Soil Salinity

The Orinoco Delta is one of the world's last great river deltas with pristine ecosystems. But it is also an important oil and gas reservoir area. Currently, little scientific and factual knowledge is available to assess the effect of oil exploitation activities. Understanding vegetation and soils relationships is fundamental to delineate conservation strategies to maintain species richness, essential ecological processes and life support systems. To meet these needs, our research objectives were to characterize soil conditions supporting different vegetation units of the Lower Orinoco Plain and to relate soil characteristics with vegetation assemblages. For these purposes, surface and bottom soil samples were taken in 227 sites, which were distributed proportionally to each vegetation unit coverage. Samples were analysed for salinity, chlorides, carbonates, pH, organic carbon, exchangeable acidity, aluminium, hydrogen, calcium, potassium and sodium. Average thickness of the surface organic layer was 2.32 m, reaching 6 m in some places. Organic carbon content did not differ significantly among soils from different vegetation units. Lowest surface pH values were found in forests and meadows (< 4.5). Bottom pH was less variable and almost neutral. The highest salinity values were found in mangrove soils (1.80‰ ± 0.12), the lowest in palm forests (0.06‰ ± 0.02). Main differences among soil samples were related with cation exchange capacity (68.3 meq/100g ± 81.5), percent base saturation (91.9% ± 11.0), and acidity (2.30 meq/100g ± 3.46). Our results indicated that content of salts and cations and soil acidification were the main factors in determining vegetation arrangements.

Egamberdieva D.
Department of Biotechnology, National University of Uzbekistan, Vuzgorodok, Tashkent, 100174, Uzbekistan, e-mail: [email protected]

The action of phytohormone producing bacteria and plant growth regulators on germination and seedling growth of wheat under saline conditions were studied. Seed dormancy enforced by salinity (100 mM NaCl) was substantially alleviated and the germination was promoted by gibberelin, auxin, zeatin and ethephon from 54 to 97%. The IAA producing bacterial strains Pseudomonas aureantiaca TSAU22, Pseudomonas extremorientalis TSAU6 and Pseudomonas extremorientalis TSAU20 significantly increased seedling root growth up to 25% in non salinated conditions and up to 52% at 100mM NaCl, compared to control plants. It is concluded that growth regulators considerably alleviated salinity-induced dormancy of wheat seeds. The facts mentioned above make it possible to recommend root colonizing bacteria that produce phytohormone to alleviate salt stress of wheat grown under conditions of soil salinity.

Research was conducted to determine the effect of salinity on Rhizobium and growth of dry bean. A commercial cultivar (Akman 98) of dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) was inoculated with Rhizobium tropici strain CIAT899 and native Rhizobium in solution culture with different salt concentrations (control, 5, 10, 20 and 40 mmol À1) added before inoculation. The results indicated that population of R. tropici strain CIAT899 and natural Rhizobium were decreased with salinity levels. However, the population count train CIAT899 was inversely proportional to salt concentration with high growth (8.0e9.0 Â 10 5 cfu ml À1) at lower concentrations of control e 5 mmol À1 and low growth (4.0e6.0 Â 10 5 cfu ml À1) at higher salt concentrations of 20 mmol À1. The plant root and shoot dry weight, chlorophyll content, plant height, root length, total nitrogen, symbiotic efficient and efficient rate were affected by salt stress in tested plant and both inoculations. Total nitrogen content decreased significantly at the highest level of salinity. It is important to decrease the soil salinity and to improve the yield of dry bean (P. vulgaris L.) as well as the Rhizobium sp. associated with it.

A hydroponic experiment was conducted to assess the possible involvement of polyamines (PAs), abscisic acid (ABA) and anti-oxidative enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) in adaptation of six populations of Panicum antidotale Retz. to selection pressure (soil salinity) of a wide range of habitats. Plants of six populations were collected from six different habitats with ECe ranging from 3.39 to 19.23 dS m−1 and pH from 7.65 to 5.86. Young tillers from 6-month-old plants were transplanted in plastic containers each containing 10 l of half strength Hoagland's nutrient solution alone or with 150 mol m−3 NaCl. After 42 days growth, contents of polyamines (Put, Spd and Spm) and ABA, and the activities of anti-oxidative enzymes (SOD, POD and CAT) of all populations generally increased under salt stress. The populations collected from highly saline habitats showed a greater accumulation of polyamines and ABA and the activities of anti-oxidative enzymes as compared to those from mild or non-saline habitats. Moreover, Spm/Spd and Put/(Spd + Spm) ratios generally increased under salt stress. However, the populations from highly saline environments had significantly higher Spm/Spd and Put/(Spd + Spm) ratios as compared to those from mild or non-saline environments. Similarly, the populations adapted to high salinity accumulated less Na+ and Cl− in culm and leaves, and showed less decrease in leaf K+ and Ca2+ under salinity stress. Higher activities of anti-oxidative enzymes and accumulation of polyamines and ABA, and increased Spm/Spd and Put/(Spm + Spd) ratios were found to be highly correlated with the degree of adaptability of Panicum to saline environment.

The purpose of this article is to analyze the changes in salinity of arable soils in the north of Crimea peninsula from 2013 to 2019 using Landsat 8 OLI satellite data in order to obtain additional and objective information about the modern state of soil secondary salinization processes. Comparison of the satellite data of 2013 and 2019 showed that in the area of the North-Crimean Canal there is both a slight expansion of the areas of saline soils and their reduction. The expansion of areas is observed mainly in the coastal zones of lakes and estuaries, and the reduction of areas in the fields, irrigation of which in the analyzed period did not stop. Both expansion and reduction of areas with saline soils did not exceed 10% of the study area. There is no evidence that the expansion of areas of saline soils during the analyzed period was due to the cessation of water supply to the North-Crimean canal.

Soil salinity and Waterlogging conditions are the major threats to the sustainability of irrigated agriculture lands in Egypt. About 40% of the cultivated area is affected to some extent by waterlogging and soil salinity as solely elements or together. A sample of 26 pilot areas were selected to evaluate the individual or combined effect of waterlogging and soil salinity on cotton, wheat, sunflower and rice yields. The crop yields were measured separately for waterlogged fields and those affected with salinity and waterlogging simultaneously. The extent of yield loss as result of a rise in the water table from >1.5 m to less than 1 m was 27 and 33% for wheat and sunflower crops, respectively. Whereas, it was 7 and 6% in the case of a drop of the water table to more than 1.5 m. As for cotton, a rising water table above1.5 m to 1-1.5 m and less than 1 m gave a yield decrease of about 11 and 60% respectively. The rice crop preferred waterlogging, and in contrast to other crops, gave about 7% less yield with a lowering of the water table from less than 1 m to 1-1.5 m. The wheat and sunflower yields had decreasing trends with salinity excess 4 dS m !1 and had complete failures with salinity greater than 12 dS m !1 at water table depths less than 1, 1-1.5 and more than 1.5 m. The cotton crop demonstrated a relatively higher salinity tolerance under a water table deeper than 1 m. However, this crop could not survive at salinity levels excess 12 dS m !1 at water table depth of less than 1 m. The rice crop was a complete failure at salinity level of greater than 12 dS m !1 under water table depths less than 1 and 1-1.5 m. The combined effect of waterlogging and salinity was more harmful to crop yields when compared with the individual effect of waterlogging. The combined analysis of waterlogging and salinity on crop yields gave a good sensitivity for the salinity-yield relationships and verified the magnitudes of subsurface drainage.

Allotetraploid (2n = 4x = 32) white clover (Trifolium repens L.) is the most commonly cultivated legume component of temperate pastures, sown in swards with a companion grass species. Genetic control of growth performance of white clover on saline land is highly important for dairy industries, due to increasing soil salinity problems. The objective of this study was to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for salinity tolerance in terms of vegetative growth under stress. Two parental genetic maps consisting of 213 and 159 marker loci and spanning 1,973.0 and 1,837.6 cM, respectively, were constructed using simple sequence repeat (SSR) and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers from a two-way pseudo-test cross F 1 population derived from pair-crossing of the Haifa 2 and LCL 2 genotypes. A total of 8 unique genomic regions on 8 linkage groups (LGs) of the Haifa 2 parental map and 6 unique regions on 5 LGs in the LCL 2 parental map were associated with plant growth under salt stress and relative growth under stress, as compared to control conditions. The results of this study indicate that salt tolerance in white clover is controlled by multiple QTLs, some at common locations, but each of limited magnitude. Location of these QTLs provides the genetic basis and potential for pyramiding of salt tolerance genes in breeding improvement. Communicated by R. Varshney.

Broadbeans were grown on clay in tanks and irrigated with water of three different levels of salinity. During the experiment, soil salinity, determined from the salt balance and soil water samples, showed a gradual increase. The water stress of the broadbeans was determined by measuring the predawn leaf water potential, the stomatal conductance and the differences in radiation temperature between the treatments. Growth was measured as leaf area and dry-matter production and, finally, the yield and its components were determined. The three water stress parameters and the two growth parameters showed good coherence, with all parameters indicating systematic differences between the saline treatments and the control. At increasing salinity water potential of the leaf and the stomatal conductance decreased, the difference in radiation temperature increased, and the leaf area, dry matter production and yield were reduced.

Although several studies have assessed Land Degradation (LD) states in the Mediterranean basin through the use of composite indices, relatively few have evaluated the impact of specific LD drivers at the local scale. In this work, a computational strategy is introduced to define homogeneous areas at risk and the main factors acting as determinants of LD. The procedure consists of three steps and is applied to a set of ten environmental indicators available at the municipality scale in Latium, central Italy. A principal component analysis extracting latent patterns and simplifying data complexity was carried out on the original data matrix. Subsequently, a k-means cluster analysis was applied on a restricted number of meaningful, latent factors extracted by PCA in order to produce a classification of the study area into homogeneous regions. Finally, a stepwise discriminant analysis was performed to determine which indicators contributed the most to the definition of homogeneous regions. Three classes of ''risky'' regions were identified according to the main drivers of LD acting at the local scale. These include: (i) soil sealing (coupled with landscape fragmentation, fire risk, and related processes), (ii) soil salinization due to agricultural intensification, and (iii) soil erosion due to farmland depopulation and land abandonment in sloping areas. Areas at risk for LD covered 56 and 63% of the investigated areas in 1970 and 2000, respectively.

Rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium sp.) is a highly valued aromatic crop. Its growth is limited by soil salinity and sodicity stress. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB), and P fertilizers may enhance the growth and secondary metabolism in geranium plants. In this context, a pot experiment was conducted to study the effects of PSB, AM fungi (Glomus intraradices), and P fertilizer on the yield, chemical composition of essential oil, and mineral element acquisition of geranium. The dry matter yield of shoot and essential oil yield, and mineral element (P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Cu, and Zn) uptake in shoot tissues of geranium were significantly increased by the inoculation with AM fungi, co-inoculation with AM fungi and PSB, and P fertilization as compared to control. While the co-inoculation of geranium with AM fungi and PSB significantly enhanced the content of the monoterpenes such as citronellol, geraniol, geranial, and a sesquiterpene (10-epi-γ eudesmol), the P fertilization only enhanced the content of a sesquiterpene, 10-epi-γ eudesmol in the volatile oil. We conclude that the co-inoculation of PSB and AM fungi could be the best natural alternative to phosphate fertilizers to enhance the yield and quality of essential oil from geranium plants grown in sodic soils.

In the arid zone of central Turkana, north-western Kenya, where soil salinity affects 15-20% of the rangelands, growth performances of trees planted in saline soil rehabilitation trials have not been evaluated. Tree-planting trials have emphasised exotic species over indigenous ones. However, advantages and disadvantages of promoting exotic tree species have not been examined. The current study was aimed at evaluating growth performance of seven exotic and nine indigenous tree species used in saline soil rehabilitation trials. The tree species were established from 6-month-old saplings using microcatchments (FT1) from 1988 through 1990 and pitting treatment (FT2) from 1989 through 1992. The soils in FT1 and FT2 treatments were moderately to highly saline. The exotic tree species produced greater cover and volume during the first year (FT1) but by the second year, production was not sustained due to greater mortality (FT1 & FT2). The indigenous species in general had higher survival rates. Relative growth rates (RGR) of exotic and indigenous species did not differ (FT1 & FT2). Tree mortality was negatively correlated with RGR for exotic species in FT1 but not for indigenous ones. However, changes in plant performance were not in response to salinity alone. Rather, water scarcity superimposed on soil salinity might have influenced plant growth performance. Greater water and salinity stress and subsequently greater mortality in exotic species provided a more convincing reason for promotion of indigenous tree species. In the future, knowledge of salinity distribution and selection of indigenous species to match this will be a better way of rehabilitating sites affected by soil salinity in the arid zone of central Turkana, north-western Kenya.

Ground water table (g.w.t.) levels were measured twice a month for 2 years in 50 observation wells installed inside and outside the two 18-year-old and 350 m apart plantations of Eucalyptus tereticornis (Mysure gum) at Dhob-Bhali research plot located in Rohtak district of Haryana state (north-west India). Throughout the study, the g.w.t. underneath the plantations remained lower than the g.w.t. in the adjacent fields. The average g.w.t. in the plantations was 4.95 m and the average g.w.t. in the control located in adjacent fields was 4.04 m. Interestingly, the spatial extent of lowering of g.w.t. in the adjacent fields was up to a distance of more than 730 m from the edge of a plantation. Drawdown in the g.w.t. developed due to the effect of a plantation was similar to the cone of depression of a pumping well and the drawdown in the g.w.t. developed due to the joint effect of both the plantations was similar to the combined cone of depression of two pumping wells. There was no correlation between soil salinity and the g.w.t. The fluctuations in g.w.t. caused fluctuations in g.w.t. salinity in the plantation as well as in the adjacent fields, but there was no net increase in g.w.t. salinity underneath the plantation. Sinker roots of Eucalyptus tree reached the zone of capillary fringe up to a depth of 4.40 m, indicating that the Eucalyptus trees were absorbing capillary water of the g.w.t. Thus, in shallow g.w.t. areas of semi-arid regions with alluvial sandy loam soils, the plantations of E. tereticornis act as bio-pumps and therefore, we recommend closely spaced parallel strip plantations of this species for the reclamation of waterlogged areas.

The challenge faces the world in the coming decades is to provide an adequate food supply for increasing populations. The food supply should be granted to 6 billion inhabitants on 2000 and excepted 8 billion people in 2025. Food supply shortages occurs in arid and semi-arid zones where a land degradation and desertification are the main obstacles facing sustainable agriculture. Soil Salinisation is one of the most common land degradation processes in arid and semi-arid regions, where evaporation exceed over precipitation. Under such climatic conditions, soluble salts are accumulated in the soil, influencing soil properties and environment with ultimate decline in soil productivity. Therefore, mapping of saline areas is essential for understanding resource for sustainable soil uses and management. This paper presents a model to map soil salinity using Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS).

Soils in semi-arid Mediterranean areas are generally characterized by low organic matter content and are subjected to progressive degradation and deterioration of workability. Because de-oiled two-phase olive mill waste (DW) contains an important level of organic matter content, its recycling as organic amendment or fertilizer may be an alternative for its disposal that also improves soil quality and productivity. A ten-year field study was conducted to evaluate the long-term sustainability of raw deoiled two-phase olive mill waste (DW) disposal as a soil amendment on an olive grove in Elvas, Portugal. The soil was amended with DW at rates of 0, 27, and 54 Mg ha À1 , dry weight equivalent, for eight years, with cumulative and residual effects being assessed in the last year and two years after the last application. The DW amendments significantly increased the olive yield only in the residual year at the 27 Mg ha À1 application rate. Long-term applications of DW to soil led to positive cumulative and residual effects on the soil's chemical (total organic carbon and its humified fractions, total N, available P, and K), properties. Simultaneously, dehydrogenase, urease, b-glucosidase, alkaline phosphatase, and arylsulfatase activities increased even at the higher DW application rates. Electrical conductivity rose significantly with DW application, especially in the residual year, ranging from 0.513 dS m À1 for the unamended soil to 1.89 dS m À1 at the 54 Mg ha À1 application rate. The addition of raw DW to an olive grove may be considered to be a good strategy for recycling this waste, converting it into a resource that could be used for a long time as organic amendment without negatively affecting yield, while improving many soil properties. However, the greatest concern regarding the long-term use of DW is the risk of soil salinity, especially if application rates are greater than 27 Mg ha À1 .

Two phases of a precision farming project are described. Phase I consists of the collection of data from four test fields across Alberta using differential GPS (DGPS I combined with crop yield monitors and electromagnetic f EM) ground conductivity meters for measuring salinity. A geographic information system (GIS) is used to analyze and combine various layers of information obtained from each field in order to analyze yield variation. Positions better than 50 cm horizontally and 1 m vertically are obtained in DGPS mode using a robust carrier-phase smoothing of the code approach. The accuracy of the DGPS positions is verified independently through a crossover point analysis and a comparison with an ambiguity resolution on the fly t OTF) solution. DGPS positions are used to generate maps, which indicate that fields are not homogeneous in crop yield when they have been treated wlthout consideration for variability of soil, salinity, topography, or field history. Phase II, which consists of the application of variable-rate fertilizer based on the information gathered in Phase I, is summarized.

Desalination plants are being used increasingly in inland areas of many countries for supplying water for domestic purposes. If these areas are too far away from the sea, the opportunity to dispose the reject brine (also known as concentrate, reject water, or wastewater) in the ocean no longer exists, given that ocean disposal is the common practice for plants located in coastal areas. Evaporation ponds are especially suitable to dispose of reject brine from inland desalination plants in add and semi-arid areas due to the abundance of solar energy. In irrigation projects facing a soil salinity problem due to a shallow saline groundwater table, evaporation ponds are also in use. Saline water tables are lowered by pumping or tile draining and the drainage water is stored in evaporation ponds. While evaporation ponds have long been used for salt production in many parts of the world, the disposal of concentrate from desalination plants in inland areas using evaporation ponds is of much significance both economically and environmentally. Guidelines are needed for the design, construction, maintenance, and operation of evaporation ponds for reject brine disposal in an economical and environmentally-sensitive manner. This paper provides a critical review of concentrate disposal technology using evaporation ponds. Relevant topics are also covered including chemistry of brine, brine disposal methods, use of evaporation ponds in agriculture, determination of evaporation rate, and evaporation enhancement methods.

Reforestation is an important tool for reducing or reversing biodiversity loss and mitigating climate change. However, there are many potential compromises between the structural (biodiversity) and functional (carbon sequestration and water yield) effects of reforestation, which can be affected by decisions on spatial design and establishment of plantings. We systematically review the environmental responses to reforestation and show that manipulating the configuration of plantings (location, size, species mix and tree density) increases a range of environmental benefits. More extensive tree plantings (> 10 ha) provide more habitat, and larger improvements to carbon and water cycling. Planting a mixture of native trees and shrubs is best for biodiversity while traditional plantation species, generally non-native species, sequester C faster. Tree density can be manipulated at planting or during early development to accelerate structural maturity and to manage water yields. A diversity of habitats will be created by planting in a variety of landscape positions and imitating the patchy distribution of forest types, which historically has characterized many regions. Areas with shallow aquifers can be planted to reduce water pollution or avoided to maintain water yields. Reforestation should be used to build forest networks that are surrounded by low-intensity land use and that provide links within regions and between biomes. While there are adequate models for C sequestration and changes in water yields after reforestation, the quantitative understanding of changes in habitat resources and species composition is more limited. Development of spatial and temporal modelling platforms based on empirical models of structural and functional outcomes of reforestation is essential for deciding on how to reconfigure agricultural regions. To build such platforms, we must quantify: (a) the influence of previous land uses, establishment methods, species mixes and interactions with adjacent land uses on environmental (particularly biodiversity) outcomes of reforestation; and (b) the ways in which responses measured at the level of individual plantings scale up to watersheds and regions. Models based on this information will help widespread reforestation for carbon sequestration improve native biodiversity, nutrient cycling and water balance at regional scales.

Soil salinisation is very often due to excessive irrigation. However, irrigation is absolutely essential for obtaining reliable crop yields, particularly under predicted global warming conditions. A simple methodology for assessing the salinisation risk for any water management situation and under predicted global warming conditions is presented. The methodology is illustrated by the assessment of irrigation effects on soil salinity at San Antonio del Sur Valley, in the southeast of Cuba. Irrigation from a new dam will support agriculture in the Valley, but at the same time soil salinity is expected to increase. Soil electrical conductivity at several depths and topographical altitudes were used to create raster layers in a Geographic Information System (GIS), thus, determining the border of the saline-affected zones by a GIS analysis. Water-table depth at the border of the saline zones was assumed to be 2 m. The physically based SWAP model was used to predict future water-table depths after irrigation begins and under global warming conditions. Future temperature and precipitation daily values were calculated from a linear increase/decrease of the daily values corresponding to a typical year, according to a global-change forecast for the zone. Soil hydraulic properties were estimated from pedotransfer function and published soil data. Simulated results predict a fast water-table raise of 1 m, due to the increase of irrigation water. Borders of the new saline zones under these conditions (i.e. the places where the water-table is at a 2 m depth) were calculated using a digital terrain model, assuming that the water-table rose 1 m over the whole valley. According to the simulation results, the original saline zones of the valley will be enlarged from 31.4 to 96.8 ha 15 years after the scheduled start of irrigation. The methodology could be used by farmers and decision-makers to select the most suitable water management solution considering both economical and environmental criteria. # .cu (A. Utset).

Soil salinity caused by natural or human-induced processes is a major environmental hazard. The global extent of primary salt-affected soils is about 955 M ha, while secondary salinization affects some 77 M ha, with 58% of these in irrigated areas. Nearly 20% of all irrigated land is salt-affected, and this proportion tends to increase in spite of considerable efforts dedicated to land reclamation. This requires careful monitoring of the soil salinity status and variation to curb degradation trends, and secure sustainable land use and management. Multitemporal optical and microwave remote sensing can significantly contribute to detecting temporal changes of salt-related surface features. Airborne geophysics and ground-based electromagnetic induction meters, combined with ground data, have shown potential for mapping depth of salinity occurrence. This paper reviews various sensors (e.g. aerial photographs, satellite-and airborne multispectral sensors, microwave sensors, video imagery, airborne geophysics, hyperspectral sensors, and electromagnetic induction meters) and approaches used for remote identification and mapping of salt-affected areas. Constraints on the use of remote sensing data for mapping saltaffected areas are shown related to the spectral behaviour of salt types, spatial distribution of salts on the terrain surface, temporal changes on salinity, interference of vegetation, and spectral confusions with other terrain surfaces.

The environmental stress such as, salinity (soil or water) are serious obstacles for field crops especially in the arid and semi-arid tracts of the world. In the Sudan, with the rapid expansion of irrigated agriculture, the question of soil salinity is becoming more and more urgent for naturally salt-affected lands under cultivation and maintaining the productivity of existing irrigated areas. It could be alleviated using irrigation and crop management. However, the former approach is very expensive. The latter is economical as well as efficient and it enables to produce salt tolerant crop varieties. Also other is a need to confirm the presence of genetically based variation for salt tolerance among different varieties of a particular crop at different plant growth stages. In order to investigate salinity stress on sorghum germination indices, an experiment was carried out in Sudan from September 2011 to October 2011 at University of Kordofan, in the Crop Sciences Department Laboratory, to create salinity stress, sodium chloride (Na Cl) at the levels of 0 (as control), 2, 4, 8 and 16 dS/m and three sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) cultivars (Arfagadamak, Wad Ahmed and Butana) were tested. Seed germination percentage, seedling root dry weight and seedling shoot dry weight were measured. Low level of salinity (2 dS/m) increased seed germination percentage, while the high levels (4, 8 and 16 dS/m) inhibited the seed germination significantly. The strongest inhibition of germination occurred at the higher salt concentrations. Growth of young seedlings was also reduced, especially at the higher salt concentrations. Wad Ahmed cultivar was found to be salt tolerant during seedling biomass production. Arfagadamak and Butana cultivars were found to be salt sensitive during seedling biomass production. The study revealed the presence of broad intra specific genetic variation in sorghum varieties for salt stress with respect to their early biomass production.

The saline wetlands of the Monegros Desert, in the central Ebro Basin (NE Spain), host valuable biodiversity and pedodiversity. A part of this area has been proposed for inclusion in the European Union Natura 2000 network. However, agricultural intensification is changing the area as more land is consolidated for new irrigation or is plowed to earn CAP (Common Agricultural Policy) subsidies. Soil mapping is needed to assist in the delimitation of natural habitats and to make conservation compatible with agriculture. The methodology presented here to characterize agrienvironmental areas takes into account current agricultural and environmental practices. We examined the opinions of farmers and agricultural and environmental officers concerning a new agri-environmental measure which could be proposed for inclusion in the Rural Development section of the CAP. The measure would save agriculture inputs in unproductive areas and also comply with nature conservation objectives. A GIS database was built for selecting the farming plots suitable for new agricultural practices favoring biodiversity and pedodiversity. At the local scale, we used remote sensing and pedodiversity criteria for selecting low production areas to be prospected. The opinion poll resulted in a positive response and confirmed the interest of farmers in having detailed maps of those soil features that limit crop production. The soil survey reveals soil salinity, and high contents of gypsum and calcium carbonate, as significant features to map low production areas for making agriculture compatible with habitat conservation.

SUMMARY Seawater intrusion into fresh water aquifers is due to natural processes or human activities, and consequently salinization results not only from the ground but also from irrigation water. In an attempt to evaluate the effect of seawater irrigation on seedling growth and germination, seeds of three leguminous crops (Pisum sativum, Cicer arietinum and Phaseolus vulgaris) were irrigated with Mediterranean seawater of different concentrations (0, 10, 30, 50 and 100%) for 8-day period. Various parameters such as germination kinetics, mean germination time, germination rate index, shoot and root length, fresh and dry weight and moisture content were analysed. The results showed that these species were able to germinate at different salinity levels, except for 100% seawater which resulted in total inhibition of germination. Compared with control, seed germination in all species remained unaffected up to 30% of seawater treatments. Indeed, the final germination percentage was maintained between 90 and 100%. A solution of 50% seawater significantly reduced germination rate index and increased mean germination time. 10% of seawater increased shoot and root length in all species compared to the control. The saline conditions reduced the growth parameter such as fresh and dry shoot and root weights of the three-studied species. Shoot and root dry weight was stable by 10, 30 and 50% of seawater except for P. vulgaris seedlings. The decrease in moisture content begins from 30% of seawater solution compared to the control in P. sativum and C. arietinum seedlings. However, it was maintained stable for P. vulgaris compared to the control.

This study applied a computerized parametric methodology to monitor, map, and quantify land degradation by salinization risk detection techniques at a 1:250 000 mapping scale using geo-information technology. The northern part of the Shaanxi province in China was taken as a case. Multi-temporal remotely sensed materials of both Landsat TM and thematic maps (ETM+) were used as the bases to provide comprehensive views of surface conditions such as vegetation cover and salinization detection. With ERDAS ver. 9.1 software, the Normalized Differential Salinity Index (NDSI) and Salinity Index (S.I.) were computed and then evaluated for land degradation by salinization. Arc/Info ver. 9.2 software was used along with field observation data (GPS) for analysis. Using spatial analysis methods, results showed that 19 973.1 km 2 (72%) of land had no risk of land degradation by salinization, 3 684.7 km 2 (13%) had slight land degradation by salinization risk, 2 797.9 km 2 (10%) had moderate land degradation by salinization risk, and 1 218.9 km 2 (4%) of the total land area was at a high risk of land degradation by salinization. The study area, in general, is exposed to a high risk of soil salinization.

Overgrazing and mismanagement of rangelands, climate change, drought and 'salinisation' of lands are threatening the sustainability of production systems and the fertility of cropping lands worldwide. This alarming situation drew the attention of policy makers, scientists and technicians and motivated them to develop feasible and sustainable strategies targeting the promotion of livestock sector in arid and semi arid zones, drought mitigation, protection and better use of natural resources (i.e. rangelands and water sources) and combating soil and water salinity. There has been an increasing awareness of the value of shrubs in forage production and for rehabilitation of depleted rangelands. Among the wide range of multipurpose fodder trees and shrubs, oldman saltbush (Atriplex nummularia Lindl.) has received increasing interest as livestock forage and valuable revegetation species on marginal saline lands, especially in arid zones of Australia and in the West Asia and North Africa (WANA) region. Adapted to drought and water and soil salinity, oldman saltbush produces important consumable biomass in areas where other crops cannot grow. To cope with these harsh conditions, this species accumulates high levels of salt and oxalates on its leaves rendering them less palatable and decreasing their nutritive value. Even though, satisfactory performance of small ruminants fed on A. nummularia has been reported in numerous research studies. This paper presents a thorough review of the literature on fodder potential of oldman saltbush and highlights the main constraints and opportunities to make better use of this shrub for feeding sheep and goat under different production systems.

&quot;Salinity has been associated with irrigated agriculture since its early beginnings. One reason is that irrigation often exacerbates the effects of salinity, which occurs naturally because of weathering of saline parent material derived from sea water deposits or other sources.&quot;

Results of monitoring of salinization in Aygeshat, Norapat, Mrgashat, Sovetakan, Arevik, Aykavan, Yeghegnut and Zartonk communities are presented received by method of remote sensing during 1980-2016. Areas, borders and the direction of distribution of salinization process are revealed, the previous cartographic materials in the GIS environment are corrected, and the extent of salinization of soils is estimated and classified on the existing standards. Considering complexity of salinization process monitoring it is offered to apply a method of remote sensing for its implementation.
Keywords: saline soils, monitoring, spatial data, remote sensing, GIS environment

THIS IS NATURE SIGNALING THE END OF DUALITY 
THIS IS HUGE - CHANGE THE ENTIRETY OF CREATION - NO DUALITY ANYWHERE.
IT IS VERY CLEARLY A PREDETERMINED ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS - THIS BUBBLE IS TOO WELL DESIGNED - EUPHORIA CANCELS KARMA

In combination with the desiccation of the Aral Sea and the formation of the Aral Kum, the dry sea bed became a new source for dust and sand storms. Due to the highly continental climate and the effects of the global climate change in the region, increasing air pressure differences lead to an increasing frequency of high intensity wind events. The resulting aeolian dust movements can be tracked and split into short and long distance transfers using remote sensing approaches, but hard data about the spatial and temporal distribution of the dust deposition requires excessive ground research and thus is scarce. Therefore, we have analyzed the passive dust deposition data from 23 meteorological stations and assessed the spatial and temporal transfer patterns within several transects from the banks of the former Aral Sea in eastern and southern directions covering parts of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Dust was collected on a monthly base as well as during specific dust storm events between 2003 and 2012 in the framework of three research projects for both long-term and event based deposition data. Dust transfer in southern direction was the most important trajectory and the newly formed Aral Kum proved to be an important source region for aeolian dust (besides the natural deserts Kyzyl Kum and Kara Kum). Stations close to these source regions frequently showed deposition rates exceeding international thresholds, resulting in possible negative effects on human and livestock health while the mineralogical and chemical composition of the deposited material influences the arable land in this arid region. This presentation will summarize the most important findings from the three research projects and discuss measures to reduce the wind erosion in the Aral Kum.

There are many reasons for planting trees and managing them for wood and non-wood products. Large-scale commercial forestry enterprises focus on financial returns. Publicly owned companies are bound to inform investors of their strategies
and financial positions. However, in agroforestry situations, the financial return may be an important but not a primary driver for a farmer to invest in tree planting or the management of native forests.

With the changing expectations of society and the development of non-wood markets, there are new incentives for increasing the area and management of trees on farms.

Changing societal expectations and their implications for forestry management involve the need to better understand and manage our natural resources. Despite the willingness of many land managers to adjust their practices to improve natural
resource outcomes, there are few markets that allow for the trading of these services, to give a monetary return to the manager. There is, however, a role for planted or existing forests to deliver not only wood products, but also non-wood products
such as improved agricultural production from stock shelter and environmental services including improved biodiversity, better water quality and carbon sequestration. There is a relatively clear
understanding of the value of wood products via markets but there is still much work to be done in quantifying the full range of benefits, and in some cases the costs, of establishing forestry enterprises on farms and in determining a monetary value
which allows economic and financial comparisons
with alternative land uses.

Understanding the economic and financial value of farm forestry requires quantification and market development of the mix of values associated with a farm forest. For example, what is the
value of an increase in habitat area and quality that leads to an increased number of possums? What is the worth of a tonne of carbon sequestered in a managed forest? What is the value of the timber that can be extracted from the forest? At present,
the habitat protection is unquantified and not monetarily valued, the storage of carbon can be quantified but there is uncertainty about its market value, and there are clear, though not always transparent, markets for the wood products.

In this chapter we discuss the use of financial and economic tools for assessing forestry investments, and examine how they can be adapted to evaluate agroforestry configurations. We follow a simple example illustrating aspects of economic analysis throughout the chapter, which increases in complexity as issues are introduced. We discuss the distinction between on-farm financial analysis and broader off-farm economic issues related to agroforestry investments. Analysis at both scales often relies upon investment analysis techniques, and these are summarised. The role of financial and economic analysis is to inform the land manager of the likely outcome of alternative
investment options, and allow a more structured decision process for considering the inclusion of trees in a farm business. Similar but wider-ranging cost–benefit analysis can be used to assess the broader social implications of establishing trees in
farming systems.

This paper examines the impact of shrimp farming on rice ecosystem in a village in Southwestern Bangladesh. The village Damarpota has experienced transformation of 274 ha (79%) of its prime quality rice fields into shrimp farms during the period between 1985 and 2003. Prolonged shrimp farming for 5-, 10-, and 15-year period has increased soil salinity, acidity, and depleted soil Ca, K, Mg, and organic C content of all three types of soils in the villages to a variable degree and caused soil degradation that significantly affected the rice yield. Declined yield and acreage of rice jointly reduced the total production of rice and animal fodder. Soil degradation and loss of acreage under rice have threatened the sustainability of the village rice ecosystem. r

FOR CITATIONS:
Salem, H.S., 2008. Abstract of the Paper "Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity and Food Security in Palestine - Pages: 49, 130". In: Singh, Gurharminder., Jerath, Neelima and Ladhar, S.S. 2008. Abstracts. International Conference on Climate Change, Biodiversity and Food Security in theSouth Asian Region. Punjab State Council for Science and Technology, Chandigarh
and United Nations Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization, New Delhi; 133 Pages.

ABSTRACT:
Global warming in the last century was fast enough that the resultant
shifts in species ranges may have led to extensive biodiversity losses. The
biodiversity of Historical Palestine (including the Occupied Palestinian
Territories (OPT)) is considered one of the 25 recently-de?ned as “global
biodiversity hot spots”. The biodiversity in this region of the world is
predominantly rich, as it is positioned at a cross-road between African,
Asian and Mediterranean bio-geographic regions, each contributing to its
different species. The speed and magnitude of climate change may elicit
different responses at different levels of ecological organizations, namely
the population, the species, and the community, as well as the whole
ecosystem level. On the other hand, as a result of global warming, the
agricultural sector in Palestine has been badly affected, particularly in the
last two to three decades, which has been reflected on the food security.
The climate change, added to the severe water shortages and the political
instability in the region, has resulted in endangering or even loss of the
biodiversity, and in the prices escalation of agricultural and other
products. These consequences have certainly led to further instability in
the Middle East, in general, and to the increase in poverty and
unemployment levels in Palestine, in particular. It is important to mention
here that the political actions taken by Israel against the Palestinian
people and their lands, such as the confiscation of lands, on which Israel
has illegally built the Segregation Wall and the hundreds of settlements,
has badly deteriorated the environmental status, including the water
shortages, which has directly affected the biodiversity and the food
security in the Occupied Palestinian Territories. The predicted climate
change will have many negative impacts on the OPT. These impacts would
include increased scarcity of water resources, droughts, desertification,
increased salinity of surface water and groundwater, greater frequency of
sever climate events (such as heat waves, storms' intensity, rapid spread of
diseases, etc.), and decrease in, and even loss of, biodiversity, as well as
sea-level rise. All of these climate-change impacts have led and will also
lead to, among many other consequences, agricultural reduction, crop
failure, higher prices of products, and migration of population, known as
“environmental migration”, which will create “environmental refugees”
who will be pushed inward to lands that are currently heavily populated.

The water salinization is a widespread phenomenon in the world and generally, it is accompanied by salinization of soils. This makes very hard to grow any crops because to irrigate with salt water often destroys crops and fertility of soils. To mitigate such issues, within a geographical area of Sicily involved in such problems and declared at risk of desertification, Giuseppe Ingiaimo applied a special version of RO desalination technology capable to satisfy the full needs of farmers. Results were an increasing of produced quantities more than 100% and a substantial improvement of quality on every crop. So, applying the proper water treatment technologies the effect of water issues that was facing in that area, was mitigated. Alternative technologies of water remediation was applied to agriculture water when available water, although was not salty, it was polluted by other substances harmful for crops.

The term ‘Climate change’ and ‘Global warming’ are akin to catchphrases in today’s academic world. Growing public concern also marks these issues as among the greatest challenges for human civilization for the future. So far tremendous effort has been given by the scientists and the researchers toward exploring the scientific impact of climate change and global warming on the lives of human being and other living creatures. Besides these scientific works, increasing social and anthropological research works are also ongoing in different parts of the world for identifying the social, economical and political impacts of climate change on contemporary human civilization. This study has its inspiration from the socio-economic studies of contemporary climate research.

The loss of competitiveness and the abandonment of agricultural activities in many rural areas of Southwest Europe are worsened by problems related to water shortage and the rise in natural hazards such as droughts. Remote sensing and geographic information systems offer a huge potential to improve water management in agriculture, as they are able to provide a great amount of relatively cheap information, which can be automated, and processed and analysed for a wide range of agronomic, hydraulic and hydrological purposes. New developments in ICTs allow the products of those technologies to be easily available for end-users for practical applications.

Water for irrigation is a major limitation to agricultural production in many parts of the world. Use of waters with elevated levels of salinity is one likely option to meet the supply of increased demands. The sources of these waters include drainage water generated by irrigated agriculture, municipal wastewater, and poor quality groundwater. Soil salinity leaching requirements that were established

Soil degradation and salinization are two of the utmost threat affecting agricultural areas, derived from the increasing use of low quality water and inappropriate cultural practices. The problem of low productivity of saline soils may be ascribed not only to their salt toxicity or damage caused by excess amounts of soluble salts but also arising from the lack of organic matter and available mineral nutrients especially N, P, and K. Concerns about salinization risk and environmental quality and productivity of agro-ecosystems have emphasized the need to develop management practices that maintain soil resources. Composted municipal solid waste (MSW) was commonly used to enhance soil productivity in the agricultural lands and rebuild fertility. However, their application could be also a promising alternative to alleviate the adverse effects caused by soil salinization. MSW compost, with high organic matter content and low concentrations of inorganic and organic pollutants allow an improvement of physical, chemical and biochemical characteristics and constitute low cost soil recovery.

† Background Salt stress has become a major threat to plant growth and productivity. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonize plant root systems and modulate plant growth in various ways. † Scope This review addresses the significance of arbuscular mycorrhiza in alleviation of salt stress and their beneficial effects on plant growth and productivity. It also focuses on recent progress in unravelling biochemical, physiological and molecular mechanisms in mycorrhizal plants to alleviate salt stress. † Conclusions The role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in alleviating salt stress is well documented. This paper reviews the mechanisms arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi employ to enhance the salt tolerance of host plants such as enhanced nutrient acquisition (P, N, Mg and Ca), maintenance of the K þ : Na þ ratio, biochemical changes (accumulation of proline, betaines, polyamines, carbohydrates and antioxidants), physiological changes ( photosynthetic efficiency, relative permeability, water status, abscissic acid accumulation, nodulation and nitrogen fixation), molecular changes (the expression of genes: PIP, Na þ /H þ antiporters, Lsnced, Lslea and LsP5CS) and ultra-structural changes. Theis review identifies certain lesser explored areas such as molecular and ultrastructural changes where further research is needed for better understanding of symbiosis with reference to salt stress for optimum usage of this technology in the field on a large scale. This review paper gives useful benchmark information for the development and prioritization of future research programmes.

El siguiente trabajo tuvo como objetivo evaluar el efecto de un vermicompost sobre las propiedades químicas y biológicas de un suelo salino-sódico del Cebollal de Coro. Para ello se realizó un estudio de incubación de suelos a nivel de laboratorio donde se compararon diferentes dosis del vermicompost. Se implementaron cuatro tratamientos de la siguiente manera: un tratamiento control sin contenido de vermicompost (T1), y tres (3) tratamientos con vermicompost en las siguientes dosis: T2: 1% vermicompost; T3: 5% vermicompost y T4: 10% vermicompost, y durante un período de incubación de 28 días, con mediciones a los 7, 14, 21, y 28 días. En cada una de estas fechas fueron evaluadas las siguientes variables: actividad ureásica, carbono de la biomasa microbiana, pH, conductividad eléctrica, cationes cambiables y porcentaje de sodio intercambiable. La conductividad eléctrica y el porcentaje de sodio intercambiable disminuyeron durante el período de incubación, demostrando que el vermicompost actúa como un correctivo efectivo en la recuperación de suelos sódicos y salinos. Así mismo, se encontró que la actividad biológica medida a través de la enzima ureasa y el carbono de la biomasa microbiana resultaron con incrementos significativos, lo cual indica una recuperación integral del suelo.