Urban Sanitation

On the second half of the 19th century, Lisbon started to change at an accelerated pace, regarding population growth, urban area increase and industrialization. Although the intensity of these changes cannot be directly compared with the ones occurring more or less at the same time in other European capitals (due to its lesser dimension), they were most useful as a springboard for deeper changes that came only in the 20th century. One of the aspects on those changes was the appearance of a larger number of small industries in several areas of the city. Due to their location and characteristics, they were not always compatible either with the basic structures for handling urban sewage or with public health needs. One of the document series belonging to the archival fond of the Ministério do Reino contains several records related to industrial licensing inside the city and show several aspects of pollution inside the urban space. By identifying and analyzing these records, it is possible to understand the ways by which industry, urban sewage disposal and public health intersected each other.

This report reviews the history, achievements, and challenges of a crucial aspect of sanitation in Bangladesh, namely, shifting the population away from open defecation toward use of hygienic latrines. Now that the newly declared Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) include as No. 6, to “Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all” by the year 2030, the Bangladesh case takes on international significance.

The paper includes an analysis of cases about the interdicta de cloacis investigated by Roman jurists in I-III centuries AD, related to the right to conduct private sewers into public ones and to clean them, if obstructed, also in spite of neighbours’ opposition. The case system discussed by Roman jurists may also help solve a question at the top of interest among the scholars: did Romans think about an «environmental protection»? Can it be identified in a more modest and empirical, yet essential, protection of the hygienic, sanitary conditions in the Roman cities? Finally, some considerations of Severan jurists may help verify an interesting intersection among legal reasoning and medical theories on the onset of the epidemics, with particular reference to the miasma - theory of hippocratic origin, reassessed by Galen.

This article analyses the water, sanitation and hygiene situation in slum households and compares it with the non-slum urban households using data from the 2011 Census. It argues for a shift from the mere water supply coverage to an emphasis on quality water distribution. Intermittent water supply coupled with poor sanitation contributes to higher health risks. Promoting point-of-use water treatment and basic hygiene practices on safe handling and storage of water are important preventive health interventions. This article advocates for a shift from availability of infrastructure to delivery of service-level outcomes.

The paper includes an analysys of cases related to the interdicta de cloacis investigated by Roman Jurists in I-III centuries AD and related to the right to conduct private sewers into public ones and to clean them, if obstructed, also in spite of neighbours’ opposition. The case - system discussed by Roman Jurists may also help solve a question at the top of interest among the scholars: did Romans think about an «environmental
protection»? Can it be identified in a more modest and empirical, yet essential, protection of the hygienic-sanitary conditions in the Roman cities? Finally, some considerations of Severan Jurists may help verify an interesting intersection among legal reasoning and medical theories on the onset of the epidemics, with particular reference to the miasma - theory of hippocratic origin, reassessed by Galen.

The reality about the life of sanitation workers is not just about unsafe working and living conditions, irregular and minimum wages, and their health conditions and exploitation by their contractors. The reality is deep down more about the caste system and acceptance by the society that one group of people is best fit to clean their excreta, and that the service which is essential to them – people providing service remain completely nonessential. The reality is as concurrent, as historically social and cultural. And the solution also has to be found both ways.

Urban sanitation is a priority issue for cities everywhere. Major deficiencies in the provision of this basic service contribute to environmental health problems and the degradation of scarce water resources. The rapid growth of cities and the accompanying concentration of population lead to increasing amounts of human wastes that need to be managed safely. The relative success in providing cities with usable water has led to greater volumes of wastewater requiring management, both domestic and industrial. As population densities in cities increase, the volumes of wastewater generated per household exceed the infiltration capacity of local soils and require greater drainage capacity and the introduction of sewer systems. Wastewaters flowing out of cities can, in turn, affect downstream water resources and threaten their sustainable use.
The mix of problems and the capacity to deal with these sanitation problems varies amongst cities and countries. Confronting these problems requires an ability to face a number of challenges, including different environmental health challenges as well as financial, institutional, and technical challenges. The challenges are great, but the evidence shows that they are not insurmountable. Meeting them requires the political will and support of urban residents to adopt appropriate investment and cost-recovery policies as well as sustaining the implementation of strategic actions.

Implementing sanitation for informal settlements: Conflicting rationalities in South Africa Declaration ii Declaration I, Lina Taing, prepared this original work to satisfy the PhD requirements of the University of Cape Town. I hereby declare that the work on which this thesis is based is my own (except where acknowledgements indicate otherwise) and that neither the whole work nor any part of it has been, is being or is to be submitted for another degree at this or any other university. I authorise the University to reproduce for the purpose of research either the whole or any portion of the contents in any manner whatsoever. To note, the material I present in this thesis is drawn from two studies funded by the Water Research Commission (WRC) on the challenges of providing services to informal settlements in South Africa. The reports emanating from the research contracts were:  TIPS for sewering informal settlements: Technology, Institutions, People and Services (Taing, Armitage, et al., 2013); and  Free basic sanitation in informal settlements: An ethnography of so-called communal toilet use and maintenance (Taing et al., 2014). This thesis builds upon the findings and arguments put forward in these research reports. I was the primary author of the reports, which I jointly authored. I present in this thesis empirical data that was previously featured in the WRC publications, though I have revised the descriptions and analysis of said data in this text to avoid plagiarism. Where necessary, I cite data gathered by my co-researchers and acknowledge their work in the References section. I use a modified version of Harvard conventions for referencing.

From 1994 to 2008, South Africa’s national government disseminated numerous policies, laws, regulations and strategies to support its objective of providing basic sanitation access to the urban poor by 2014. The state has yet to attain this objective—ostensibly due to poor municipal execution of national policy. This thesis challenges this assessment, as it overlooks how non-municipal actors have shaped implementation and ignores possible weaknesses in policy. After assessing the delivery of sanitation services in Cape Town informal settlements, I found that disputes among municipal implementers, policy beneficiaries and social advocates about broadly framed policy, as well as policy gaps in servicing informal settlements, contributed to the City’s failure to achieve national objectives. The local actors’ differences and policy gaps necessitated the re-formulation of sanitation policy and programmes in Cape Town according to conflicting rationalities that accommodated the ‘lived’ and ‘practical’ realities of servicing informal settlements. In light of these circumstances, this thesis argues that there is a disproportionate focus on turning national policy into practise—for this viewpoint misses how policy oftentimes is re-formulated according to local actors’ perspectives and experiences. Understanding the complex interplay between policy rationales and implementation realities can contribute to more constructive means of effectively providing sanitation services for South African informal settlements.

Biraja Kabi Satapathy ([email protected]) is with the Population Foundation of India, Odisha as Water and Sanitation Specialist in USAID’s Health of the Urban Poor Programme. This article analyses the water, sanitation and hygiene situation in slum households and compares it with the non-slum urban households using data from the 2011 Census. It argues for a shift from the mere water supply coverage to an emphasis on quality water distribution. Intermittent water supply coupled with poor sanitation contributes to higher health risks. Promoting point-of-use water treatment and basic hygiene practices on safe handling and storage of water are important preventive health interventions. This article advocates for a shift from availability of infrastructure to delivery of service-level outcomes. The share of urban population to the total population of India has increased from 27.81% in 2001 to 31.16% in 2011. This increase has also been accompanied by rapid growth of slums in cities. T...

Concerning the urban technologies necessary for the life and functioning of a city, the ones related to urban sanitation in Lisbon during the 19th century are in need of deeper studies. Although their importance has been recognized for quite some time now, most discussions have turned empty results. Urban sanitation was always an important subject during public health crisis. However, given the network of dependencies it maintained with other urban technologies – such as the ones concerning water supply – problem solving was always a slow process. When talking about urban sanitation in Lisbon, it is inevitable to talk about urban evolution, city growth, and the way other urban technologies were implemented, how Lisbon was influenced by other cities and also how this problem presents itself when seen in a worldwide context.

This is the study of safely managed sanitation in rural areas with case study in Lombok Utara and Manggarai Barat. The study took place in early 2020 to explore the readiness of local government in achieving safely managed sanitation status by 2030, especially the government in Eastern Indonesia

Concerning the urban technologies necessary for the life and functioning of a city, the ones related to urban sanitation in Lisbon during the 19th century are in need of deeper studies. Although their importance has been recognized for quite some time now, most discussions have turned empty results. Urban sanitation was always an important subject during public health crisis. However, given the network of dependencies it maintained with other urban technologies – such as the ones concerning water supply – problem solving was always a slow process. When talking about urban sanitation in Lisbon, it is inevitable to talk about urban evolution, city growth, and the way other urban technologies were implemented, how Lisbon was influenced by other cities and also how this problem presents itself when seen in a worldwide context.

Compiled from annual reports submitted by the states, data on the total current expenditure'S (including expenditures as defined by P.L. 81-874 and P.L. 89-10) for elementary and secondary public-education in the United States for 1972-73 is reported.

Belo Horizonte completou recentemente 120 anos de sua inauguração, sendo a primeira cidade no Brasil em que o ideário republicano se fez presente, associado a um processo de ruptura com o passado colonial, e ao início de um projeto de modernização do país. A hipótese desta dissertação é que a escolha do sistema de saneamento para Belo Horizonte, feita pela Comissão Construtora da Nova Capital - CCNC foi fator determinante para um processo recorrente de canalização e tamponamento dos cursos d’água em meio urbano, hoje quase em sua totalidade suprimidos da paisagem. Assim, a pesquisa se debruçou sobre as disputas teóricas e técnicas acerca da escolha do sistema de saneamento para a Nova Capital mineira. A investigação, entretanto, demostrou que tais disputas se dão num contexto de uma concepção urbana pré-determinada, a tábula rasa, sendo a escolha um dentre os diversos fatores atuantes na consolidação de tal prática. A fim de se estudar as intervenções nos cursos d’água de Belo Horizonte, tomei como estudo de caso o processo de canalização da microbacia hidrográfica do Córrego do Acaba Mundo. Esta microbacia se configura como uma amostra significativa do processo de urbanização de Belo Horizonte compreendendo grande parte das formas de urbanização: tipos de ocupação e usos, intervenções e ações do Estado e, principalmente, o processo de canalização de cursos d’água. Entendendo que a construção de Belo Horizonte se configura como a gênese de um modelo de cidade no Brasil, este trabalho conclui com uma reflexão sobre o papel da gênese ao longo do tempo.

The people of Pahandut Seberang Village have long lived on the Kahayan Riverside area. The characteristics of the settlements in Pahandut Seberang Village are floating houses and pillar houses, most of which are located above the water. The river is used for water transportation, fishing, fulfilling daily needs such as bathing, washing, and as a source of drinking water. The Kahayan River problem is also a place for disposal of waste from human activities such as household waste. Human waste is dumped directly into water bodies because the toilets of the pillar houses on the riverside do not have septic tank facilities. To solve the priority problems of Partners, a solution to assist the manufacture and installation of Repeated Processing Septic tank (RPS) Technology for pillar houses in Pahandut Seberang Village is needed. The goal is to provide sanitation problem solving for settlement in Pahandut Seberang Village through training on the construction and installation of RPS. The methods used qualitatively include: (a) Finding concrete problems and priorities: the existence of a toilet on pillar house without a septic tank; (b) Offering ideas, making RPS to settlement who are located on pillar houses on the riverside; (c) Making activity plans and work procedures, and d) Inviting Partner participation by providing training (creating and installing RPS). A special target has been achieved by giving a pilot RPS to settlement of Pahandut Seberang Village, by facilitating a house on stilts with the RPS. Outputs in the form of RPS goods and products and their specifications.

The article provides analysis of the process of institutionalization of sanitary surveillance in the Russian provincial cities during the last third of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th centuries. Actor-network theory was methodological basis for the research. It allowed to investigate the emergence of various forms of sanitary surveillance as a complex of interaction of social and non-social actors of sanitation. The analysis proved spontaneous establishment of organizations of sanitary surveillance and the lack of unified forms of its organization in Vologda and Novgorod provinces.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the process of the organization of centralized water supply systems in small Russian towns at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century. The causes and the process of pipeline building in three small cities, each of which became signifi cant transport hubs by 1914 and had populations of less than 50,000 people, are described in the research. The research interest in these towns is led by understanding how the transport position of small cities promoted the improvement of water supplies in them. It was essential due to the growth of the urban populations and increasing cases of cholera epidemics in transport-hub cities.

This paper addresses capacity building challenges for urban sanitation, with specific focus on Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM). It places the experience and lessons learnt from the project Sanitation Capacity Building Platform (SCBP) in a systems perspective. The system here is defined as national, state governments, para-state technical agencies, urban local bodies, development partner agencies, academia and researchers. The SCBP, anchored at the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) is an organic and growing collaboration of credible national and international organisations, universities, training centres, resource centres, non-governmental organisations, consultants and experts. A major challenge for building capacity for FSSM is how to improve the knowledge and skills of stakeholders to address an immediate challenge and, how to ensure that the larger context and longer-term priorities are not neglected. The paper addresses the following lessons of capacity building in the FSSM sector: is capacity building more than just training programmes; the challenges of developing training material content; how to ensure integration of theory and practice (field experience and lessons becoming part of the capacity building training); dissemination and adoption of learning at scale and so on. The paper is a critical review of the opportunities, challenges, outcomes of and considerations for the next phase of FSSM capacity building.

During the last years, multi-story buildings (MSBs) have been introduced in Arba Minch and other Ethiopian cities as condominium houses. Constructed at the edge of the city boundaries, they have a standardized design including flush toilets. The water supply scheme in place can hardly cope with the water demand inside the new buildings. Shortage of water causes many problems in bathing, washing and flushing toilets. These unhygienic conditions are inducing toilet blockage, smells in the houses, infection which can lead to a negative effect on health. The more people are moving into these condominium houses, the more these problems arise. The objective of this paper is to study the feasibility of rainwater harvesting (RWH) as additional water supply for MSBs. Two MSBs were selected as a pilot plot in Bekele Mola site. In this case, flashing toilet by rainwater could save 33 m3/month of potable water. That means we can reduce the use of potable water for non-potable-water needs by 42 ...

The public health objective of sanitation is to reduce the risk of negative health outcomes from faecal contamination. For water-based sanitation systems at the household and community scale as practised in Indonesia and perhaps elsewhere, the liquid component of the effluent comprises a significant pathogen hazard. While increasing attention is paid to managing the solid fraction, the hazard in the liquid fraction goes largely unnoticed and unmanaged. This paper proposes the means for a conceptual shift to a focus on the pathogen hazards that matter post-treatment, and where those hazards enter the environment, enabling improved local risk management. Firstly, the paper proposes exponential, rather than arithmetic, representations of pathogen number or concentration, because arithmetic representations of treatment efficacy wrongly suggest low cause for concern. Secondly, the paper introduces and applies the Pathogen Hazard Diagram, a new heuristic applicable at both the local and national scale, that requires only local knowledge and general sanitation reference knowledge to construct, but which can guide policy and action, direct monitoring, and improve the efficacy of sanitation investments.

In Bangladesh, approximately 31% of urban residents are living without safely managed sanitation, the majority of whom are slum residents. To improve the situation, Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA) is implementing the Dhaka Sanitation Improvement Project (DSIP), mostly funded by the World Bank. This study assessed the challenges and opportunities of bringing low-income communities (LICs) under a sewerage connection within the proposed sewerage network plan by 2025. We conducted nine key-informant interviews from DWASA and City Corporation, and 23 focus-group discussions with landlords, tenants, and Community Based Organisations (CBOs) from 16 LICs near the proposed catchment area. To achieve connections, LICs would require improved toilet infrastructures and have to be connected to main roads. Construction of large communal septic tanks is also required where individual toilet connections are difficult. To encourage connection in LICs, income-based or area-based subsidies were recommended. For financing maintenance, respondents suggested monthly fee collection for management of the infrastructure by dividing bills equally among sharing households, or by users per household. Participants also suggested the government's cooperation with development-partners/NGOs to ensure sewerage connection construction, operation, and maintenance and prerequisite policy changes such as assuring land tenure.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the process of the organization of centralized water supply systems in small Russian towns at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century. The causes and the process of pipeline building in three small cities, each of which became significant transport hubs by 1914 and had populations of less than 50,000 people, are described in the research. The research interest in these towns is led by understanding how the transport position of small cities promoted the improvement of water supplies in them. It was essential due to the growth of the urban populations and increasing cases of cholera epidemics in transport-hub cities.