 10% of the energy to achieve the same yield as the conventional heating method for given experimental conditions. The thermal stability of waste cooking oil and biodiesel was assessed by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The analysis of different oil properties, fuel properties and process parametric evaluative studies of waste cooking oil are presented in detail. The fuel properties of biodiesel produced were compared with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards for biodiesel and regular diesel.

Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil was obtained using Thermomyces lanuginosus (TL) lipase (E.C.3.1.1.3) anchored on Fe 3 O 4 /Au nanoparticles through physical interactions. A remarkable biodiesel yield of ∼90% was obtained without any pre-treatment and at a lipase concentration of 20%, 45°C reaction temperature, 1:6 oil/methanol molar ratio, after 24 h. The immobilized enzyme showed fast kinetic (the biodiesel yield was already of 34.6% after only 3 h) and activity slightly dependent on the length of the acid chains. The effect of the Au NPs sizes was monitored, to study the role of Au conduction centres in facilitating enzymes favourable orientation. The immobilized lipase activity stays above 74% after the first 3 cycles of use. In particular, the produced biodiesel presents an ester content of 97.8% ± 0.21 and a linolenic methyl ester content of 0.53% ± 0.03, in agreement with EN14214 requirements.

The bad impacts of fossil fuel on the environment and climate change have been increased in the recent years. Its primary advantages deal with Biodiesel being one of the most renewable fuels currently available and it is also non-toxic and biodegradable. It can also be used directly in most diesel engines without requiring extensive engine modifications. However, the cost of biodiesel is the major obstacle to its commercialization in comparison to petroleum-based diesel fuel. The high cost is primarily due to the raw material, mostly neat vegetable oil.

Used cooking oil is one of the economical sources for biodiesel production. However, the products formed during frying, can affect the transesterification reaction and the biodiesel properties. The production of biodiesel from waste vegetable oil offers a triple-facet solution: economic, environmental and waste management. The new process technologies developed during the last years made it possible to produce biodiesel from recycled frying oils comparable in quality to that of virgin vegetable oil biodiesel with an added attractive advantage of being lower in price. Thus, biodiesel produced from recycled frying oils has the same possibilities tobe utilized.

From an economic point of view; the production of biodiesel is very feedstock sensitive. From a waste management standpoint, producing biodiesel from used frying oil is environmentally beneficial, since it provides a cleaner way for disposing these products; meanwhile, it can yield valuable cuts in CO2 as well as significant tail-pipe pollution gains. Any fatty acid source may be used to prepare biodiesel. Thus, any animal or plant lipid should be a ready substrate for the production of biodiesel. The use of edible vegetable oils and animal fats for biodiesel production has recently been of great concern because they compete with food materials. There are concerns that biodiesel feedstock may compete with food supply in the long-term. Hence, the recent focus is the use of non-edible plant oil source and waste products of edible oil industry as the feedstock for biodiesel production meeting the international standards.

This case study is about the manufacturing of biodiesel from the used vegetable oil. It aims to define the requirements for biodiesel production by the trans-esterification process, testing its quality by determining some parameters such as density, kinematics viscosity, high heating value, cetane number, flash point, cloud point and pour point and comparing it to Diesel fuel, listing the environmental and economic benefits and drawback. This analysis is useful either when starting a new business, or identifying new opportunities for an existing business. Therefore, it will be extremely helpful for taking rational decisions about the development of a biodiesel production plant.

Growing concern regarding energy resources and the environment has been increased interest in the study of alternative energy sources.. To meet increasing energy requirements, there have been growing interests in alternative fuels like biodiesel to provide a suitable diesel oil substitute for internal combustion engines. Biodiesels are offer a very promising alternative to diesel oil since they are renewable and have been similar properties. One of the economical sources for biodiesel production which doubles in the reduction of liquid waste and the subsequent burden of sewage treatment is waste cooking oil (WCO). However, the products formed during frying process have affected the transesterification reaction and the biodiesel properties. These experiments about the performance analysis of C.I. engine using diesel and waste cooking oil blend.

In this work, ethylic biodiesel was produced through changes in TDSP methodology (Transesterification Double Step Process), settling the optimal transesterification conditions – time, temperature and alcohol:oil:catalyst molar ratio – for both reaction steps, aiming the obtaining of biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO) and ethanol. The ethylic biodiesel had its physicochemical properties evaluated according to standards established by the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels (ANP), with a primary focus on cold flow properties and oxidation stability. These properties were also evaluated in mixtures with different types of biodiesel and blends with petrochemical diesel. Biodiesel was also used as feedstock in epoxidation reactions carried out in a solvent-free media. Hydrogen Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Infrared Spectroscopy were used in order to characterize chemically and structurally the starting material (WCO), the ethylic biodiesel and the epoxidized ethyl esters. The spectroscopic analysis of the products indicated high conversion and yields of ethyl esters from WCO. The ethylic TDSP process presented easy and clear phase separation and high purity biodiesel. The physicochemical analyses according to the ANP specifications testified the effectiveness of the reaction as well as the post-synthesis purification process. The evaluation of oxidative stability and cold flow properties indicated that the use of partially hydrogenated esters may contribute to improve biodiesel resistance against oxidative processes and environments, without major losses occurring to the flow properties at low temperatures. Evaluation of blends of petrochemical diesel with biodiesel evidences the need for development of a methodology able to determine with effectiveness, accuracy and reliability the oxidation stability of all types of fuels applied in Diesel engines. The study of epoxidation of ethylic biodiesel indicates the possibility of applying the proposed method to replace the currently used, because the epoxidized ethyl esters meet the conditions of conversion and selectivity necessary. The proposed methodology eliminates the use of organic solvents, providing a time saving for the reaction and subsequent purification steps, being also less aggressive to the environment.

The rheological properties of oil depends on many factors that include shear rate, shear stress, temperature, chemical properties, concentration, time, pressure, additive or surfactants and catalyst. Vegetable oil viscosity studies have generally focused on the non-food application especially lubrication and biodiesel industry. In these studies it has been tried to develop a Rheological models, to the use of oils to substitute as diesel fuel or bio lubricant. Rheological properties of oils (or Vegetable oil) are also significant in the view of nutrition and food process. The fundamental parameter, obtained in the rheological study was viscosity, used to characterize the fluid texture. In common vegetable oils are made up of 98% triglycerides while the remaining 2% consists of phospholipids and different types of hydrocarbons. The viscosity of oils is directly related to the level of unsaturation and the length of the fatty acid chains. The viscosity tends to decrease when there is an improvement in terms of number of double bonds and grows with an increase in the length of the hydrocarbon chain and according to the level of polymerisation in the oil. This work has the objectives of evaluating the rheological behaviour of Waste Cooking Oil (WCO). The properties of oil samples were determined using Interfacial Rheometer (Anton-Paar Model: MCR 301) by varying temperature from 25-80°C and shear rate range of 0.1-100 s-1. Rheological behaviour was also studied for Waste Cooking Oil Methyl Ester (WCOME) and its Blends (5%, 10% and 15%). It was observed from the experimental study that the WCOME has less viscosity than WCO and the values in descending order as sequentially were WCO (26.813 mPa-s), WCOME (2.686 mPa-s), 15% WCOME Blend (1.784 mPa-s), 10% WCOME Blend (1.676 mPa-s), 5% WCOME Blend (1.526 mPa-s) and pure diesel (1.212 mPa-s) at 40°C. The temperature also has effect on the viscosity of WCO and it was observed that upon increasing temperature, viscosity decreases gradually. In this study it was also found that WCO, it’s ME and blends follows Newtonian behaviour (Power law index, n varies from 0.90997 to 0.99995) in the range of 0.1-100 s-1 shear rate.

Increase in energy demand, stringent emission norms and depletion of oil resources have led the researchers to find alternative fuels for internal combustion engines. On the other hand, waste oils pose a very serious environment challenge because of their disposal problems all over the world. In this context, waste oils are currently receiving renewed interest. The properties of the oil derived from waste plastics, cooking and engines oils were analyzed and compared with the petroleum products and found that it has properties similar to that of diesel. This paper gives a brief review about using waste oil of these three types of oil as a fuel for diesel engines. The conversion process of each type of waste oil is presented. The results obtained from the experimental studies on a diesel engine are discussed.

Large amount of waste product from the automotive industry and by-product of frying can impose adverse impact if not disposed properly. Recycling of the waste product can be seen as sustainable options, which offers conservation of natural resources and economic benefits. The application of waste engine oil (WEO) and waste cooking oil (WCO) were contemplated in pavement materials as to reduce the stiffening effect of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). This short review highlights on the application of waste oil in asphalt pavement and the effects of waste oil on binder and asphalt mixture performance.

Sri Lankan energy policy depends on hydropower, coal power, and fossil fuel, contributing to the transportation sector. Implementing renewable energy is a time-required necessity to minimize the dependency on imported fossil fuels. Biodiesel produced by waste cooking oil seems a promising technique as it minimizes waste handling costs as well. However, in Sri Lanka, waste cooking oil is reselling for the food industry after purification, making several health issues to the general public. There are no proper policies to avoid waste cooking oil reselling. Therefore, immediate policy implementation is necessary to minimize health issues and implement biodiesel production based on waste cooking oil. That will introduce waste cooking oil collecting bins to restaurant chains and hotels to utilize waste cooking oil for biodiesel production.

Kebutuhan akan minyak bumi sebagai sumber energi utama di berbagai negara semakin meningkat. Sebagian besar energi tersebut dihasilkan dari fosil yang tidak dapat diperbaharui dan seiring berjalannya waktu akan semakin terbatas. Minyak goreng bekas atau minyak jelantah merupakan salah satu bahan baku yang sangat menjanjikan sebagai pengganti bahan bakar disel, karena minyak ini masih mengandung trigliserida. Namun, minyak goreng bekas memiliki kadar FFA yang tinggi sehingga akan mengurangi produk akhir dan kesulitan dalam pemurnian produk. Maka dari itu diperlukan pretreatment dengan proses esterifikasi. 
Proses esterifikasi dilakukan dengan mencampurkan minyak goreng bekas sebanyak 150 ml dan metanol dengan perbandingan molar 1 : 3, 1 : 6, dan 1 : 9. Penambahan katalis H2SO4 dengan kadar 0,4, 0,6, 0,8 dan 1% dari volume minyak. Campuran dipanaskan pada suhu 40 oC, 50 oC dan 60 oC. Selanjutnya dilakukan pengadukan dengan kecepatan putaran 450 rpm dengan waktu 120 menit. Hasil esterifikasi didiamkan selama 24 jam kemudian dipisahkan dan dicuci dengan air hangat. Setelah didapatkan hasil optimal dilakukan percobaan kembali dengan waktu 180 menit.
Hasil penelitian paling optimum didapatkan pada perbandingan molar 1 : 9, kadar katalis 0,6% dan suhu operasi 60oC. Hasil menunjukan penurunan kadar FFA dari 7,2189% menjadi 0,2949%.

Methyl esters are produced by transesterification of waste cooking palm oil with methanol in the presence of a catalyst, potassium hydroxide (KOH). These reactions were carried out in 4:1 (molar ratio of methanol and oil) with 0.45 weight % of the catalyst used. The rate of reaction was enhanced with increasing temperature of 50, 55 and 60 up to 65°C, and for every temperature, three samples were taken with 10 min intervals. The concentrations of methyl esters in the collected samples were determined by gas chromatography method. The kinetic mechanism of second order system was plotted in graph between 1/[G] versus t and log K versus 1/T. This graph shows activation energy for both forward, reverse reactions and correlation constant for each point. The optimum values of the rate constants are 0.018 to 0.168 weight % per min for transesterification of biodiesel from various temperatures and the activation energies included 2.53, 1.93 and 1.29 Kcal/mol for final concentration of trigl...

La necesidad de buscar nuevas fuentes de energía renovable que complementen y sustituyan en el largo plazo, a los combustibles fósiles, proyectan a la biomasa como una materia prima potencial, y dentro de ella, el aceite de fritura residual (AFR) se perfila como una alternativa favorable. En el presente trabajo se realizó una revisión sistemática de literatura de las publicaciones científicas en la base de datos Scopus® y complementado con la revisión de contenido web sobre la producción de biodiésel a partir del aceite de fritura residual (AFR),  desde la perspectiva técnica y ambiental. Se evaluó la disponibilidad y gestión del AFR, estimando una generación anual de 60 millones de litros en Colombia, con un 80% de ácidos grasos que pueden convertirse en biodiésel con un rendimiento del 98,4%. En la dimensión técnica se examinó su proceso productivo, las características fisicoquímicas del AFR y del biodiésel. En la dimensión ambiental se establece que la utilización del AFR para la producción de biodiésel evita la contaminación de las fuentes hídricas por una gestión adecuada del mismo y que la sustitución del diésel convencional por biodiésel reduce las emisiones de CO y SO2 en 17,7% y 58,8%, respectivamente. El AFR se cataloga como una materia prima atractiva para la producción de biodiésel de segunda generación en Colombia, atendiendo a su alta disponibilidad e impacto ambiental positivo.

cracking capacity to pyrolyze the used oil, thus showing favorable features that could lead to 34 short process time and less energy usage. This resulted in a production of a high yield of a 35 biofuel product (up to 73 wt%) in a process taking less than 35 min. The biofuel showed a 36 composition dominated by light C 5-C 20 aliphatic hydrocarbons with low amounts of oxygenated 37 compounds (≤ 11%). In particular, the oil product obtained from activated carbon bed showed a 38 low nitrogen content and was free of carboxylic acid and sulphur. The absence of carboxylic 39 acids with low amounts of oxygenated compounds could reduce the formation of oxygenated by-40 2 products that could generate undesirable acidic tar or potentially hazardous sludge in the biofuel 41 during storage. Combined with the detection of a high calorific value (46 MJ/kg) nearly 42 comparable to diesel fuel, the biofuel shows great promise to be upgraded for use as a 'cleaner' 43 fuel source with potentially reduced oxygenated by-products plus low or zero emissions of NO x 44 and SO x during the use of the fuel in combustion process. This study also revealed that the use of 45 activated carbon bed results in the highest energy recovery (88-90%) from the used frying oil. 46 Our results demonstrated that the use of a microwave-heated reaction bed of activated carbon 47 shows great potential as an improved and sustainable pyrolysis approach that is energy-efficient 48 and timesaving for the recycling of used frying oil into a biofuel product with desirable 49 properties. This pyrolysis approach provides an alternative to transesterification that avoids the 50 use of solvents and catalysts, and thus could be developed further as a promising route to recycle 51 various types of waste and biomass materials.

A comparative study of biodiesel production from waste cooking oil using sulfuric acid (Two-step) and microwaveassisted transesterification (One-step) was carried out. A two-step transesterification process was used to produce biodiesel (alkyl ester) from high free fatty acid (FFA) waste cooking oil. Microwave-assisted catalytic transesterification using BaO and KOH was evaluated for the efficacy of microwave irradiation in biodiesel production from waste cooking oil. On the basis of energy consumptions for waste cooking oil (WCO) transesterification by both conventional heating and microwave-heating methods evaluated in this study, it was estimated that the microwave-heating method consumes less than 10% of the energy to achieve the same yield as the conventional heating method for given experimental conditions. The thermal stability of waste cooking oil and biodiesel was assessed by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The analysis of different oil properties, fuel properties and process parametric evaluative studies of waste cooking oil are presented in detail. The fuel properties of biodiesel produced were compared with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards for biodiesel and regular diesel.

This research paper deals with the synthesis of a heterogeneous catalyst (KBr/CaO) from commercial calcium oxide and potassium bromide by wet impregnation method. This solid catalyst was tested for transesterification of waste cooking oil (WCO). The synthesized catalyst was characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared spectrometry (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) techniques. Transesterification reaction parameters were varied to obtain the maximum yield of biodiesel. Response Surface Methodology (RSM) using Central Composite Design (CCD) was employed to study the effect of the process variables like methanol to oil ratio, catalyst loading and reaction time. The optimum conditions obtained using regression models were found to be 12:1 methanol: oil ratio, 3 wt% catalyst loading and 1.8 h reaction time. The composition of FAME was determined using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The performance and emission characteristics for various blends of biodiesel (B10, B20, B50 and B100) were investigated in a four stroke direct injection diesel engine. The results indicated that the brake thermal efficiency, particulate matter, unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide emissions reduced with increased concentration of biodiesel in the fuel blends, whereas the specific fuel consumption, NO x emissions and exhaust gas temperature increased.

Increase in energy demand, stringent emission norms and depletion of oil resources have led the researchers to find alternative fuels for internal combustion engines. On the other hand, waste oils pose a very serious environment challenge because of their disposal problems all over the world. In this context, waste oils are currently receiving renewed interest. The properties of the oil derived from waste plastics, cooking and engines oils were analyzed and compared with the petroleum products and found that it has properties similar to that of diesel. This paper gives a brief review about using waste oil of these three types of oil as a fuel for diesel engines. The conversion process of each type of waste oil is presented. The results obtained from the experimental studies on a diesel engine are discussed.

Abstract: Rotatable central composite design of experiments was employed to investigate the
significance and interactive effects of methanol:oil molar ratio, catalyst concentration,
operating temperature, reaction time and mixing rate ona base catalyzed transesterification
reaction of waste cooking oil to maximize the biodiesel yield. Based on a multiple regression
analysis, a second order polynomial equation for biodiesel yield was obtained and its validity
wasconfirmed.The optimum conditions for maximum biodiesel conversion of ≈ 99% was
depicted to be 7.54:1 M:O, 0.875 KOH wt%, 52.7oC, 1.17 h and 266 rpm.The overall
physico-chemical properties of the produced biodieselwere acceptable.

Oils with high content of free fatty acid (FFA) can be treated by acid esterification where an alcohol reacts with the given oil in the presence of acid catalyst. The investigated parameters include methanol to oil ratio, temperature and amount of catalyst. The optimum conditions for acid esterification which could reduce FFA content in the feedstock to less than 1.88% (acid value 3.76 mg KOH/g waste cooking oil) were 50 °C, 20% methanol to oil ratio (by volume) and 0.4 vol.% H 2 SO 4 after 5 h. However, oil with an acid value of more than 1 mg KOH/g oil cannot meet the alkaline catalyzed transesterification conditions. Under the conditions of NaOH concentration 0.5 N, excess alkali 15%, 60 °C, 40 min, the FFA removal rate for deacidification reached 77.11% (acid value 0.86 mg KOH/g esterified oil). The acid value of deacidification product was reduced below 0.86 mg KOH/g esterified oil, thus meeting the base-catalyzed trans-esterification conditions.

Waste cooking oils (WCO), which contain large amounts of free fatty acids produced in restaurants, are collected by the environmental protection agency in many parts of the world and should be disposed in a suitable way. Due to the high cost of the fresh vegetable oil, waste cooking oil attracted researcher to produce bio-diesel from waste cooking oil because it is available with relatively cheap price. In this research paper, the Transesterification of waste cooking oil with methanol as well as the main uses of the fatty acid methyl esters is reviewed. The cooking oil was transesterified with methanol using potassium hydroxide as catalyst to obtain bio-diesel by Mechanical Stirrer production technique was carried out. Results which obtained are significantly comparable to pure diesel and gives better performance than conventional diesel fuel.

Biodiesel can easily be used as an alternative fuel in diesel engines. It is environmentally friendly and can be produced from low-cost feedstocks such as waste cooking oil (WCO). WCO contains a significant amount of free fatty acid, which is extracted by a two-step process of converting the free fatty acid by acid catalysis (H2S04) and converting the triglycerides using an NaOH catalyst. Currently, the major challenge for the industrial production of biodiesel is optimizing the yield while meeting American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards. In this study, experiments were performed to optimize the reaction conditions. The studied experimental parameters were the alcohol types (methanol, ethanol), the alcohol-to-oil molar ratio (AOMR; 3:1, 6:1, 9:1), the amount of catalyst (0.5, 1.0, 1.5 wt% of the oil), the temperature of the reaction (50, 60, 70, 80°C), the mixing intensity (300, 600, 900 rpm), and the reaction time (30, 60, 90 min). The biodiesel production yield (BPY) was optimized based on the experimental data. The optimum value of the BPY based on methanol is 95.92%, which is obtained at 73.80°C, with a reaction time of 74.02 min, an AOMR of 6.58:1, a catalyst concentration of 1.13 and a mixing intensity of 824.45 rpm. In the case of ethanol, the optimum BPY is 95.53%. which is obtained at 64.96°C, with a reaction time of 88.02 min, an AOMR of 7.005:1, a catalyst concentration of 1.25 and a mixing intensity of 592.18 rpm. These results of biodiesel production were confirmed by the experimental data.

My final project master. I was working in it for almost one year. I did a complete and deep reseach about the biodiesel fuel production ways using many articles from the most important scientific magazines, analyzing the dates and i made a design for a new energy sistem using the waste oil cooking to convert it in biodiesel fuel (BDF) with the microwave method, reducing the time of production, and finally use that BDF in a cogeneration system to get heat and eneltricity, all of this in the same place where the waste oil is generated.

The production of household wastes such as used frying oil (UFO) and plastic waste (PW) are increasing each year, thus representing potential feedstocks for conversion into an energy source. Microwave copyrolysis was investigated for its potential to transform a mixture of UFO and polyolefinic-based plastic waste into fuel product with desirable properties. The co-pyrolysis approach demonstrated positive
synergistic effects in providing fast heating rate (up to 50
C/min) and a lower reaction time (25 min),
and generated up to 81 wt.% yield of liquid oil and 18 wt.% yield of pyrolysis gases for use as potential
fuels. The liquid oil showed promising green properties comprising low oxygen content, free of nitrogen
and sulphur and higher energy content (42e46 MJ/kg). The oil product also demonstrated improved
stability and desirable fuel properties nearly similar to transport-grade diesel, thus indicating the great
potential of microwave co-pyrolysis as an approach for transforming household wastes into value-added
liquid fuel.

Waste cooking oil is one of the energy sources for its unique composition which contains glycerol, It can be a good base for producing biodiesel. The objective of this study is to perform the energy and economic analyses of biodiesel production from Waste Cooking Oil (WCO) by the conventional transesterification method at the Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran. Data is acceded by performed biodiesel machine, with three replications during spring season in the same condition. The volume of biodiesel machine is 2000 L and the area of this lab is 100 m 2 . The total energy input and energy output were calculated as 30.05 and 44.91 MJ L À 1 , respectively. The energy output/input ratio was 1.49 in biodiesel production. The shares of renewable and non-renewable energy were 77.31% and 22.69%, respectively from total energy input. The benefit to cost ratio was found to be 2.081 according to the result of economical analysis of biodiesel production. The mean net return and productivity from biodiesel production were found to be 1.298 $ L À 1 and 0.946 kg $ À 1 , respectively. The results showed that by applying ultrasonic and microwave instead of transesterfication and great managing, more benefit can be resulted.

The growing concerns for environmental sustainability,
economic and energy security had made it obligatory to source
energy alternatives that harmonize environmental friendliness
with biodegradability, renewability, and less reliance on
petroleum products dependence. One of such energy sources is
called biodiesel. Wide range of substrate; vegetable oils e.g. palm oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, coconut oil, rapeseed oil, micro algal oils, animal fats, waste products of vegetable oil refinery, used frying/cooking oils was used in its production.

A Taguchi orthogonal array was used to investigate the effects of catalyst type, catalyst concentration, temperature and methanol to oil molar ratio on the heterogeneous esterification of free fatty acids (FFA) in waste cooking oil (WCO) using ion-exchange resins. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was also applied to study the final FFA conversion in response to the investigated factors. The F-test indicated that catalyst type and methanol:oil molar ratio significantly influenced the FFA conversion. The optimal parameters of FFA esterification in WCO using ion-exchange resins obtained within the experimental ranges studied are as follows: Catalyst Amberlyst-15 at 4 wt.%, temperature of 65 °C and a methanol to oil molar ratio of 15:1. Under these conditions, a maximum FFA conversion of 60.2% could be obtained. The kinetics of the optimised FFA esterification catalysed by 4 wt.% Amberlyst-15 fitted well to a Langmuir–Hinshelwood (L–H) based model.

Biodiesel merupakan salah satu sumber energi alternatif pengganti bahan bakar mesin diesel yang bersifat renewable, menurunkan emisi bila dibandingkan dengan minyak solar, memenuhi syarat sebagai bahan bakar mesin diesel dan lain-lainnya. Biodiesel dapat diperoleh melalui reaksi esterifikasi dan transesterifikasi berbahan dasar minyak jelantah dengan bantuan katalis seperti CaO yang didapat dengan mudah dari limbah cangkang bekicot. Penggunaan minyak jelantah sebagai bahan baku biodiesel karena umumnya dibuang sebagai limbah rumah tangga atau industri dan jumlahnya berlimpah. Hal ini ditunjukkan dengan jumlah konsumsi minyak goreng di Indonesia tahun 2008 sekitar 5 juta kL/tahun. Jika penggunaan minyak goreng mencapai 80%, maka terdapat potensi minyak jelantah sebesar 1 juta kL. Meningkatnya produksi dan konsumsi nasional pada minyak goreng, akan berkorelasi dengan ketersediaan minyak jelantah yang semakin meningkat pula. Namun, ketersediaan minyak jelantah yang berlimpah ini belum mampu dioptimalkan menjadi biodiesel karena kurangnya perencanaan pengelolaan yang terpadu sehingga minyak jelantah yang dihasilkan rumah tangga atau industri terbuang sia-sia. Hal ini dapat ditanggulangi melalui penerapan konsep WCO Bank (Waste Cooking Oil Bank) melalui prosedur yang sederhana dan mudah yakni Setor-Olah-Saldo (SOS). Nasabah yang menyetorkan minyak jelantah ke WCO Bank, akan dicatat dalam buku tabungan minyak jelantah (setor). Minyak jelantah yang terkumpul diolah menjadi biodiesel (olah). Biodiesel yang dihasilkan dapat dijual atau digunakan oleh nasabah sesuai dengan aturan yang disepakati dengan pengelola WCO Bank (saldo). Melalui penerapan WCO Bank, pemanfaatan minyak jelantah menjadi biodiesel akan lebih optimal, terpadu, kompherensif, mengurangi pencemaran limbah minyak jelantah dan meminimalisir penggunaan bahan bakar mesin diesel yang tidak dapat diperbaharui.

Catalytic transesterification of triglycerides and esterification of free fatty acids underpins sustainable biodiesel production, wherein efficient heterogeneous catalysts are sought to replace mineral acids. A robust, magnetic core-shell SO 4 /Mg-Al-Fe 3 O 4 catalyst was synthesised by stepwise co-precipitation, encapsulation, and surface functionalisation. The resulting magnetically-separable catalyst has a surface area of 123 m 2 g −1 , uniform 6.5 nm mesopores, and a high total acid site loading of 2.35 mmol g-1. Optimum conditions for the (trans) esterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) over the sulfated solid acid catalyst were 95 °C, a methanol:WCO molar ratio of 9:1, and 300 min reaction to achieve 98.5% FAME yield. Esterification of oleic acid to methyl oleate resulted in an 88% yield after 150 min under the same reaction conditions. The magnetic solid acid catalyst exhibited good thermal and chemical stability and enabled facile catalyst separation post-reaction and the production of high quality biodiesel.

In this study, production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO) was carried out via ultrasonic-assisted transesterification method. Calcium oxide (CaO) was used as a catalyst. The effects of methanol to oil molar ratio, reaction temperature and the catalyst amount towards the percentage conversion of oil to biodiesel were investigated. The biodiesel produced was analyzed using GC-FID method. The results obtained showed that 82 % of oil was successfully converted into biodiesel. This indicates that the used oil (WCO) has the potential to be the future source of biodiesel. Catalyst concentration of 3 w/w%, methanol to oil molar ratio of 15:1 and temperature of 65°C are the best condition for the conversion of oil to biodiesel. The result obtained was found out that, methanol to oil molar ratio and catalyst amount has given significant effect on the conversion of oil. However, temperature ranged from (35 to 75) °C apparently, showed no significant effect on percentage conversion of oil.

ABSTRACT Waste cooking oil is one of the energy sources for its unique composition which contains glycerol, It can be a good base for producing biodiesel. The objective of this study is to perform the energy and economic analyses of biodiesel production from Waste Cooking Oil (WCO) by the conventional transesterification method at the Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran. Data is acceded by performed biodiesel machine, with three replications during spring season (2012) in the same condition. The volume of biodiesel machine is 2000 L and the area of this lab is 100 m2. The total energy input and energy output were calculated as 30.05 and 44.91 MJ L−1, respectively. The energy output/input ratio was 1.49 in biodiesel production. The shares of renewable and non-renewable energy were 77.31% and 22.69%, respectively from total energy input. The benefit to cost ratio was found to be 2.081 according to the result of economical analysis of biodiesel production. The mean net return and productivity from biodiesel production were found to be 1.298 $ L−1 and 0.946 kg $−1, respectively. The results showed that by applying ultrasonic and microwave instead of transesterfication and great managing, more benefit can be resulted.

– In this study, biodiesel fuel produced from waste cooking oil was blended in 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% with the commercial diesel fuel. The biodiesel was collected from a company near Yogyakarta city. It was produced from transesterification process in a commercial scale reactor. The diesel-biodiesel mixtures were tested in a four-cylinder and four-stroke diesel engine with the compression ratio of 18 and water cooling system. The results show that the thermal efficiency of diesel engine increased with increasing the engine speed. The present of biodiesel also increased the thermal efficiency of the diesel engine. A mixture of 40% (B40) and 50% (B50) biodiesel resulted in the highest thermal efficiency. The brake mean effective pressure also increased with increasing the engine speed and biodiesel mixture. The specific fuel consumption showed a decrease in its value as a function of engine speed. Low specific fuel consumption means the high thermal efficiency of the diesel engine.

Microwave co-pyrolysis (MCP) of waste cooking oil (WCO) and waste polyolefins (WP) was examined for its potential to convert these wastes into liquid fuel. The influence of performing the pyrolysis process under N2 atmosphere and vacuum environment was investigated with emphasis on the temperature profile, heating rate, and the yield and properties of the liquid oil obtained. Different ratios of WP to WCO (1:2, 1:1.5, 1:1, 1.5:1, and 2:1) were also investigated. MCP performed under vacuum environment recorded higher heating rates (20–24 °C/min) and higher yield of liquid oil (up to 62 wt.%) compared to that performed under N2 atmosphere (18–22 °C/min of heating rate and 24–50 wt.% of liquid oil). The high heating rate resulted in shorter reaction time and lower power consumption, leading to lower energy consumption by the pyrolysis process. The liquid oil comprised C13–C24 hydrocarbons (aliphatics, aromatics) within the hydrocarbon range of diesel fuel. It also showed promising gree...

Increase in energy demand, stringent emission norms and depletion of oil resources have led the researchers to find alternative fuels for internal combustion engines. On the other hand, waste oils pose a very serious environment challenge because of their disposal problems all over the world. In this context, waste oils are currently receiving renewed interest. The properties of the oil derived from waste plastics, cooking and engines oils were analyzed and compared with the petroleum products and found that it has properties similar to that of diesel. This paper gives a brief review about using waste oil of these three types of oil as a fuel for diesel engines. The conversion process of each type of waste oil is presented. The results obtained from the experimental studies on a diesel engine are discussed.

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In this study, the effects of neutralized waste cooking oil biodiesel-diesel mix-ture (B30) and diesel fuels on combustion, performance and emission character-istics were investigated and compared experimentally in a four stroke, single cyl-inder direct injection diesel engine at different engine loads. For this reason, the test engine was operated with different engine loads including 3.75, 7.5, 11.25, 15 and 18.75 Nm at 2200 rpm engine speed. The variations of in-cylinder pres-sure, heat release rate, cyclic variations, combustion duration and CO, CO2, NOx and soot emissions were investigated. The test results showed that in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate increased with B30 compared to diesel for all en-gine loads due to better oxidation reactions. CO and soot emissions reduced by about 57.9 % and 25.5 % with biodiesel compared to diesel at 18.75 Nm. It was also found that higher indicated mean effective pressure (imep) was obtained with B30 according to neat diesel. Besides, shorter combustion duration was ob-tained with B30. Oxidation reactions and performance can be improved with bi-odiesel compared to diesel. As a result, neutralized waste cooking oil biodiesel-diesel fuel mixture (B30) could be easily used without engine modifications in diesel engines.

1. Prosjektet BioDieNet i EU-programmet Intelligent Energy Europe skal bidra til  overgang fra fossil diesel til bruk av biodiesel produsert fra brukt matolje. Målet er å  stimulere til produksjon av biodiesel basert på utnyttelse av lokalt tilgjengelig avfall (brukt  matolje). Hensikten med dette dokumentet er å bidra med kunnskap og informasjon til  støtte for nye biodiesel produsenter. I dokumentet analyseres potensialet i EU27 + Norge for biodiesel produsert fra brukt matolje, samt dets plass i drivstoffmarkedet.
2. Biodiesel er et alternativt drivstoff som består av trans-esterifiserte fettsyrer.  Ubehandlet planteolje kan benyttes som drivstoff i enkelte dieselmotorer, men når denne  oljen er forestret til biodiesel kan det benyttes som drivstoff i praktisk talt alle dieselmotorer, inkludert moderne motorer med direkte innsprøytning. 
3. EU direktivet for økt bruk av biodrivstoff, det såkalte biodrivstoffdirektivet  ('Directive  on the promotion of the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for transport') fremsetter
krav om at medlemslandene innen 2005 skulle erstatte 2% av fossil diesel og bensin med  biodrivstoff, økende til 5,75 % innen 2010. EU sin regulering om animalske bi-produkter (Regulation 1774/2002) setter restriksjoner på bruken av brukt matolje fra restauranter og storkjøkken. Effekten av dette er at i de aller fleste tilfelle kunne ikke brukt matolje lenger  bli benyttet som en ingrediens i dyrefôr, som tidligere var den vanligste behandlingsmåten. Parallelt med dette, setter direktivet for avfallsdeponering (Landfill  Directive 99/31EC) forbud mot deponering av våt-organisk avfall inkl. brukt matolje. I
tillegg viser siste års europeiske statistikk en kraftig økning i produksjon av matolje, samt  økning i antall storkjøkken, spesielt knyttet til catering-bedrifter. Med de økte volum av brukt matolje og restriksjonene knyttet til dens håndtering, samt  presset om fjerning fra næringskjedene, blir produksjon av biodiesel et mer attraktivt valg. Både for avfallsproblematikk og bærekraftige transportstrategier kan biodiesel produsert fra brukt matolje være et gunstig valg.
4. Det er lite data om tilgjengelige mengder brukt matolje i Europa. I de 10 BioDieNet  landene har vi estimert dette til 1.9 milliard liter. Dette utgjør 1.4 % av disse landenes totale dieselforbruk. Dermed kan potensielt biodiesel fra brukt matolje erstatte 1-3 % av europeisk dieselforbruk.
5. Resultatene indikerer at restauranter utgjør hovedkilden til brukt matolje i de fleste  BioDieNet-landene. Husholdninger og matforedlingsindustri er også viktige. De fleste  vesteuropeiske BioDieNet-landene har veletablerte innsamlingssystemer for brukt matolje, men dette er ikke tilfelle i Bulgaria, Romannia og Ungarn. Forsiktige anslag for  gjennomsnittlige mengder tilgjengelig brukt matolje i de 10 BioDieNet-landene er 6-8 liter per innbygger per år. 
6. Total mengde biodiesel (FAME) produsert i EU-25 i 2005 er blitt estimert til 3.2 million  tonn. Det kan fastslås at UCOME-produksjon i de 10 BioDieNet-landene (England, Nederland, Portugal, Norge, Bulgaria, Ungarn, Spania, Romania, Italia, og Tyskland) utgjør omtrent 13 % av totalt biodiesel produsert i EU-25.
7. Til å drive innsamlingssystemer for brukt matolje, er lokale myndighetene aktuelle for restauranter og catering bedrifter. Det er imidlertid ingen kjernefinansiering tilgjengelig for dette. Kjernefinansiering kan være tilgjengelig for innsamling fra husholdninger, men  logistikkproblemer gjør dette vanskelig. Matforedlingsindustri har i de fleste tilfelle allerede funnet løsninger for å bli kvitt sin brukte matolje. Men, hvis en 2 biodieselprodusent får tak i dette materialet rimelig, kan det utgjøre en god kilde med ofte god kvalitet. I de fleste tilfelle vil imidlertid den sikreste kilden til brukt matolje for en  småskala biodieselprodusent være restauranter og cateringbedrifter.
8. Kostnader for innsamling av brukt matolje vil være svært avhengig av kilden til brukt matolje, d.v.s. om det er husholdninger, restauranter, cateringbedrifter eller matforedlingsindustri. I tillegg vil lokale særegenheter spille inn. Det er imidlertid klart at kostnadene ved innsamlingen blir lavere jo mindre transport er involvert. 
Overlevelsesevnen til en biodieselfabrikk vil være sterkt avhengig av prisen på  råmaterialet. Idealsituasjonen er et innsamlingssystem kostnadsfritt for biodieselprodusenten (levering).
9. Hovedproblemene knyttet til innsamlingssystemer for brukt matolje er:  Innslag av mineralolje i innsamlings-containere; Håndteringsproblemer ved lav temperatur; Matoljen
er brukt for mange ganger, som gir økt innhold av frie fettsyrer; For mye mettet fett;  Illegale innsamlinger.
10. Steg i den klassiske produksjonen av biodiesel fra brukt matolje er: 1. Forbehandling  av matoljen; 2. Fjerning av frie fettsyrer; 3. Tørking; 4. Trans-esterifisering i reaktor; 5. Fase-separasjon; 6. Vasking; 7. Tørking; 8. Rensing av glyserin; 9. Tilsetning av additiver.
11. Både prosesskjemi og økonomi har betydning for valg av type fett og olje som skal  brukes til biodieselproduksjon. I forhold til prosesskjemi, vil den største forskjellen mellom ulike typer fett/oljer være innholdet av frie fettsyrer.
12. Valgalternativer for råmateriale er: Jomfruelig/primær biomasse (energivekster); sekundær biomasse (f.eks. brukt matolje) og organisk avfall (f.eks. fett fra fettavskillere). Valgalternativer for katalyse er:  Alkalisk katalyse; Sur katalyse; Heterogen katalyse; Enzymatisk katalyse; Ingen katalyse (Biox koløsningsmiddel & superkritisk prosess). Prosessvalg er: Batch eller kontinuerlig. Batchprosess er den vanligste i små fabrikker som produserer mindre enn 4 million liter/år.
13. For å anlegge en biodieselfabrikk må det tas hensyn til lovverk knyttet til følgende aspekter: Helse miljø & sikkerhet (HMS); Lagring og oppbevaring av olje; Brann- og  eksplosjonsvern; Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC); Plan- og  bygningsloven; Skatter og avgifter. Spesielt det å få en IPPC lisens kan være tidkrevende. IPPC er en følge av EU direktiv 96/61/EC. I Norge kan SFT bistå norske  bedrifter i dette arbeidet.
14. Den type biodiesel produksjon som det stimulere til i BioDieNet er småskala,  lokalproduksjon, med 3-4 ansatte. Omsetningen til en slik bedrift er forventet å være ca  ligge i området 2,5-3 mill kr/år, men kan også være atskillig høyere. En bedrift på denne størrelsen kan enten være enkelt partnerskap, kommandittselskap, ideelt, eller et  kooperativ. Energiselskaper og energikontorer kan også tenkes å starte med  biodieselproduksjon.
15. Potensielle finansieringskilder for småskala biodieselproduksjon er: Banklån; lavrente låneordninger; kredittlån; egenkapitalfinansiering; risikovillig kapital. Det å ha en robust forretningsplan og finansielle garantier er nødvendige elementer for sikring av  finansiering. I Norge gir Statens nærings- og distriktsutviklingsfond (SND) støtte  etablering av småbedrifter. 
16. Argumentene for biodiesel er i første rekke knyttet til reduksjon i utslipp av  klimagasser. Det er også andre dokumenterte fordeler, f.eks. reduserte utslipp av lokale forurensing (unntatt NOx) og mindre miljøbelastning i tilfelle lekkasje. Men først og fremst er biodrivstoff den eneste direkte erstatningen for fossilt drivstoff tilgjengelig i vesentlige mengder. 
17. I de aller fleste tilfelle vil bruk av biodiesel som erstatning for fossil diesel gi vesentlige reduksjoner i utslipp av klimagasser, med potensialer for opp til 80% produsert fra oljevekster. Reduksjonspotensialet ved biodiesel fra brukt matolje kan komme opp mot 100%. 
18. Overgang til bruk av biodiesel gir reduksjon i lokalt utslipp av CO, HC, og PM10 på 20-40 %. Innblanding av inntil 30% biodiesel i fossil diesel vil vanligvis ikke gi økte NOx -utslipp, mens høyere innblanding gir noe økte utslipp, opp til ca 10% for B100. Det er også vist at bruk av biodiesel resulterer i reduksjon i utslipp av både PAH og andre kreftfremkallende stoffer.
19. Oppvarming av drivstoffslanger anbefales i kald årstid fordi biodiesel da ellers kan bli tyktflytende. Gummikomponenter som kommer i kontakt med biodiesel bør erstattes med mer bestandige materialer. Likeledes bør biodiesel heller ikke være i kontakt med messing, bronse, kobber, bly, tinn og sink ettersom dette fører til oksidasjon. Normalt hvis  garanti er gitt for bruk av B100 biodiesel bør motoroljen skiftes noe oftere enn ved bruk av fossil diesel. Dette gjelder også for oljefilter og dieselfilter.
20. De to kritiske faktorene for ekspansjon av biodieselmarkedet er avgifter og  godkjenning/garantiordningene til kjøretøyprodusentene. Selv om en harmonisering i  Europa kunne tenkes å være en fordel både i forhold til avgifter og garantiordningene, er  dette for tiden ikke tilfelle. Hvert land has sine egne avgiftregimer for forskjellige typer  drivstoff, inkludert  biodrivstoff. Kjøretøyprodusentene har også ulike  godkjenning/garantiordninger i de forskjellige land.

The growing concerns for environmental sustainability, economic and energy security had made it obligatory to source energy alternatives that harmonize environmental friendliness with biodegradability, renewability, and less reliance on petroleum products dependence. One of such energy sources is called biodiesel. Wide range of substrate; vegetable oils e.g. palm oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, coconut oil, rapeseed oil, micro algal oils, animal fats, waste products of vegetable oil refinery, used frying/cooking oils was used in its production. To produce biodiesel with these substrates conventionally is complex, as the method is faced with limitations in the downstream processing costs, byproducts recovery and environmental issues. Enzymatic method, involving enzymes particularly lipases in a process of alcoholysis with waste cooking oil emerged to be efficient in curtailing the problems. The potentiality of the waste cooking oil for this purpose among other applications qualified...