Sprinting

Rumpf, MC, Lockie, RG, Cronin, JB, and Jalilvand, F. Effect of different sprint training methods on sprint performance over various distances: a brief review. J Strength Cond Res 30(6): 1767–1785, 2016—Linear sprinting speed is an essential physical quality for many athletes. There are a number of different training modalities that can be used to improve sprint performance. Strength and conditioning coaches must select the most appropriate modalities for their athletes, taking into consideration the sprint distances that typically occur during competition. The study purpose was to perform a brief review as to the effect of specific (free sprinting; resisted sprinting by sleds, bands, or incline running ; assisted sprinting with a towing device or a downhill slope), nonspecific (resistance and plyometric training), and combined (a combination of specific and nonspecific) training methods on different sprint distances (0–10, 0–20, 0– 30, and 31+ m). A total of 48 studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria, resulting in 1,485 subjects from a range of athletic backgrounds. The training effects associated with specific sprint training were classified as moderate (effect size [ES] = 21.00; %change = 23.23). Generally, the effect of specific sprint training tended to decrease with distance, although the largest training effects were observed for the 31+ m distance. The greatest training effects (ES = 20.43; %change = 21.65) of nonspecific training were observed for the 31+ m distance. The combined training revealed greatest effects (ES = 20.59; %change = 22.81) for the 0–10 m distance. After this review, specific sprint training methods seem the most beneficial over the investigated distances. However, the implementation of nonspecific training methods (e.g., strength and power training) could also benefit speed and athletic performance.

The ability to complete high-intensity running is essential for soccer. The Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 2 (YYIRT2) can measure this capacity, but there is limited information regarding this assessment in collegiate female soccer players. This study investigated the YYIRT2 as a measure of high-intensity running in this population, and its relationship to other soccer field tests. Twenty-one players from a Division I team were recruited. In addition to the YYIRT2, subjects completed linear (0-5, 0-10, 0-30 m sprint intervals) and change-of-direction (pro-agility and 60-yard shuttle) speed tests, as well as the YYIRT Level 1 (YYIRT1), to assess relationships with YYIRT2 via correlations (p < 0.05). The correlation of YYIRT1 with the speed tests was also assessed. YYIRT1 and YYIRT2 were standardized via z-scores for comparison to elite benchmarks to investigate relative performance on each test. YYIRT2 and YYIRT1 distance did not significantly correlate with the speed tests (r = -0.251-0.274). There was a large relationship between YYIRT2 and YYIRT1 distance (r = 0.582), although the explained variance was low (33.87%). Mean YYIRT2 z-scores (-4.29 ± 1.66) indicated a performance further from elite benchmarks than the YYIRT1 (-1.92 ± 1.61), and 90.5% (19 of 21) subjects performed relatively better in the YYIRT1 than YYIRT2. The YYIRT2 provided a more specific measure of high-intensity running to that of the YYIRT1 in collegiate female soccer players. Coaches may consider using the YYIRT2 to gauge and track progress of high-intensity running capabilities, and create training programs to improve this ability in female players.

This study investigated relationships between 10 m sprint acceleration, step kinematics (step length and
frequency, contact and flight time), and leg muscle performance (power, stiffness, strength). Twenty-eight field sport
athletes completed 10 m sprints that were timed and filmed. Velocity and step kinematics were measured for the 0-5, 5-
10, and 0-10 m intervals to assess acceleration. Leg power was measured via countermovement jumps (CMJ), a fivebound
test (5BT), and the reactive strength index (RSI) defined by 40 cm drop jumps. Leg stiffness was measured by
bilateral and unilateral hopping. A three-repetition maximum squat determined strength. Pearson’s correlations and
stepwise regression (p ≤ 0.05) determined velocity, step kinematics, and leg muscle performance relationships. CMJ
height correlated with and predicted velocity in all intervals (r = 0.40-0.54). The 5BT (5-10 and 0-10 m intervals) and
RSI (5-10 m interval) also related to velocity (r = 0.37-0.47). Leg stiffness did not correlate with acceleration
kinematics. Greater leg strength related to and predicted lower 0-5 m flight times (r = -0.46 to -0.51), and a longer 0-10
m step length (r = 0.38). Although results supported research emphasizing the value of leg power and strength for
acceleration, the correlations and predictive relationships (r2 = 0.14-0.29) tended to be low, which highlights the
complex interaction between sprint technique and leg muscle performance. Nonetheless, given the established
relationships between speed, leg power and strength, strength and conditioning coaches should ensure these qualities
are expressed during acceleration in field sport athletes.

This article investigates the current literature regarding post-activation potentiation (PAP) effects on linear and change-of-direction (COD) speed. The mechanisms behind PAP will be briefly described, as well as those factors that must be taken into consideration by the coach when they wish to implement a program that could invoke PAP. Linear and COD speed will be defined such that the coach knows what parameter they are training. Lastly, a review and meta-analysis of available literature regarding PAP and linear and COD speed will be conducted and discussed. Practical applications and conclusions from the analysis will be provided for the coach.

BACKGROUND: Bilateral strength exercises may not provide a movement-specific stimulus to achieve post-activation potentiation (PAP) for sprinting. The walking lunge (WL) could provide this, due to its unilateral action similar to the running gait. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the WL potentiated 20-m sprint performance. METHOD: Nine strength-trained individuals (six men, three women) completed a five-repetition maximum (5RM) WL in one session, and two PAP sessions (control condition [CC] of 4 minutes rest and 5RM WL). Subjects were assessed in baseline 20-m (0-5, 0-10, 0-20 m intervals) sprints, and sprints ~15 s, 2, 4, 8, 12, and 16 min post-PAP intervention. A repeated measures ANOVA (p < 0.05) calculated significant changes in sprint times. The best potentiated time for each interval was compared to the baseline to individualize subject recovery times. Effect sizes (d) were derived for magnitude-based inference comparisons between the baseline and all sprints. Sprint potentiation and strength measured by the WL were also correlated (p < 0.05). RESULTS: There were no significant interactions between the PAP conditions and any time point (p = 0.346-0.898). Magnitude based-inference showed a trivial 0.72% decrease in 0-5 m time 4 min after the 5RM WL. There was a moderate potentiation effect following the 5RM WL for the 0-5 m interval best time (d = 0.34). Only one significant correlation out of 42 suggested greater strength potentiated sprinting. CONCLUSION: The 5RM WL did not significantly potentiate sprint speed. The WL requires stability and control which could limit the applied load and resulting potentiation.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to examine the effect of active versus passive recovery on 6 repeated Wingate tests (30-s all-out cycling sprints on a Velotron ergometer). Method: Fifteen healthy participants aged 29 (SD ¼ 8) years old (body mass index ¼ 23 [3] kg/m 2 ) participated in 3 sprint interval training sessions separated by 3 to 7 days between each session during a period of 1 month. The 1st visit was familiarization to 6 cycling sprints; the 2nd and 3rd visits involved a warm-up followed by 6 30-s cycling sprints. Each sprint was followed by 4 min of passive (resting still on the ergometer) or active recovery (pedaling at 1.1 W/kg). The same recovery was used within each visit, and recovery type was randomized between visits. Results: Active recovery resulted in a 0.6 W/kg lower peak power output in the second sprint (95% confidence interval [CI] [2 0.2, 2 0.8 W/kg], effect size ¼ 0.50, p , .01) and a 0.4 W/ kg greater average power output in the 5th and 6th sprints (95% CI [þ0.2, þ 0.6 W/kg], effect size ¼ 0.50, p , .01) compared with passive recovery. There was little difference between fatigue index, total work, or accumulated work between the 2 recovery conditions. Conclusions: Passive recovery is beneficial when only 2 sprints are completed, whereas active recovery better maintains average power output compared with passive recovery when several sprints are performed sequentially (partial eta squared between conditions for multiple sprints ¼ .38).

Leg power is an important characteristic for soccer, and jump tests can measure this capacity. Limited research has analyzed relationships between jumping and soccer-specific field test performance in collegiate male players. Nineteen Division I players completed tests of: leg power (vertical jump (VJ), standing broad jump (SBJ), left-and right-leg triple hop (TH)); linear (30 m sprint; 0–5 m, 5–10 m, 0–10, 0–30 m intervals) and change-of-direction (505) speed; soccer-specific fitness (Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 2); and 7 × 30-m sprints to measure repeated-sprint ability (RSA; total time (TT), performance decrement (PD)). Pearson's correlations (r) determined jump and field test relationships; stepwise regression ascertained jump predictors of the tests (p < 0.05). All jumps correlated with the 0–5, 0–10, and 0–30 m sprint intervals (r = −0.65–−0.90). VJ, SBJ, and left-and right-leg TH correlated with RSA TT (r = −0.51–−0.59). Right-leg TH predicted the 0–5 and 0–10 m intervals (R 2 = 0.55–0.81); the VJ predicted the 0–30 m interval and RSA TT (R 2 = 0.41–0.84). Between-leg TH asymmetry correlated with and predicted left-leg 505 and RSA PD (r = −0.68–0.62; R 2 = 0.39–0.46). Improvements in jumping ability could contribute to faster speed and RSA performance in collegiate soccer players.

T his study provided a case analysis of the effects of plyometrics on post-activation potentiation (PAP) of 20-m (0-5, 0-10, 0-20 m intervals) sprint performance in strength-trained females. Three college-aged participants performed a one-repetition maximum (1RM) squat, which was used to set the load for a jump squat with 30% 1RM (JS30). Over three sessions , participants performed three PAP protocols: a control condition of 4 min rest (CC); 3 sets x 5 repetitions of the JS30; and 3 sets x 10 repetitions of the alternate leg bound (ALB). Peak and mean power were recorded during the JS30. Participants performed two baseline sprints prior to each condition, and then six sprints from immediately after for 16 min post. Results indicated that the JS30 and ALB could potentiate sprinting, although responses were highly individual. The two more powerful participants experienced more sprint enhancements across more time points than the less powerful participant. Any performance changes were in the range of 1-4%, which is typical of PAP research. It cannot, however, be confirmed whether the JS30 and ALB were superior to the CC. Nonetheless, the data suggest the JS30 and ALB could potentiate sprinting in females. Further research is needed to confirm these findings.

The 100 ms ruling for false start disqualification at athletic competitions governed by the International Association of Athletics Federations has been in force since the early 1990s. Throughout this period, there have been marked changes to the rules that govern the disqualification of athletes from sprint events incorporating starts from blocks. This study analysed all available World and European Championship response-time (RT) data from 1999 to 2014 to examine effects of rule changes on competition RT at major championships. The exponentially modified Gaussian distribution was used to model RT and make comparisons relative to athletes’ sex, ruling periods and competition rounds. Revised RT thresholds of 115 ms and 119 ms were identified for men and women, respectively, indicating that the current 100 ms rule could result in some false starts not being detected in competitive athletics. The study proposes that when using existing International Association of Athletics Federations approved systems, the false start detection threshold should be increased and that men and women athletes should have different thresholds because of substantial evidence of a sex-based difference in RT in elite-standard athletes.

Sprint time (ST) is the product of stride length (SL) and stride frequency (SF). Increases in either of these variables results in speed improvement. Purpose:  To compare resisted (RST) and assisted sprint training (AST) on sprint performance. Methods:  Twenty (10 male, 10 female) collegiate sprinters and hurdlers were randomly divided into two training groups: RST (age: 21.81.8yrs, height: 1.730.10m, mass: 69.512.8kg) and AST (age: 22.22.4yrs, height: 1.760.10m, mass: 69.19.9kg). Each group trained 3 days/week for 6 weeks. The RST group used a combination of weighted sled pulls, uphill sprinting and depth jumps. The AST group combined downhill running, towing, sprint ladders and single leg bounds. Prior to and following the training interventions SL and ST (10 meter sprint time) were recorded at sprint distances of 30m, 60m, and 120m during the last 10 meters of each sprint distance. Pre-post training ST and SL were compared within training groups at each sprint distance using paired t-tests. Additionally, a gain score was calculated by taking the difference between the post and pre test scores. The gain scores for SL and ST were compared between training groups via independent t-tests at each sprint distance. Results: For the RST 30m, ST (1.180.08s vs 1.140.08s, p<0.01) and SL (2.060.08m vs. 2.091.14m, p<0.01) were significantly improved. For the AST, 30m ST (1.190.08s vs. 1.180.08s, p<0.01) and SL (2.100.13m vs. 2.110.13, p=0.04) were significantly improved. No improvements in ST or SL were detected for either the RST or AST groups at the 60m sprint distance. For the RST 120m, ST (1.130.07s vs. 1.120.08s, p<0.01) was significantly improved. For the AST 120m, ST (1.120.07s vs. 1.110.07s, p<0.01) and SL (2.300.08 vs. 2.330.08, p<0.01) were significantly improved. At the 30M interval, the RST demonstrated significant improvements in SL and ST as compared to the AST (p<0.01). However, at the 120M interval, the AST demonstrated a significant improvement in SL as compared to the RST (p<0.01). Conclusion: Within the parameters of this study, RST and AST methods have proven effective at improving sprint performance. It appears that RST protocols may be of greatest benefit for improving sprint performance at shorter distances, while AST protocols may be of greater benefit at longer sprinting distances.

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Creatine (Cr) is a naturally occurring amino acid-like compound provided by the diet and synthesized in the body mainly in the liver and kidney . Cr is then transported to tissues by a membrane creatine transporter (SLC6A8) . In humans, over 95% of the body Cr content is stored in skeletal muscle, where Cr or more specifically phosphocreatine (PCr) plays a major role in a muscle's ability to perform and maintain short duration, high intensity exercise [2].

Haddad, M, Dridi, A, Chtara, M, Chaouachi, A, Wong, DP, Behm, D, and Chamari, K. Static stretching can impair explosive performance for at least 24 hours. J Strength Cond Res 28(1): 140-146, 2014-The aim of this study was to compare the effects of static vs. dynamic stretching (DS) on explosive performances and repeated sprint ability (RSA) after a 24-hour delay. Sixteen young male soccer players performed 15 minutes of static stretching (SS), DS, or a no-stretch control condition (CC) 24 hours before performing explosive performances and RSA tests. This was a within-subject repeated measures study with SS, DS, and CC being counterbalanced. Stretching protocols included 2 sets of 7 minutes 30 seconds (2 repetitions of 30 seconds with a 15-second passive recovery) for 5 muscle groups (quadriceps, hamstring, calves, adductors, and hip flexors). Twenty-four hours later (without any kind of stretching in warm-up), the players were tested for the 30-m sprint test (with 10-and 20-m lap times), 5 jump test (5JT), and RSA test. Significant differences were observed between CC, SS, and DS with 5JT (F = 9.99, p , 0.00, effect size [ES] = 0.40), 10-m sprint time (F = 46.52, p , 0.00, ES = 0.76), 20-m sprint time (F = 18.44, p , 0.000, ES = 0.55), and 30-m sprint time (F = 34.25, p , 0.000, ES = 0.70).

Dynamic stability is said to contribute to multidirectional (linear and change-of-direction) speed, although little research confirms this. This study analyzed the relationship between dynamic stability as measured by lower-limb functional reaching in six directions (anterolateral, lateral, posterolateral, posteromedial, medial, anteromedial) within a modified Star Excursion Balance Test, and multidirectional speed (40-meter [m] sprint: 0-10, 0-20, 0-40 m intervals; T-test; Change-of-Direction and Acceleration Test [CODAT]). Sixteen male field sport athletes (age = 23.31  5.34 years; height = 1.78  0.07 m; mass = 80.60  9.89 kilograms) completed testing. A one-way analysis of variance determined significant (p < 0.05) differences in excursions between faster and slower subjects. All data was pooled for a Spearman’s correlation analysis (p < 0.05). Faster subjects had greater left-leg medial reach (76.24  5.33% vs. 65.94  10.75%), right-leg posteromedial reach (85.20  8.07% vs. 73.59  12.64%), and a smaller between-leg difference in lateral reach (2.26  1.85% vs. 6.46  4.29%). Longer reach distances (greater dynamic stability), correlated with faster speed test times ( = -0.499--0.664). Dynamic stability relationships were pronounced for the change-of-direction speed tests. For example, smaller between-leg excursion differences in anterolateral, lateral, posterolateral, and posteromedial reaches related to faster T-test and CODAT times ( = 0.502-0.804). There is a relationship between dynamic stability as measured by functional reaching and multidirectional speed in field sport athletes, possibly due to similarities in movement demands and muscle recruitment. Dynamic stability training could strengthen muscles for multidirectional sprinting, and develop functional joint motion.