Rural Livelihood Strategies

This review article presents the concept of nexus among Energy-Water-Soil-Food in the Indian agriculture
and tries to analyze the impact of these inputs used for food production considering the respective policies.
Several policies for managing agricultural inputs are narrow and are not viewed in a holistic way, thereby
creating inefficiencies in the agricultural systems due to mismanagement of resource use. Literature review
reveals that a nexus oriented approach is needed to tackle the current levels of insecurity in access to
resources. Understating of the nexus enables conditions for policy consistency in the social, economic,
political and institutional dimensions targeting effective utilization of resources. Furthermore, an
understanding of nexus facilitates to dwell deeper into the relative influences caused due to various
administered policies and help to reduce the trade-offs to build horizontal integration in the sector. Though,
this concept seems to be simple, but managing all the components together is a herculean task as it deals
with the nexus between the human societies’, livelihood and the physical environment at large. Many
concerns (eg. depletion and degradation of resources) raised in this review paper has to be addressed in an
integrated /multi prolonged approach in a gradual manner.

This paper looks at the changes that occurred in the rural area of the Sai Kung Peninsula in Hong Kong’s New Territories from the 16th century, and uses it as a case-study to show the complex range of forces that can act on a locale. Throughout its history, land use and economic activities on the Sai Kung Peninsula have been driven to a great extent by non-local factors, including distant warfare leading to mass immigration and political decisions leading to mass emigration. However, once Hong Kong became an important outpost of Britain’s colonial empire it became integrated into a global trade network and thus became sensitive to economic and technological changes taking place thousands of miles away. In the 20th century, the Sai Kung Peninsula developed in response to Hong Kong’s growth as an international trade hub, finding its agricultural output overwhelmed by cheap foreign products, and its industry challenged by foreign technological advances.

El objetivo de esta investigación es comprender la expansión de la soja en el Departamento de San Pedro (Paraguay) y analizar las relaciones comerciales establecidas entre productores rurales y empresas de esta cadena productiva. Esta investigación concilió instrumentos cualitativos y cuantitativos, como revisiones bibliográficas, análisis de datos estadísticos, visitas a las ferias agropecuarias, entrevistas a representantes de empresas y aplicación de cuestionarios a productores de soja. El mayor crecimiento de la producción del grano en San Pedro ocurrió a inicios del año 2000 y actualmente es posible identificar una gran diversidad de productores de soja (en términos de área, formas de posesión de tierra, infraestructura en la propiedad y origen) y empresas (tanto las líderes nacionales como firmas de actuación más local/regional). La relación comercial entre productores y firmas es necesaria para ambos, pero los primeros se encuentran en una condición de mayor dependencia y con riesgo de endeudamiento, sobre todo los que detienen pequeñas áreas y baja capitalización.

Our body compulsory demands food, water and air to keep its vital functions and yet their economic nature is rather diverse with food mostly considered a private good, water suffering an accelerated privatization process and air so far considered a global common good. Food has evolved from a common good and local resource to a national asset and then to a transnational commodity as the commodification process is rather completed nowadays. Cultivated food is fully privatized and this consideration means that human beings can eat food as long as they have money to but it or means to produce it. With the dominant no money-no food rationality, hunger still prevails in a world of abundance. In order to provide a sound foundation for the transition towards sustainable food systems, the very nature of food as a pure private good is contested and subsequently reversed in this paper, proposing a re-conceptualisation of food as a common good, a necessary narrative for the redesign of the dominating agro-industrial food system that merely sees food as a tradable commodity. This aspirational transition shall lead us to a more sustainable, fairer and farmer-centred food system. The idea of the commons is applied to food, deconstructing food as a pure private good and reconstructing it as an impure commons that can be better produced and distributed by a hybrid tri-centric governance system compounded by market rules, public regulations and collective actions. Several food-related elements are already considered as common goods (i.e. fish stocks, wild fruits, cuisine recipes, agricultural knowledge, food safety regulations and unpatented genetic resources) as well as food’s implications (hunger eradication) and benefits (public health and good nutrition). Should food and be consider as a commons, the implications for the governance of the global food system would be enormous, with examples ranging from placing food outside the framework agreements dealing with pure private goods, banning financial speculation on food commodities or preparing international binding agreements to govern the production, distribution and access of food to every human being.

Synopsis
At the heart of this Inclusive Business case study is the core issues of communication and sensitisation, misunderstanding and trust, and community partnerships. In this case, we meet John, a Director of the non-government organisation, Business for Development (B4D). He is keen to see the progress of a mining company's community development project in Kenya that focuses on rural livelihoods called the Kwale Cotton Project. We follow John as he visits various project stakeholders and hears what they've got to say about the project. He meets with the farmers who have been directly affected by the mining activities in their community, and who consequently, are now the beneficiaries of the project. He finds there is a lot of support from them for the goals of the project but they also raise many issues.

Smallholder agroforestry (tree farming) systems are prominent compo-nents of ‘trees outside the forest’. They are primarily ‘planted’ systems that rehabilitate or reforest marginal lands, both private and public, where crop production is no longer biophysically or economically via-ble. While smallholder agroforestry systems vary greatly, most are tree-rich, species-rich systems that produce agricultural and tree products for both home use and market sale. The market orientation of smallholder systems has strengthened greatly over the last 10 to 20 years. Local, na-tional and international markets are all supplied by smallholder agrofor-estry systems. Smallholder systems produce 90% of the global produc-tion of cacao, three-quarters of rubber, two-thirds of coffee, approxi-mately 40% of oil palm and 25% of tea. Smallholder systems also pro-vide valuable environmental services, including soil fertility replenish-ment, watershed protection, carbon sequestration, biodiversity conserva-tion and land rehabilitation. The hypothesis of this thesis is that smallholder tree-farming systems are viable agricultural and natural resources management systems that contribute significantly to global environmental goals and local econom-ic objectives. The thesis supports the hypothesis by reviewing global and Asian trends of deforestation, human population growth, and demand for forest and tree products. The potential of smallholder tree-based sys-tems to expand regional forest resources, produce forest products and services, and contribute to local livelihoods for rural communities is re-viewed. Strategies to transform traditional smallholder systems into mar-ket-oriented systems to better serve environmental and economic goals are also assessed. The five papers included in the thesis specifically address the capaci-ty of smallholder systems to store carbon; the appropriateness of small-holder systems for carbon projects; the types of technical assistance and enabling conditions that facilitate the successful development of small-holder systems; how genetic diversity of smallholder systems supports adaptation to climate change; and the capacity of smallholder systems to simultaneously produce marketable timber and agricultural crops. Most of the research presented in this thesis was conducted in Indo-nesia and the Philippines. However, the results and conclusions are ap-plicable to the wide range of biophysical and socioeconomic conditions under which smallholder agroforestry systems are found in Southeast Asia and throughout the tropics. The discussion and assertions of the thesis are supported with relevant literature, including the candidate’s past and ongoing research. The thesis concludes with recommendations for future work required to strengthen the recognition of smallholder tree-based systems as important contributors to global environmental goals and local economic objectives.

This paper deals with the strategies of households living in a peripheral high-mountain region
in order to cope with the post-Soviet energy crisis. The Soviet modernization project failed at
connecting the region to the grid, and imported coal for heating and fuel for producing electric
energy at high costs over long distances. After the collapse of this alimentation system, people
have substituted energy demands with wood and shrubs, and used increasingly available lowcost
Chinese solar equipment to produce electrical energy. International development actors
have failed to increase acceptance for energy efficiency technologies. Despite the Pamirs’
high potential for solar and wind energy and decreasing installation costs, Soviet-style state
planning of energy infrastructure still favours big hydropower stations, despite their high
(social) costs and the limited potential on the Pamir plateau. The paper will discuss bottomup
effects of household decisions and top-down strategies as potentials and obstacles for a
sustainable energy supply in the Pamirs.

This paper analyses the livelihood strategies adopted by the Chepangs, a highly marginalized indigenous nationalities of Nepal. Household survey was conducted in Shaktikhor Village Development Committee (VDC) in Chitwan district and Handikhola VDC in Makawanpur district among ...

"Rio'da yapılan son BM Çevre Konferansı (Rio+20), çokuluslu şirket lobilerinin ve uluslararası güç dengelerini kollayan bürokratların istediği sonuçları doğurdu: Gelecek neoliberal küresel kapitalizme satıldı. Ancak olumlu gelişmeler de vardı. “İstediğimiz Gelecek”
cephesinde toplanan dünya toplumsal hareketleri küresel muhalefeti güçlendirme fırsatı buldu. Morales'in "Doğa Ana Yasası" fikri ekososyalist harekete esin veriyor..."

Rural life in the Upper Hunter region of NSW is threatened by the mining and burning of coal and coal seam gas extraction. Extensive open-cut mining is a serious threat to productive rural enterprises between Singleton and Muswellbrook, while mining and gas extraction is expanding into communities on the Liverpool Plains and around Gloucester. The marginalisation of rural life has economic, environmental and socio-cultural dimensions. Economically, the marginalisation of rural life refers to declining food production, threatened rural industries such as thoroughbred breeding and viticulture, and to the loss of commercial services in rural towns. Environmental damage includes air and water pollution, biodiversity loss, destruction of aquifers and waterways, and the loss of fertile agricultural land. Socio-cultural impacts include threats to human health, rising income inequality, depopulation of villages, and damage to the fabric of rural communities from mining incursion. The article examines the competing scripts employed in land use contests and how communities are using new and reflexive constructions of 'the rural' that integrate traditional identity, discourses of sustainability and the re-centring of rural life. This analysis illuminates the current situation of marginalisation and the possible future of rural life in the Upper Hunter and surrounding areas.

INDICE 1.-AMÉRICA LATINA Y SU CRISIS SOCIAL: MÁS POBRES Y HAMBRIENTOS PERO CON MÁS ALIMENTOS 2.-LOS DERECHOS ECONÓMICOS, SOCIALES Y CULTURALES EN LA REGIÓN: DOS PASOS ADELANTE, UN PASO ATRÁS. 2.1.-Breve retazo histórico: consolidación a pesar de todo 2.2.-Los DESC a finales del siglo XX: un avance más teórico que real para el ciudadano

RESUMO. Este artigo tem como objetivo compreender a relevância do livro didático do campo no cotidiano da Escola Municipal Santa Luzia. Foram propostos dois objetivos específicos: a) caracterizar o movimento de educação do campo; b) caracterizar e analisar a política pública do livro didático do campo, que foram contemplados pela análise bibliográfica e pelo Estudo de Caso. Buscou-se, nesse sentido, contextualizar a educação do campo, a partir das lutas dos movimentos sociais do campo em favor de uma escola que favoreça a identidade e conquista de direitos do homem do campo; buscou-se, também, contextualizar o Programa Nacional do Livro Didático do Campo (PNLD Campo) de modo a entender à realidade do campo brasileiro. Por fim, o levantamento de dados sobre as experiências de alunos e professores, comparando-os com as considerações formuladas a partir de algumas referências teóricas. Esse trabalho permitiu perceber que apesar do PNLD Campo ter como objetivo distribuir obras que atendam a especificidade do campo, a partir do contexto pesquisado, algumas obras não consideram a organização multisseriada, nem se relacionam de forma pertinente ao contexto camponês nas suas lutas, formas de reprodução da existência, identidade e cultura.

ABSTRACT. This article aims at understanding the relevance of the rural course book in the daily life of Santa Luzia Municipal School. Two specific purposes were settled: a) to characterize the dynamics of rural education; b) to characterize and analyze the public policy for course books in the countryside, which profited from bibliographical analysis and case study. It was intended, therefore, to contextualize rural education in social movements’ fights for a school that contributes to the countrymen’s identity and rights’ conquest; this article was also intended to contextualize the Countryside National Course Book Program (PNLD Rural, in Portuguese) in order to better understand the reality of the Brazilian countryside; lastly, there was a data survey about students’ and teachers’ experiences, comparing them to the reflexions on some theoretic references. This research showed that, despite the fact that PNLD Rural aims at handing out books that suit the countryside’s specificity, some works do not take into account the multigrade organization in place or do not relate, in a relevant way, to the countrymen in their struggles with perpetuation of identity and culture.

Desde mediados del siglo XX, paulatinamente, se han ido introduciendo novedades en el proceso de valoración, reconocimiento y ampliación del concepto de patrimonio cultural. En este proceso han intervenido decisivamente las disposiciones jurídico-administrativas y las políticas culturales, la incorporación de nuevas disciplinas y profesionales, y la sensibilización y demandas sociales en la protección y gestión del patrimonio cultural.

En este contexto, la aprobación de la Convención de la UNESCO para la Salvaguardia del Patrimonio Cultural Inmaterial (2003) ha impulsado las iniciativas estatales encaminadas a reconocer conocimientos, técnicas, representaciones, ritos festivos y expresiones culturales. Y ha logrado impulsar desde los colectivos sociales una autoestima y un deseo por mostrar las peculiaridades de sus prácticas culturales. Además, este marco normativo-jurídico y sociocultural favorece la realización de inventarios, estudios, programas y proyectos de promoción, que están favoreciendo una visión más real de la pluralidad y la diversidad cultural.

En el caso del presente trabajo, su autor, por propia iniciativa, ha emprendido acciones de documentación y estudio del patrimonio cultural inmaterial local, como primera medida para, a partir de su conocimiento, poder establecer otras intervenciones que favorezcan el reconocimiento interno y externo, y posibiliten su transmisión y continuidad, de acuerdo con los intereses de los colectivos sociales que lo detentan.

Ahora bien, si a este tipo de inestimables manifestaciones socioculturales / socioambientales / ecosociales / ecoculturales no se le facilitan las vías para su salvaguarda y para su respeto, desaparecerán en breve, ya que muchas de las prácticas sociales como los conocimientos y vivencias son más vulnerables, al no cumplir ya las funciones tradicionales que justificaban su perpetuación.

Así, esta investigación ha constatado que en el caso del valioso patrimonio etnológico que constituyen los Ramos Cantados, en los pequeños pueblos de la Tierra de Valdebecedas, en la comarca abulense de El Barco (Castilla y León, España), se encuentra actualmente en trance de extinción ante la virulencia del proceso de despoblación rural, el cual ha dejado a este envejecido territorio rural y montañoso castellano y leonés al borde del despoblamiento y el agotamiento demográfico definitivo.

Palabras Clave: Salvaguardia del Patrimonio cultural inmaterial - Políticas culturales - Valdebecedas - Ramos Cantados - Despoblación rural.

That talk is never disinterested complicates the relationship between the environment and the claims people make about it. Talk about place, and one's self in it, is particularly complex when the environment poses risk or is otherwise problematized. This study, a secondary analysis of interview data, seeks to extend discursive work on place-identity by examining the ways in which 14 residents of a small English village talk about themselves and their locale. The locale accommodates an active quarry, and many residents had lodged complaints to the quarry about dust, noise and vibrations from blasting. Attention to the interactional context of the interviews illustrates the ways in which (simply) interviewing people about their locale can threaten self- and place-identity. When asked about life in the village, interviewees oriented to two main dilemmas in protecting self- and place-identity: (1) how to justify continued residence in a challenging environment and (2) how to complain about the locale whilst maintaining positive place-identity. Discursive responses to these dilemmas drew upon typical identity processes, such as self- and place distinctiveness and the formulation of out-groups, as well as upon constructions of localized power-sharing and morally obligated tolerance of risk. We suggest that research on problematical places, and of environmental risk, needs to be sensitized to how it may constitute a threat to self- and place-identity, and how this may mediate formulations self and place, as well as of environmental risk.

Perubahan iklim sudah menjadi fenomena global yang menyebabkan sebagian orang/komunitas harus melakukan strategi adaptasi sehingga mampu menyesuaikan diri terhadap perubahan.  Strategi tersebut terutama terkait dengan sistem nafkah (livelihood) yang pada umumnya terkait erat sumberdaya alam sebagai sumber nafkah.  Kondisi sumberdaya alam sangat dipengaruhi oleh perubahan iklim global.  Sejauh kondisi sumberdaya alam masih memenuhi kebutuhan hidup, orang/komunitas cenderung tetap bertahan di tempat asal meskipun mengalami degradasi lingkungan.  Namun jika ancaman perubahan iklim global menyebabkan orang/komunitas tidak mampu memenuhi kebutuhan hidup, migrasi merupakan pilihan startegi terakhir untuk tetap mempertahankan diri.

This paper mainly focuses on the basic introduction  of basic logic model and its applications. An example from skill development project being initiated by a non-profit organization is included to understand the practical applications of basic logic model.

This paper intends to show a possible use of videogames in knowledge construction through the participatory action research methodology in the areas of agro-ecology, fisheries engineering and solidarity economy. The paper presents the initial state of the activities of the “Pirarucu-Gente Project”, a research and extension project focusing on advisory, training and social change. The project aims to assist family-based farmers, fishermen and fish farmers of the region called “Território Central da Cidadania “ (the Central Territory of Citizenship) of the State of Rondônia, Brazil, in the use of sustainable practices in the management of production, processing and commerce of their products, so as to ensure their autonomy and livelihood. A metaverse will be used as a working tool.
for the dissemination of best practices.

RESUMO. Em Moçambique, o debate das questões agrária e agrícola é pouco massificado, como ainda, nos 41 anos de independência ainda não se conseguiu passar-se do discurso à prática sobre a importância que se evoca em relação à agricultura. A negligência das questões agrária e agrícola é paradoxal, tendo em conta muitos fatores, dentre eles, o número de pessoas que a sua sobrevivência está intimamente ligada a agricultura, o contributo da agricultura no produto interno bruto nacional, etc. Realmente, dados mais recentes estimam em cerca de 3.826.913 indivíduos que têm como sua ocupação principal a produção agrícola de pequena escala. A falta de inclusão no debate dessas questões coloca o governo a definir planos que não respondem a demanda interna, sobretudo, no que diz respeito a satisfação das necessidades alimentares, disponibilização de matéria-prima, redução da dependência externa para oferta de trabalho assalariado. Os moçambicanos continuam à margem da sua agenda de desenvolvimento, ancorada nos investimentos estrangeiros de mineração, turismo e agronegócios. O governo promove a entrada de capital internacional que necessita de extensas áreas de terra para albergar seus interesses.

ABSTRACT. In Mozambique, the debate on land and agriculture issues is little massiveness, as yet, in the 41 years of independence is still unable to pass from words to practice on the importance that evokes for agriculture. The neglect of land and agricultural issues is paradoxical, taking into account many factors, including the number of people that their survival is closely linked to agriculture and the contribution of agriculture in gross domestic product. Indeed, more recent data estimate that about 3.826.913 individuals who have as their main occupation agricultural production of small scale. The lack of inclusion in the debate on these issues puts the government to set plans that do not meet domestic demand, especially in regard to meeting the food needs, availability of raw materials, and reduction of external dependence on wage labor supply. Mozambicans are still on the margins of its development agenda, anchored on foreign investment in mining, tourism and agribusiness. The government promotes international capital inflows that need extensive areas of land to accommodate their interests.

This thesis concerns dynamics of contemporary pastoralism in Ferlo, Senegal. Recent research sug-gests mobility to be one of the most important principles of pastoralism. However, it cannot be under-stood on its own; therefore, pastoral mobility is studied in the broader context of livelihood strategies. At the methodological level, the aim is to develop methods for collecting and understanding data on pastoral mobility. The thesis consists of an introductory chapter, a chapter called ‘research setting’, five individual papers, and a concluding chapter. While the papers can be read individually, the intro-ductory chapters, and the conclusion concern the thesis ‘as a whole’. As there has been a change of philosophical stance during the research process, these chapters are important for providing a frame-work for the thesis and for understanding the choices made.
First, implications of the ‘new rangeland paradigm’ are discussed with special emphasis on implica-tions for understanding pastoral mobility in Paper A. Pastoral mobility provides flexible utilisation of variable natural resources and can mitigate the effects of unforeseen events such as bush fires. This point has been advocated in the past, mainly by anthropologists, but with the new paradigm a coherent theory exists in which pastoral mobility as a flexible strategy can be understood. The argument is illustrated by an example from Ferlo, which shows how a development project hampered pastoral mobility. Further, it is shown how pastoralists themselves use mobility for balancing variability in natural resources.
The methodology applied for the rest of the papers is outlined in Paper B. The paper argues for a new conceptualisation of the use of rural areas, namely through the study of the relation between practice and values of individual actors. This conceptualisation emphasises a combination of methods analys-ing both quantitative and qualitative data with due consideration to the philosophical stance. The ben-efit of analysing both practice and values is shown in two examples. It is concluded that studies of practice and values of individual actors can contribute to our understanding of the use of rural areas in both developed and developing countries and hence revitalise agricultural geography.
Paper C has a dual objective; first to investigate the methodological potential of using GPS; second to discuss the analytical use of GPS data for understanding mobility. It is shown that the methodological potential for using GPS is related to quantifying mobility and characterising the mobility patterns. The paper concludes that from an analytical point of view, the GPS data can be used in combination with qualitative information to make triangulation. Qualitative information is a valuable help for interpret-ing GPS data. The GPS data can be used prior to qualitative interviews to make informed questions about mobility and they can be used after qualitative investigations to illustrate points made or show inconsistencies.
The widespread notion of Sahelian pastoralists as destitute and powerless is challenged in Paper D. It is shown how a diversity of pastoral livelihood strategies exists in Ferlo. Depending on the possibili-ties and preferences of a household, a certain strategy, or combination of strategies, is chosen and this may change from one year to another. Four ideal types of pastoral livelihood strategies are developed: ‘the traditional pastoralist’, ‘the Tabaski pastoralist’, ‘the commercial pastoralist’, and ‘the non-herding pastoralist’. These illustrate that pastoralists in Ferlo have managed to make the most of mar-ket opportunities while maintaining their ‘pastoral way of life’. Issues such as identity, ethnicity, and religion are important for the pastoral way of life and affect the different livelihood strategies.
Finally paper E provides a more complex understanding of pastoral mobility than the one offered by the new rangeland paradigm. It is argued that mobility should be analysed in the context of livelihood strategies and that attention should be paid to pastoralists’ perceptions of mobility. On the basis of the field studies from Senegal, analytical entry points for discussing mobility in a broader context are outlined. These entry points are used as inspiration for developing the so-called ‘mobility complex’.

The article seeks to document the use of internal savings and lending scheme in improving the standards of living of rural women in Chishake village, Chigo-dora in Mutare. The necessity for women empowerment in developing economies is an accepted precondition for the improvement of the standard of living , with the result that gender mainstreaming has taken center stage in the development discourse. Societal constraints engraved in social norms make it difficult for women in rural areas to abandon their domestic roles for public roles outside the home. This article adopts the Social Capital Theory and the mixed methods approach wherein both quantitative and qualitative method-ologies are used. Quantitative research methodologies helped to quantify income and capital accumulated before and after joining the internal savings and lending scheme. Qualitative methodologies provided insight on perceptions of improvements on standard of living. Out of a total population of 150 women beneficiaries, a sample of 90 respondents was randomly selected from the scheme. Furthermore, 5 Focus Group Discussions were conducted, whilst 6 key informant interviews were administered to ensure validity and reliability of the findings. Secondary sources of data were also used for cross referenc-ing purposes. From the analysis and interpretation of the data manipulated, this article concludes that Internal Savings and Lending Schemes (ISALs) play a significant role in poverty alleviation for rural women, notwithstanding the myr-iad of challenges such as improper record keeping and political interference.

This study analyzes the livelihood diversification practices' implication on households' poverty. The study employed observational, descriptive as well as cross sectional survey design with quantitative and qualitative methods. The ultimate targets of the study, 191 households, were selected using systematic sampling technique. The Binary logistic regression (reporting Odds ratio) model examine implications of livelihood diversification on rural poverty and key determinants of rural poverty. The regression result indicated that education level of household-head, family size of household, livestock ownership in Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU), livelihood diversification, credit utilization, access of information and distance to the market were the key determinants of rural poverty. The levels of diversification results indicate that 64.39 % of household diversified their livelihood sources. It was found that there is positive relationship between livelihood diversification and rural poverty i.e., more diversify households are more likely to reduce or improve poverty status of households. Finally, it was recommended that the policy-makers might seek to provide a suitable enabling environment to support the development of the non-farm livelihood sources. In this regard, designing appropriate regional and local policy (strategies) that motivate households to diversify their livelihood sources should be crucial to reduce rural poverty.

This report assesses the outcomes, benefits, and challenges resulting from the programmatic construction of six micro-hydropower projects in Lamjung district of Central Nepal, which was supported by Lutheran World Relief working in partnership the local NGO-Partner COPPADES. This report is based on an ethnographic study conducted during August 2014 that was designed to identify and consider a) the varying social, economic, environmental, and political effects of these projects at the household and community level, b) the contributions that these micro-hydropower projects are making to future economic development in the study area, c) the ways in which Lutheran World Relief can support and increase local benefits from these projects in the future, and d) the relevance of project outcomes and report findings within the context of larger patterns of hydropower development in Nepal.

This study, therefore, presents findings that are both unique to the process and outcomes of these four specific micro-hydropower projects and reflective of the changing role and value of micro-hydropower development within the changing landscape of hydropower development in Nepal (Dixit and Gyawali 2010), intensive shifts in rural livelihoods that change the needs and desires of individual communities, such as rapidly accelerating patterns of outmigration and foreign employment (Adhikari & Hobley 2011; Sijapati & Limbu 2012), and increasing climactic and hydrologic uncertainty in the face of climate change in the Himalayas (Erikkson et al 2009; Pomeranz 2013). Thus, in this report I will argue that the issues and concerns that shape the process of micro-hydropower projects are fractal manifestations of issues that shape much broader fields of political economy in Nepal.

This dissertation explores the logic underlying what can be called a ‘pronatal socio-cultural fertility complex’ in rural Haiti.  At 5.9 births per mother the rural Haitian Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is among the highest in the Western hemisphere and has not changed significantly in 30 years (see Table 1-1 below). Despite a foreign sponsored national family planning program begun in 1971, only 9.5% of rural reproductive-age Haitian women currently use contraceptives (ibid).  High fertility and the rejection of contraceptives by rural Haitians is associated with a variety of radically pronatal attitudes, customs, laws, and beliefs.  In this investigation, conducted over a period of four years, the evidence strongly suggests that the observed high fertility and radical pronatalism are best explained by a high labor utility of children in a system where production and the satisfaction of the most basic subsistence needs are accomplished within the socio-organizational framework of the household.

In this study, I studied the Assessment of Nutritional status under five years old Children in Hamar Jajab IDPs. The major objective of the study was to know nutritional status for the Children IDPs who are the most Vulnerable and susceptible to became Malnourished then others.
Using Simple random sampling technique, I selected 50 respondents from 200 Households live in IDP Camp in Hamar Jajab District Mogadishu-Somalia with the use of questionnaire as instrument; Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics of mean and frequency (percentage). Results: Number of screened children was 50, 4% ware Severe Acute malnutrition (SAM), 14% were Moderate Acute Malnutrition (MAM) and 82% were Normal based on the findings, the researcher suggests that, make it sustainable for current Nutrition programmes existing with inclusive development projects for the IDPs such income generation activities to be self reliance.
The research also concludes that most of Mothers doesn’t well understand the necessary need of child nutrition. So that in this study I recommended that this needs extra researchers should launch researches on Nutritional Status as to check, intervene or minimize the effects may result from malnutrition in community through mobilizing and health education for community workers, and Make free from harmful.

Summary: This paper discusses the major task involved for governments, civil society organizations (CSOs) and international development agencies in assessing the impact and performance of their policies, programmes and projects. Attempts at measuring the effectiveness and efficiency of policy prescriptions have been aided by the development of specifiic indicators that strive to capture a particular circumstance, situation or condition (i.e., GDP). The current shift in thinking and action towards a more people-centred, human development pradigm has necessitated a concurrent re-orientation of the policies and programmes pursued by development agencies, CSOs and governments. Evaluating these efforts has meant looking conventional quantitative indicators to more qualitative ones (i.e. governance). This has been, by no means, an easy task. Qualitative processes such as empowerment, for example, do not easily lend themselves to being objectively measured.

a. Differences between Indigenous knowledge and Modern Knowledge. Martin and Warren (1992) define indigenous knowledge as a systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people through accumulation of experiences, informal experiment and intimate understanding of the environment in a given culture. Modern knowledge is defined as knowledge that is brought by science. Indigenous knowledge is local. Indigenous knowledge is rooted in a particular community and it is a set of experiences generated by people living in the communities. Mundy (1995) did a study in a district of Rendile in Kenya where he noted how pastoralists predict drought by flora and fauna and any unusual behaviour made by certain birds' species and bees migrating. This therefore is a local language used by the Rendile people to communicate on timing of rains and predicting drought. Modern knowledge is universal or global. It is the knowledge generated in modern scientific institutions and some industrialisation firm. This knowledge has the universal truth no matter where it is. Warren (1992) supports this as he says that it is an international knowledge system generated by researchers. Indigenous knowledge is tacit and tacit is to understand without being stated. It is embedded by people who generate and use it. Hence it is difficult to capture and codify this kind of non formal knowledge. In simpler terms it means that it is hard to understand if you do not belong to the same rural background. For example the Rendile people's local use of certain birds and animal species to time rains and predict drought, is hard to understand the local language and practises. Questions therefore arise such as how do they know the different sounds made and how do they understand flora and fauna changes. Therefore it is hard to put into instruction. In contrast modern science is explicit, that is it is stated clearly and in detail. The knowledge has been noted for its rigorous procedures of creation through observation, experimentation and validation. These procedures could be specified and put into instruction easily. Chambers (1989) gives an agricultural research that has made great strides in improving commercial

This compendium identifies problems on land matters that require urgent attention in terms of research in order to facilitate implementation and review of the National Land Policy (NLP) soon approaching in 2019, the 2016, National Spatial Plan (NSP). The Framework and Guidelines on Land Policy in Africa, AU-AfDB-ECA
Consortium. These policies inform a framework for theoretical identification of land problems facing Kenyans and serve to provide abstractive solutions thereto. There are also the various Acts on Land: Land Act; Land Registration Act; National Land Commission Act; and The Urban and Cities Act There is therefore an urgent need for research on land matters to explore these documents and the frameworks provided in these documents and test the viability of solutions to the land reform process suggested.
Research focus on land should be hinged on major issues defining the land question in Kenya identified by the several land Commissions, research studies, NLP (2009) and the NSP (2016). Detailed about the nature, dimensions and prevalence of land problems identified by the Land Acts, various land Commissions, research studies and Policy documents should brought to fore to facilitate acquisition of detailed facts through research to aid development of appropriate solutions and mechanisms for implementing these solutions.
While the National Land Policy aspires to solve issues framing the land question in Kenya, this cannot happen without an understanding of the of factual information about the prevalence and dimensions of these problems together with the perception of the affected persons on a given issue. This is where the value of researching land matters becomes important. Some of the pertinent issues identified by the NLP are reviewed in this document for the sole purpose of developing research questions that may help acquisition of information on the nature, dimensions and prevalence of these issues. Such information is necessary for generation of solutions and mechanisms for implementing land reform and aiding in better land governance. The compendium follows the sequence whereby the main policy concern is identified and defined; presentation of policy aspiration; and finally the implication for research.

"Strategic actions in the translocal space. An analysis of translocal livelihood strategies conducted in four Senegalese villages and at two migration destinations in Italy and Spain".

Migration from West Africa is gaining the attention of the European public opinion and is often seen as a simple reaction to difficult situations and as an exception to the rule of sedentary lifestyle. This meaning-laden view, however, ignores that mobility has always been the rule in West Africa. It is therefore necessary to investigate migration as part of amplified and long-term livelihood-strategies negotiated by migrants inside social groups (household, community) according to structural constraints. The aim of this monograph is to better understand livelihood-strategies in translocal spaces.

This Assignment has been prepared by the student of Delhi School of Social work (University of Delhi). The Aim of the Assigment and visit was to explore new intervention plans and to take a rural exposure in the trilokpura village in Chakshu Block Jaipur ,Rajasthan.

Many researchers have postulated that the introduction of agricultural poverty intervention programmes such as grasscutter farming is a sure way of improving the livelihood base of small-holder farmers. Currently, agricultural programmes for poverty intervention by NGOs are mostly based on the livestock and poultry industries. However, small-holder farmers do not benefit well from such programmes due to their low income levels. This study assessed the effects of grasscutter farming on the livelihood of smallholder farmers in Asutifi District, Brong-Ahafo Region, Ghana. The main objective of the study was to find out whether the grasscutter farming project of The Brong-Ahafo Regional Development Programme (BARDP) of ActionAid Ghana (AAG) has been beneficial to the farmers and communities in the Asutifi District of Ghana. The study employed interviews, mostly Focus Group Discussions (FDGs), to collect data from two groups: the beneficiary farmers and supervisors (an AEA and the Project Officer of Food Rights, BARDP-AAG) of the project. The study confirmed that the BARDP-AAG Grasscutter Project has so far been able to serve as an essential alternative source of income and animal protein for farming households in the District. It has been able to improve upon the livelihood base of the small-holder farmers in Asutifi District and has therefore been beneficial to both the farmers and their communities.