Per Capita Income

We examine the correlations between the national IQs of Lynn and Vanhanen . IQ and the wealth of nations. Westport, CT: Praeger. Westport, CT: Praeger, Lynn, R. and . IQ and global inequality. Athens, GA: Washington Summit Books.) and educational attainment scores in math and science for 10-and 14-year olds in 25 countries and 46 countries (respectively) given in the TIMSS 2003 reports. It was found that national IQs had (attenuation corrected) correlations of between 0.92 and 1.00 with scores in math and science. The results are interpreted as a validation of the national IQs. They suggest that national differences in educational attainment may be attributable to differences in IQ, or alternatively that national IQs and in educational attainment are both indicators of the mental ability of national populations. It is also shown that national IQs are positively associated with national per capita income (r = .61). It is proposed that these have a reciprocal positive feedback relationship such that each augments the other.

A number of writers have recently questioned whether labour productivity or per capita incomes were ever higher in the United Kingdom than in the United States. We show that although the United States already had a substantial labour productivity lead in industry as early as 1840, especially in manufacturing, labour productivity was broadly equal in the two countries in agriculture, while the United Kingdom was ahead in services. Hence aggregate labour productivity was higher in the United Kingdom, particularly since the United States had a larger share of the labour force in low value-added agriculture. US overtaking occurred decisively only during the 1890s, as labour productivity pulled ahead in services and the share of agricultural employment declined substantially. The share of the population in the labour force was lower in the United States, so that the United Kingdom’s labour productivity advantage in the mid-nineteenth century translated into a larger per capita income lead.

This paper examines the per capita income convergence process among 23 Argentinian provinces over the period 1983-2002. The purpose of this work is to apply new estimation methods following two-step procedure as in Badinger et al. (2004). We combine a spatial filtering of variables to remove the spatial correlation (Getis and Griffith, 2002) and suitable estimators for dynamic panels (using first-differenced and system GMM estimators). Our estimations on filtered variables reveal a conditional convergence process between Argentinian provinces and a positive and significant impact of agglomeration variables on growth rate. Hence, our results show that ignoring spatial distortions due to geographic proximity misleads estimations and underestimates the speed of convergence specifically for provinces which are distant from Buenos Aires. Moreover, we improve estimations of agglomeration effects when spatial autocorrelation is removed.

Conventional growth theories in the literature explain the poor economic performance of African economies by stressing the inadequacy of savings, human capital, and poor institutional quality. However, the key question is how to enhance savings for the accumulation of both physical and human capital in order to spur growth. A common thread that runs through the existing models is that the dependency ratio, not only remains constant over time, but has no long-run negative impact on economic growth. By relaxing this rigid assumption, this paper constructs a growth estimating equation which accommodates this demographic factor. The analytic results from the modified model suggest that economies with high dependency ratio face their stable equilibrium at lower levels of their income per capita. Moreover, econometric results from analysis of panel data drawn from Sub-Saharan Africa economies suggest that the growth puzzle can be well explained in terms of the demographic factors, especia...

This study assesses the convergence hypothesis in per capita income levels between Turkey and European Union regions by pooling data. By choosing a base region and applying panel unit root analysis (Im, Pesaran and Shin, 2003; Pesaran, 2007), we examine whether the per capita income level differences between the base region and the other regions are persistent or tend to dampen out over time. Our findings indicate that per capita income differences tend to persist in general between Europe and Turkey, and within Turkey and within Europe. In particular, for very few of the regions, there seems to be a possible convergence within Europe, and between Turkey and Europe. A relatively larger number of regions in Turkey seem to be catching up to the richest region, including some of the least developed regions in the country. This result might be driven by high emigration rates from these regions to the relatively more developed parts of the country. We call this situation pseudo-convergence.

Few studies have examined the impact of international migration and remittances on poverty in the developing world. This paper fills this lacuna by constructing and analyzing a new data set on international migration, remittances, inequality, and poverty from 71 developing countries. The results show that both international migration and remittances significantly reduce the level, depth, and severity of poverty in the developing world. After instrumenting for the possible endogeneity of international migration, and controlling for various factors, results suggest that, on average, a 10% increase in the share of international migrants in a country's population will lead to a 2.1% decline in the share of people living on less than $1.00 per person per day. After instrumenting for the possible endogeneity of international remittances, a similar 10% increase in per capita official international remittances will lead to a 3.5% decline in the share of people living in poverty.

The paper analyses the contribution of informally employed women (for the age group of 16-60 years) to their household budget. The urban informal sector largely absorbs women workers. We examine the determinants of their contribution to their household budgets for the survival of the families. Applying the OLS model to 937 observations, it is found that women as heads of household, women’s education, and ownership of assets by woman have a positive effect on their contribution. The burden of the large family size, household poverty, and loans availed by the household are shared by the informally employed women, as these variables positively affect their contribution. Age of the woman has a non-linear effect on woman’s contribution. The contribution first increases and then decreases by an increase in the age of the woman. Married women and women living in nuclear families contribute more to the household budget. The household per capita income and number of children (5-15 years) in ...

Over the last two centuries, many countries experienced regime transitions toward democracy. We document this democratic transition over a long time horizon. We use historical time series of income, education and democracy levels from 1870 to 2000 to explore the economic factors associated with rising levels of democracy. We find that primary schooling, and to a weaker extent per capita income levels, are strong determinants of the quality of political institutions. We find little evidence of causality running the other way, from democracy to income or education.

The environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis proposes that there is an inverted U-shape relation between environmental degradation and income per capita. Various explanations for this phenomenon have been put forward and some authors argue that important explanatory variables are omitted from conventional EKC estimates. Inclusion of these omitted variables is argued to increase the estimated "turning point"-the level of GDP per capita above which environmental degradation is declining. In this paper we use a new cross-section/time-series data base of sulfur emissions for a wide range of developed and developing countries. The methodology involves estimating EKCs for subsets of this database as well as for the sample as a whole. The results show that estimating an EKC using data for only the OECD countries, as has often been the case, leads to estimates where the turning point is at a much lower level than when the EKC is estimated using data for the World as a whole. The paper explores possible explanations of these results using Monte Carlo analysis, and other statistical tests.We conclude that the simple EKC model is fundamentally misspecified and that there are omitted variables which are correlated with GDP.

An altemative hypothesis to explain why income Country Income Inequality inequality differs among countries. Inequality in richer An "Augmented" Kuznets' Hypothesis societies decreases not only An "Augmented" Kuznets' Hypothesis because of economic factors but also because societies Branko Milanovic choose less inc" jality as they grow richer.

This paper presents a model in which a country's measured average propensity to save endogenously rises when its economy industrializes. The model has agricultural and manufacturing sectors. Only agriculture uses land. If at early dates income per capita is low, agricultural consumption is important, land is valuable, and capital gains on land may constitute most wealth accumulation, leaving the country's NIPA APS low. If exogenous technological progress raises incomes over time, Engel's law shifts demand to manufactured goods. Then land's portfolio importance relative to reproducible capital diminishes and the national income and products account saving rate can rise.

Conventional growth theories in the literature explain the poor economic performance of African economies by stressing the inadequacy of savings, human capital, and poor institutional quality. However, the key question is how to enhance savings for the accumulation of both physical and human capital in order to spur growth. A common thread that runs through the existing models is that the dependency ratio, not only remains constant over time, but has no long-run negative impact on economic growth. By relaxing this rigid assumption, this paper constructs a growth estimating equation which accommodates this demographic factor. The analytic results from the modified model suggest that economies with high dependency ratio face their stable equilibrium at lower levels of their income per capita. Moreover, econometric results from analysis of panel data drawn from Sub-Saharan Africa economies suggest that the growth puzzle can be well explained in terms of the demographic factors, especia...

The aim of this study is to establish the most important factors affecting rural development in Turkey by means of a multi-dimensional approach and to achieve realistic and practical rural development strategies using these factors. For this purpose, a total of 96 villages are selected fully covering two counties in the Bartın province located in the Western Black Sea Region of Turkey, which is among the provinces with the lowest per capita income and the highest share of village population. 36 variables which characterise the level of development in villages are developed. These variables are measuring environmental, economic and socio-cultural dimensions and the relationships among them. Principal component and regression analyses are applied determining that there are 12 factors affecting development of the villages. These are (1) geographical location, (2) size of a village, (3) productivity of land, (4) type of land use, (5) active population, (6) poplar production areas, (7) proximity to a river, (8) housing comfort, (9) characteristics of drinking water, (10) productive fruit areas, (11) cooperativization and (12) social infrastructure investments. Based on these 12 factors, a development index (DI) is developed consisting of the 12 variables with the highest factor loading in each derived factor. Villages are divided into three groups based on (1) the DI values and (2) 36 variables used in a discriminant analysis, showing that the proposed DI is a reliable index to measure variation in development. According to these results, development strategies for each village group are put forth. Subsequently, the methodology developed in this paper can be used to monitor village development and to assist in effective use of resources for sustainable forestry and development in Turkey.

In this paper an attempt has been made to determine the factors that influence individual's decision to choose a particular energy carrier, viz., firewood, LPG, kerosene, and electricity. From the economic perspective, an individual's propensity to choose a particular energy carrier is determined by his/her economic status, carrier availability and prices, household size and other regional and demographic variables. For this reason, the choice of selecting a carrier for a service (e.g. cooking) is expected to vary among individuals. To assess this, the study uses the 1999-2000 National Sample Survey (NSS) data covering over 118,000 households and analyses the rural and urban areas separately. A multinomial logit selection model has been applied for estimating the energy carrier choice decision. The results show that individuals are influenced by per capita income, household size, educational status of the head of the household, occupation of the household members, in addition to other household location characteristics. It is found that the monthly household income and household size have nonlinear relationship on the probability of choosing a fuel. r

We draw on the experience of the major combatant countries in World War I to analyse the role of economic factors in determining the outcome of the war and the effects of the war on subsequent economic performance. We demonstrate that the degree of mobilisation for war can be explained largely by differences in the level of development of each country, leaving little room for other factors that feature prominently in narrative accounts, such as national differences in war preparations, war leadership, military organisation and morale. We ...

Este estudo tem por objetivo analisar as correlações entre a frota de tratores em uso de cada país e os indicadores de desenvolvimento econômico, produção de cereais e demografia, para a elaboração de um modelo de regressão que permita prever a evolução da variável dependente no Brasil. Por meio da análise de correlação múltipla de uma amostra de 136 países com dados de 1999, verificou-se significativa correlação positiva dessa variável com o PIB, renda per capita, produção e área colhida de cereais e população urbana, com coeficientes de correlação variando de 0,48 a 0,77. Por outro lado, foi encontrada fraca correlação positiva com a população rural e com a população economicamente ativa na agropecuária. Um modelo de regressão linear múltipla foi calculado com o PIB e a área colhida de cereais como variáveis independentes, apresentando poder de previsão aceitável estatisticamente. Foram elaborados cenários com valores estimados das variáveis explicativas e aplicados ao modelo para prever o valor da frota de tratores. Pelo modelo de regressão obtido, estima-se que o Brasil precisa de crescimentos anuais médios de 2%, 4% e 6% no PIB e na área colhida de cereais por 10 anos para possuir frotas de tratores equivalentes às encontradas em 1999 no Chile, na China e na Espanha, respectivamente. Em cada caso, as variações na frota de tratores seriam de 28,1%, 53,8% e 84,0%. , a significant positive correlation (varying from 0.48 to 0.77) was verified with the GNP, the per capita income, the production and the harvested area of cereals and the urban population. On the other hand, a weak positive correlation was found when correlating with the rural population and the economically active population in the farming sector. A multiple linear regression model was calculated with the GNP and the harvested area of cereals as independent variables, resulting in an acceptable statistical forecast. Scenarios with estimated values of the independent variables were elaborated and then tested in the model to foresee the value of the tractors fleet. The regression model estimated that in Brazil is necessary an annual average growth of 2%, 4% and 6% in the GNP and in the harvested area of cereals to reach tractor fleets equivalents to those found in 1999 in Chile, China and Spain, respectively. In each case, the variations in the tractor fleet would be of 28.1%, 53,8% and 84.0%.

This paper examines the SMEs performance in Zambia and attempts to identify some practical lessons that Zambia can learn from Southeast Asian countries (with reference to Malaysia) in order to facilitate industrial development through unlocking the potential of its SMEs sector. Malaysia and Zambia were at the same level of economic development as evidenced by similar per capita incomes but

In the international negotiations aimed at reaching an agreement to reduce the greenhouse-gas emissions that are driving global warming, the developed and developing countries are talking past each other. The developed world is speaking the language of efficiency, while the developing world speaks the language of justice. Economic theory and the concept of efficiency are fine for answering the question of who should reduce, but that is not the contentious issue. When it comes to the hotly contested issue of who should pay, economic theory offers no guidance, and the developing world is right to insist that we look to principles of justice. This Article considers three kinds of approaches to the who-should- pay question: 1) those that take status quo emissions levels as their starting point; 2) those that allocate emissions rights on a per capita basis; and 3) those that allocate the costs of emissions reductions on the basis of ability to pay. The Article then considers three possib...

This paper analyzes a range of host country characteristics that determine foreign direct investment (FDI) flows to developing countries, using panel data on 72 countries for the period 1970-2008. Keeping in view the endogeneity problem of the chosen host country's characteristics, the model is estimated using the General Method of Moments (GMM) technique. The analysis shows that gross domestic product (GDP), economic growth, and per capita income positively affect FDI-a result consistent with the marketseeking behavior of multinational corporations (MNCs). Furthermore, we find that remittances have a significant and positive impact on FDI. On the other hand, inflation and the balance of payments deficit have negative effects on FDI. MNCs are attracted to host countries that are outward looking and follow trade-promoting policies. This is confirmed by the positive effect of openness on FDI flows to developing countries. The study also finds that the effect of military expenditures on FDI is negative and significant. Finally, our analysis finds that the real exchange rate has a significantly negative impact on FDI.

1 - COLOMBIA: ECONOMIC, POLITICAL AND SOCIAL BACKGROUND. Colombia had a population of 41 million in 1998, and an annual growth rate of 2.2%. The average Colombian household included 5.2 persons, and population density reached 31 inhabitants per square kilometer. The nation's literacy rate was 87%. Per capita income averages US$1,400 annually, and purchasing power is one fourth that of the United States. Sustained economic growth during the past decade has surpassed 4% annually. The Gross Domestic Product is based upon services (51%), industry (28%), and agriculture (20.5%). Foreign trade totals US$23 billion annually and is carried out mainly with the United States (36%), Europe (20%), and the Andean Group (13%). Major exports include petroleum and its derivatives; coffee, coal, and the illegal exportation of cocaine (almost exclusively) to the United States. Industrial output is made up of agricultural and food products (30%); textiles and clothing (16%); and, transportation an...

We assessed nutrition status and prevalence of malnutrition in hospital patients as determined by the Subjective Global Assessment Form, awareness of patients' nutrition status by health teams, and the use of nutrition therapy. METHODS: We enrolled 4000 hospital patients at least 18 y old who were covered by the Brazilian public health care system in a cross-sectional, multicenter epidemiologic study. We used Student's t and chi-square tests for univariate and multiple logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: Malnutrition was present in 48.1% of patients and severe malnutrition was present in 12.5% of patients. The prevalence of malnutrition was higher in the northern and northeastern regions of Brazil, where per-capita income is lower. Malnutrition correlated with primary diagnosis at admission, age (60 y), presence of cancer or infection, and longer hospital stay (P Ͻ 0.05). Fewer than 18.8% of patients' records contained information on nutrition-related issues. Nutrition therapy was used in 7.3% of patients (6.1% enteral nutrition and 1.2% parenteral nutrition). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of malnutrition in hospitalized patients in Brazil is high, physician awareness of malnutrition is low, and nutrition therapy is underprescribed. Nutrition 2001;17:573-580.

This paper pulls together into one practical model two strands of economic theory to assess the impact of baseball player exports on the aggregate economic performance of the Dominican Republic. On one hand, foreign trade theory predicts a strong correlation between a country’s exports and economic performance measured as per capita income. On the other hand, microeconomic research finds a positive, but statistically insignificant, impact of sports activities on local economies. Analysis finds a strong correlation between baseball player exports and economic performance for the years 1962-2004, suggesting that both the USA and the Dominican Republic benefit from encouraging baseball player trade and repatriation of baseball export earnings.

The development of this City Development Strategy (CDS) for Sana'a would not have been possible without the financial support of the Cities Alliance. The CDS process was a collaborative effort involving many government officials, private sector representatives, and members of the Yemeni civil society. The CDS team is grateful to the GOY's policymakers and senior officials for their leadership throughout the process, particularly: H.E. Mr. Abdelkarim Al-Arhabi, Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs/Minister of Planning and International Cooperation (MOPIC) for his support for the Sana'a CDS and for introducing its various presentations; H.E. Mr.

Solid waste recycling and recovery approach can be a sustainable and effective waste management system in many growing cities of the least developed countries. In the course of achieving proper solid waste management, a lot of efforts in these countries have, however, been focused more on collection and disposal and ignored waste recycling which can result into income generation, employment creation and reduction of the waste quantities that will finally require disposal in the existing municipal landfills or disposal sites. This paper reports the findings of a study on solid waste recycling in a selected semi-planned settlement in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania. The objective of the study was to describe the existing solid waste management in the study area with a view to identifying the waste generation rates, types of the wastes and determine the amount of waste from the settlement that can be recycled for the purpose of income generation and reduction of the total amount of waste to be disposed of. Findings from this study revealed that waste generation rate in the study area was 0.36 kg per person per day, and that out of the 14 600 kg of recyclable waste generated per year, 8030 kg or 55% can be recycled and generate a per capita income of Tsh 834 000 for waste recyclists which is more than twice the official minimum annual wage (Tsh 360 000) in Tanzania at the time of the study. The study also revealed that effective waste recycling in the study area would result in the reduction of the total waste that need to be transported for final disposal by 11%.

The environmental Kuznets curve assumes an inverted U-shaped relation between environmental damage and per capita income. Recently it has been argued in the literature that in addition to income levels, the inequality in the distribution of power and income is (positively) related to environmental degradation. We provide an additional argument, based on simple aggregation, for including a measure of income

Water is one of the most important natural resources that is necessary for the rise and development of any biological and human activity. The paper sets out a logical scheme for the analysis of productive uses of water, with the purpose of understanding both the functioning of an economy in the presence of a technical constraint to the exploitation of water resources, and the possible policy instruments available to the public authority. A complementarity hypothesis between the two forms of capital considered (physical and water capital) arises, with the first coming from private investment and the second being defined as the amount of public investment in services and infrastructures for water resource exploitation. As public investment in water capital crowds out private saving eventually available for private physical capital accumulation, an allocation criterion is needed to maximize total production of the system, never falling behind the optimal physical capital-water capital ratio. Developing the model, equilibrium conditions in a "water economy" are described and a parametrical device is set in order to identify optimal taxation policies to finance public water infrastructures investment. key-words: water, economic growth, Solow-model.

This paper provides a nuanced perspective on debates about the potential for Africa's smallholder agriculture to stimulate growth and alleviate poverty in an increasingly integrated world. In particular, the paper synthesizes both the traditional theoretical literature on agriculture's role in the development process and discusses more recent literature that remains skeptical about agriculture's development potential for Africa. In order to examine in greater detail the relevance for Africa of both the "old" and "new" literatures on agriculture, the paper provides a typology of African countries based on their stage of development, agricultural conditions, natural resources, and geographic location. This typology shows that agriculture's growth and poverty-reduction potential varies substantially across the continent. Moreover, the typology provides the framework for in-depth analysis of agriculture and growth-poverty linkages in five countries (Ethiopia, Ghana, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zambia) using economy-wide, macro-micro linkage models.

This paper provides a nuanced perspective on debates about the potential for Africa's smallholder agriculture to stimulate growth and alleviate poverty in an increasingly integrated world. In particular, the paper synthesizes both the traditional theoretical literature on agriculture's role in the development process and discusses more recent literature that remains skeptical about agriculture's development potential for Africa. In order to examine in greater detail the relevance for Africa of both the "old" and "new" literatures on agriculture, the paper provides a typology of African countries based on their stage of development, agricultural conditions, natural resources, and geographic location. This typology shows that agriculture's growth and poverty-reduction potential varies substantially across the continent. Moreover, the typology provides the framework for in-depth analysis of agriculture and growth-poverty linkages in five countries (Ethiopia, Ghana, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zambia) using economy-wide, macro-micro linkage models.

This paper examines the generation and management of municipal solid waste (MSW) through the lens of economics. We estimate that the global burden of MSW amounted to 1.3 billion metric tons in 1990, or 0.67 kilograms of waste per person per day. Industrial countries account for a disproportionate share of the world's MSW relative to their share of world population, while developing countries account for a disproportionate share of the world's MSW relative to their share of world income. Cross-country and time-series analyses reveal that MSW generation is positively associated, but inelastic, with respect to per capita income, and positively associated and unit elastic with respect to population size.