Neolithic figurines

Bodies make space speak. This graduate seminar investigates the relationship between bodily practice, social performance, and the production of architectural space. Critical literature on the human body, its gender and sexuality, its materiality, and everyday life have flourished in the recent decades, while discussions of architectural space, place and landscape came to the foreground. Drawing on this corpus of recent scholarship in the social sciences and humanities, we will work closely with architectural, art historical and archaeological case studies drawn from the ancient Near Eastern world, and consider the impact of such new paradigms on the field. Neolithic figurines, megalithic monuments, rock reliefs, cave paintings, funerary rituals, urban festivals and festive spaces with visual narrative programs will constitute some of the case studies. Discussions of embodiment, embodied subjectivity, agency of objects, animism of architectural spaces and landscapes, gendered representation of the body, gender performance, multi-sensorial experience of the everyday world, spectacles of the state and biopolitics will play a central role in the seminar. While reading theoretical scholarship on body, performance and space, we will also be studying closely select case studies of archaeological sites, bodies of material evidence drawn from athe ancient Middle Eastern world from prehistory to the late Iron Age.

A II. világháborút követő évtizedek a vasfüggönyön belül rekedt országok számára nem kedveztek a nemzetközi szervezésben folytatott ásatásoknak . Magyarországon az őskort illetően a berlini fal leomlásáig mindössze kettőre nyílt lehetőség: Berettyóújfalu-Herpály telljén 1977 és 1982 között szovjet-magyar (KALICZ − RACZKY 1986), illetve Dévaványa és Gyoma térségében 1979-1981 között angol-magyar terepkutatások folytak. Az oxfordi Ashmolean Museum és a Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Régészeti Intézete közös programját a békési Sárrét területén angol részről Andrew Sherratt, magyar oldalról Torma István vezette, a helyet adó békéscsabai Munkácsy Mihály Múzeumból pedig szerzők vettek részt a munkálatokban. Kiterjedt területeken módszeres felszíni leletgyűjtések mellett nem roncsoló magnetométeres vizsgálatokat folytattunk, majd az akkor még ritkaságszámba menő, felszínen nyert eredményeket több kisebb szondázó ásatással igazoltuk, hitelesítettük. A közös kutatások legfontosabb részeredményeit A. Sherratt több alapos, azóta is sokat idézett tanulmányban tette közzé (SHERRATT 1982. Közös publikációban még a szovjet-magyar projektek sem végződtek, az ásatók nem emlékezhetnek arra, hogy szovjet kollégáik nézetei befolyásolták volna a magyar régészeti kutatásokat (BÁNFFY 2013, 625) ám az első angol-magyar expedíció eddig sem jutott, nem csupán a részletes feldolgozás nem készülhetett el, már a terepmunka is sajnálatosan torzó maradt. Az 1981. évi szezon befejeztével ugyanis A. Sherrattal elemezve az addigi eredményeket, megterveztük a következő év programját, amely feladatok ellátáshoz szükséges munkaeszközeiket is Magyarországon hagyták, az 1982. évben viszont már csak az együttműködés leállításáról értesül-hettünk. Úgy tűnik, az akkoriban elfogadott és megkívánt neolitikus fejlődésmodellt nem pontosan igazoló eredmények, az éppen aktuális hazai történelemszemléletet "fellazító" brit hatás nem volt kívánatos, így tehát a terepen gyűjtött leletek restaurálatlanul Békéscsabán, egy városszéli raktárban porosodnak, múzeumi feldolgozásukra azóta sem kerülhetett sor. Egyedüli nemzetközi együttműködésként még 2003-ban is kimaradt a magyar őskorkutatás egyébként igen alapos összefoglalójából , annak ellenére, hogy szerző később bőségesen elemzi azt egy műfajától idegen módon alaptalan vádaskodásokkal terhelt nekrológban , ami A. Sherratt tragikusan korai halálakor éppen a Békés megyei múzeumok közleményeiben jelent meg . A damnatio memoriae a feltárt leletekre azóta is vonatkozik, így az első angol-magyar régészeti kutatóprogram alapadatai, eredményei máig sem válhattak a tudományos vérkeringés részévé, holott a régészettudomány alapvető érdeke, és mint minden tudományos fejlődésnek motorja a történeti források publicitása lenne, hogy azok az újabb és újabb kutatási eredmények szűrőjén átjutva újabb gondolatokat, újabb elméleteket gerjesszenek. Közös feltárásaink egyikére 1980-ban a Dévaványa-Réhely dűlő, 3/26 sz. lelőhelyen került sor. A neolitikus település a községhatár északi szélén, az ecsegfalvi műút nyugati oldalán, egy régi ér keleti magas partján közel egy km hosszan, széles sávban nyúlik el (ECSEDY et al. 1982, 42). A lelőhelyet északi végének közelében két helyen is talajjavítási céllal ásott nagy gödrökkel bolygatták meg. Kelet-nyugati irányban 2x1 m-es kis szelvényeket nyitottunk az előző évben végzett nem roncsoló vizsgálatok eredményeinek megerősítésére az egyes teleprészleteket ille-

English Summary:


This remarkable book is the fruit of 30 years of investigations of two archaeologists, husband and wife, Maria Magdalena and Andrzej Antczak, on the pre-Hispanic archaeology of the majestic Los Roques Archipelago, Venezuela. The uniqueness of the Los Roques Archipelago within the panorama of insular pre-colonial archaeology in the Americas centers on the discovery of more than 400 human clay figurines on one small island, Dos Mosquises, along with elaborate primary ritual contexts and the remains of a gargantuan queen conch (lobatus gigas) exploitation enterprise. This book is the winner of two of the highest scientific publication awards in Venezuela (2006 & 2009).


Resumen en Español:


Desde el título de este volumen de indiscutible valor, la palabra “prometidas” aplica oportunamente a nuestro maravilloso archipiélago venezolano de Los Roques la alegoría bíblica que coloca al final de un exigente camino hermosas tierras, donde corren ríos de leche y miel. Hacia estas islas con abundantes recursos marinos, entre los cuales destaca el gran caracol marino llamado ‘botuto’, se dirigían las canoas indígenas durante al menos cuatro siglos antes de la conquista europea. Las campañas de explotación de los recursos en las islas dependían del éxito de la actividad ceremonial, testimoniada por centenares de figurinas humanas, incensarios, ocarinas y pipas cerámicas, flautas de hueso y silbatos de concha, recuperados por los arqueólogos en complejos contextos primarios.

La presencia de esta diversidad de objetos en los campamentos temporales de las pequeñas islas oceánicas es un fenómeno excepcional en la arqueología del Caribe. En este sentido, la publicación de esta monografía es el cumplimiento de un prolongado esfuerzo y de un caro anhelo por proporcionar al lector una explicación sólida y coherente de este fenómeno arqueológico único. Es también el final de una importante etapa de ese camino verdaderamente exigente de la investigación arqueológica. A través de sus páginas, con un soporte teórico documental de inusual solidez y pertinencia, se difunde el fruto de muchos años de perseverante dedicación para sus autores, María Magdalena Mackowiak de Antczak y Andrzej Antczak, arqueólogos y antropólogos vinculados desde hace tiempo con la Universidad Simón Bolívar.

Se trata, sin duda, de una obra mayor, enriquecida por 1500 ilustraciones y más de 200 tablas, que describe hallazgos arqueológicos excepcionales recuperados de manera sistemática durante más de 60 campañas de trabajo de campo, y desarrolla propuestas verdaderamente seminales para el entendimiento del significado y la valoración del legado prehispánico en Venezuela y, en especial, en sus territorios insulares.

Este volumen ha sido concebido no solamente como lectura referencial para profesionales y estudiantes de arqueología y antropología, sino también esta dirigido al lector no especializado que puede sentirse atraído por el vibrante, colorido y desconocido pasado prehispánico presentado en estas páginas. También, a través de esta monografía los autores aspiran a infundir El Orgullo por el Pasado, el lema que orienta sus trabajos de investigación y docencia.

Este vasto y complejo proyecto editorial ha sido posible gracias a la concertación de un gran equipo profesional y una venturosa alianza de nuestra Universidad con Banesco y Petrozuata, confluencias que celebramos también como promesas felizmente cumplidas.

El libro ha recibido numerosos premios nacionales incluyendo:

IV Premio Nacional del Libro 2006, Mejor Libro Científico otorgado por el Ministerio del Poder Popular para la Cultura.

2009 Premio Alterno por Mejor Investigación en Ciencias Sociales, otorgado por la ASOVAC (Asociación Venezolana para el Avance de la Ciencia).

2007 Premio Andrés Bello para la Mejor Investigación en Ciencias Sociales otorgado por la Universidad Simón Bolívar.

Figurines and Models. Anthropomorphic figurines from Macedonia and Thrace (Greek original version), pp. 146-153, 209, 293-297. In Giorgos A. Papathanasopoulos (ed.), Neolithic Culture in Greece, Nikolaos Goulandris Foundation, Museum of Cycladic Art, Athens 1996.

"The megalithic tomb at Montelirio is off the scale in more ways than one. As well as being the largest example of its type known in Spain, the burial goods secreted in its subterranean chambers are unsurpassed in both quantity and quality. Leonardo García Sanjuán reveals what the dead of Montelirio can tell us about Copper Age society."

The spiritual life of Neolithic Bulgaria has been extremely rich and various. The cult for fertility and the female role in it is reflected in the anropomorphic figurines represented in this publication by a number of unique examples published here for the first time. Less representative are the zoomorphic figurines which are impossible to interprete as pieces of art. But the zoomorphic and antropomorphic pottery is true art. There is a large variety of Late Neolithic figurines, among which a number of Early Eneolithic prototypes could be mentioned. Richly decorated, they most probably were altars because on such a find from Hotnitsa legs from a figurine that had originally been attached to the altar can be seen. These altars were called „small cuit tables“ and are an important component of the Neolithic art complex. The development of the burial rites during the Neolithic is of special interest. From the period of the Early Neolithic we know a few burials intra murum laid in a hoker position, while from the Late Neolithic we already have information about some extra mural burials. Among these the burials in Durankulak are entirely studied. Here the dead were buried bi-ritually; the women in a hoker position with the head to the North and the men stretched on their backs with their heads also to the North. Certain differences in social status between the individuals buried can be noticed. During the Early Neolithic there appeared the sign system. It can be found in the incised ornaments of ceramics or is independantly met on pintaderas and lids or bottoms of pots. The latter are especially characteristic of the Late Neolithic.

Questa breve lista bibliografica vuole introdurre alcuni dei maggiori lavori di analisi critica del mito della "Grande Dea", ritenuto da alcuni autori, in primis l'archeologa Marija Gimbutas, come caratterizzante varie civiltà preistoriche, neolitiche, e di epoca storica, ed afferenti a bacini geografici distanti nello spazio e nel tempo. L'ipotesi dell'esistenza di un culto preistorico della "Grande Dea", idea nata a metà '800, ha conosciuto una larga diffusione sia accademica che popolare dagli anni '70 in poi, penetrando in campi diversi da quello archeologico. Da queste teorie sono state tratte molte considerazioni e studi di tipo sociologico e psicologico, analisi in genere portate avanti da specialisti di campi diversi dall'archeologia, e quindi mancanti del senso critico proveniente da una specializzazione di tipo archeologico. Come sottolineato da molti autori qui elencati, le estrapolazioni da questo indimostrato mito dell'antichità hanno introdotto pericoli e danni di imprevista natura, soprattutto presso il pubblico femminile. Purtroppo le critiche accademiche sono rimaste a lungo celate agli occhi del più vasto pubblico consistendo tipicamente in libri a bassa tiratura o pubblicazioni di settore non accessibili al di fuori delle università. La recente disponibilità on-line di buona parte delle pubblicazioni accademiche, può far arrivare il discorso critico al grande pubblico. Questa breve lista sulle critiche accademiche al concetto di "Grande Dea" vuole quindi riassumere le maggiori pubblicazioni accademiche che siano gratuitamente disponibili per il download e quei libri sull'argomento che risultino ancora disponibili alla vendita. In maniera necessariamente limitata è invece trattato il vastissimo argomento delle figurine neolitiche, legato ad una bibliografia troppo copiosa per lo specifico argomento qui trattato. Un discorso a parte meritano invece alcuni casi di contraffazione di reperti archeologici relativi a materiale "Grande Dea", che devono venir trattati singolarmente. E' questo il caso della presunta "Grande Dea" di Catal Huyuk di James Mellaart, sul quale l'autore ha in preparazione una dettagliata pubblicazione. Per la lista è stato favorito un ordine cronologico piuttosto che alfabetico, con la raccomandazione di iniziare letture dai lavori più recenti che potrebbero essere più aggiornati sugli aspetti archeologici.

Figürin kategorisinin tanımı değişken olup, figürinler bölgesel, geleneksel ve kronolojik bağlamda farklılıklar gösterir. Figürinler, taşınabilirliği ve üç boyutlu imalı biçimleriyle öncelikle olarak heykelcik formlarına sahiptirler. İnsan yapımı bu malzemeler çeşitli formlarda görülebilir (insan biçimli, hayvan, tanrı ve tanrıça, belirsiz). Süreç olarak figürin kavramı bir figürinin oluşumundaki her aşamasından söz edilebilir. Figürinlerin formu benzer öğeler üzerinde değişik açılarda görülen farklı unsurların (tunç, mermer, kireçtaşı vb.) tanımına da yardımcı olurlar. Tarih öncesi figürinler aynı zamanda cinsiyet (erkek ve kadın) aracılığıyla ideal cinsiyeti yaratma ortamını sunmuş olabilirler.

The definition of the category of figurine is variable and differs based on regional, traditional and chronological context. Figurines primacy should be given to statuette forms, hintingly portability and three dimensionality. Figurines can be of varied forms (anthropomorphic, animal, god and goddess, ambiguous forms). The notion of figurine as process can refer to almost every stage in the life of a figurine. The figurine form can lend itself to the depiction of different elements on the same item, (bronze, marble, limestone and so on.) perhaps as viewed form different angles. Figurines should also have offered the medium for creating an ideal of gender or sex through the elision of male via androgynous representation, or via the duality of male and female figures composing the same figurine.

Since the inception of the discipline of archaeology, figurines have been considered as the basis for research into the praehistoric social order and religious ideas. In spite of the numerous critiques, the idea that they are the reflection of adoration of Mother Goddess and fertility cults, has persevered even to the present day, mainly thanks to the work of Maria Gimbutas. Her simplified approach to praehistory, apart from giving rise to pseudo-archaeological narratives, has induced severe criticism and polemics inside archaeology. The concept of the Goddess has migrated during the recent period from the academic writing to the realm of pseudo-science, daily politics and activism. In our country, the ideas
of the Golden Past, considered to be the origin of the European civilization, are particularly present in the „grey zone“: the public sphere, facilitated through media. All these narratives are based upon the preconception that in the Neolithic collections the representations of women dominate. The results of the preliminary analyses of gender representation in Neolithic assemblages have proven that the claims of women’s dominance are ill-founded, and emphasized
once more the significant presence, or even dominance of asexual figurines. On the other hand, the criteria for identification have shown to be unreliable, raising the question of usefulness of such attempts, as well as a number of new questions. Primarily, the role and meaning of the presence/absence of secondary sex attributes, their correlation to age, as well as possible regional differences in meaning and function of figurines are discussed.

Beyond "essentialism": recurring patterns of female symbolism in ritual culture and modern theoretical preoccupations with 'fertility idols." The female figurines, central icons of the paleolithic and neolithic. Vulva petroglyphs on a global scale. Megalithic women, cupules, and rock dust. Symbolic patterns of the ceramic figurines and what they might tell us about ceremonial paintup, dress, and practices.  Breastpots and female effigy vessels, and some striking similarities between urns widely separated in time and place.

The megalithic phenomenon is one of the most exciting subjects of study in prehistory. The practice of monumentalising places of special significance by erecting large stones started during the Neolithic period, approximately 10.000 years ago. On time, it acquired such a social and ideological depth that it became one of the most geographically and temporally widespread cultural phenomena ever known in Europe. In Andalusia,  megalithic sites and landscapes express themselves with great richness and diversity, representing an exceptional source of scientific information for our understanding of our forebears’ ways of life, as well as a unique and beautiful historical legacy. This book combines the contributions of various university professors, who bring us up to date with their research, with excellent photographic illustrations and, for the first time, reflects the spread of this cultural phenomenon throughout Andalusia. It is suitable for both those who wish to deepen their knowledge of this professional specialisation and those who seek the pleasure of a satisfied interest.

Vollständige Veröffentlichung in halber Dateigröße. - Katalogmässige Erfassung und Deutung der angesagten Objekte. Linear- und bemaltkeramische Plastiken aus Niederösterreich. Es handelt sich dabei um eine Neuauflage des Buches "Neolithische Kultobjekte aus dem niederösterreichischen Manhartsbergbereich".  Mannus  - Bibliothek 19, Hückeswagen 1982 und des Aufsatzes "Steinzeitlicher Kult". Horner Schriften zur Ur- und Frühgeschichte 7/8, 1983 - 1984, Horn 1983, S. 7 - 42 (beide hier bei Academia als PDF eingestellt) und ergänzt durch die in der Zwischenzeit neu veröffentlichten Plastiken.
Zitat (Seite 74): "Die alteingeführte Bezeichnung "Idol" hat hinsichtlich ihrer Kürze sicherlich eine gewisse Berechtigung. Es muß nur von vorneherein klargestellt sein, dass damit keine spezielle Interpretation verbunden ist."

Da diese Veröffentlichung (die Seiten 23 bis 137 des im Jahre 1998 erschienenen Kataloges IDOLE) immer wieder falsch zitiert wird, sei darauf hingewiesen, dass diese die alleinige Arbeit des Verfassers dieser Zeilen (Hermann Maurer) ist und der fälschlicherweise immer wieder genannte Friedrich Berg in keinem Zusammenhang damit steht und nichts zum Text beigetragen hat.

Bekanntmachung einer neuen Siedlungsstelle der Linearbandkeramik im Bereiche des Pielachtales, südliches Niederösterreich. Es sind hier mehrere frühneolithische Siedlungshorizonte durch typische Keramik belegbar sowie auch weitreichende Fernbeziehungen anhand von typischen Rohstoffmaterialien. -- Besonders hervorzuheben ist eine menschlich gestaltete tönerne Plastik der späten Linearbandkeramik, eine außerordentliche Erscheinung welche der Siedlung eine besondere Note verleiht. Die Plastik ist vom Kopf bis zum Hüftansatz erhalten. Der Rücken trägt als Verzierung  zarte Ritzlinien in  Verbindung mit notenkopfartigen durch Fingernagelkerben hergestellten Grübchen. Diese Verzierung kann wegen bestimmter Merkmale und wegen der charakteristischen Anordnung dem Röntgenstil zugerechnet werden. -- Weiters sind auf diesem Siedlungsplatz in geringer Zahl auch Lengyelspuren nachgewiesen.

Secondary use and recycling are well-known in archaeology, but in the case of ceramic
objects, only vessels have been analyzed. Several figurines excavated at the site of Pavlovac-
Čukar, however, exhibit traces of use – damage in the form of different kinds of abrasion.
The traces on the leg of a realistically modeled figurine (fig. 1) are present in the form
of deep grooves of a triangular cross-section. The sides of the grooves are smooth and flattened.
According to the barely visible channels parallel to the vertical axis of the tool, the
movement in which the tool was used was in the up-down direction. Also, on the left lateral
side, the original surface is worn out and removed. Such damage does not exist on the right
side, suggesting that the tool was held slightly obliquely, so that the pressure of the abrasive
movement was higher on the left side of the tool. Another figurine leg (fig. 2) exhibits similar
grooves on its back side. The traces on both tools suggest that they were used in the process
of smoothing, finishing, and/or sharpening of wooden/bone tools, possibly awls. Small
grooves and channels (with pedestalled temper) on the upper part of a columnar figurine
(fig. 3) are harder to interpret. Fragment of a figurine representing a female with incised
clothes/ornaments (fig. 4) exhibits an abraded patch on its belly: at the beginning of the
damaged zone, the traces are especially intensive and are manifested by parallel deep diagonal
notches. The figurine tool could have been used in the processes such as scraping or flattening
some hard material. Finally, the small figurine shown in fig. 5 exhibits abraded base
and head, with flattened sand temper, indicating use over some hard material.
Five figurines from Pavlovac with traces of use open new questions related to the meaning
and function of the figurines during the Late Neolithic. They were recycled after the
breaking and were probably used in everyday activities. This further leads to the conclusion
that the primary function of the figurines (symbolic or ritual) was not long-lasting. This
further underlines the possibility that they were the objects with a single-use, or disposable
after they fulfilled their designated role. The considerations about the traces of use on the
figurines are still lacking, so the specimens from Čukar reveal an urgent need for further research
in this field.

The aim of this work is to analyze the character and the purpose of the openings on the Macedonian Neolithic altars of the Mother-House type, based on it, and a verification of several hypothesis about the meaning and the function of this category of cult objects. Presented here is a part of these analysis which are related to these openings, located on the upper area (roof) and the bottom of the cubus (modeled house) (PI. I) and on the top of the anthropomorphic cylinder (PI. III). On some of the altars, on the four corners on the roof of the presented house there is a circular hole cut in with a diameter of around 1 cm. So far there is an assumption, according to which they could be used for putting in ropes so the altar can be hanged on the roof. Not really denying this hypothesis, the author is proposing a new one, according to which these openings had cult character i.e. were used for ritual adding of certain elements in the cubus: water, various liquid food (milk, cooking oil), processed or granulated (wheat, flour, bread crumbs), vegetation (leafs, flowers, branches) and animal elements (wool, hair, feathers) or elements who can burn or smoke (candles, pitch, embers). This hypothesis can be argued through appropriate rituals concluded at the Slavic and Balkan folklore, as well as the ehnographic traditions of other distant regions of the world. Actually, they are actions taken during various occasions (moving into a house, bringing the bride in the house, New Year's and other festivities). Namely, in the four corners of the house or on the roof various goods are placed, all with the same purpose, the abbility to gain happiness, welfare and protection in the future through this action. Especially important are the traces of such rituals, reffered to as "donating to the corners" during the excavation at the real houses from the Neolithic period. Semiotic analyses show that the four angles of the house, in these procedures symbolically are coding its total area.
The mentioned rituals quite often end with giving a present at the last point - the fireplace which codes the central part i.e. the center of the house, where in the case of elaborated Neolithic altars coincides with the central hole made on the peak of the anthropomorphic cylinders. Based on the funnel shape and traces of burning, can be assumed that through this hole on the cubus some kind of liquid was poured, or through it a smoke was going out. Besides this function and shape, the cylinders rising from the cubus, shouldn't be treated as chimneys (they appeared in the future epochs), but as a symbolic-iconographic elements with a purpose to anthropomorphize i.e. divinize the house. On some altars, this central hole on the cylinder has its own match - larger central hole cut on the basement of the cubus. The author makes an effort for additional development and argument on the previously stated assumptions stating that it serves for pouring out the elements that were ritually added into the cubus. He doesn't exclude the possibility that through this hole, in the cubus periodically could be possible to put out or put in certain elements (candle, icon lamp, planted plant) so the altar will simply cover them.
Adding various ritual elements could be made through larger holes, made on the lateral walls of the cubus. They could be elements that are already mentioned (in a role of symbols of the richness and the welfare of the house), so according to the principle of the homeopathic magic - and the real house to be filled with these elements or the one that they are symbolizing. Except the real jments, they could also be their art representations (figurines of people or animals). Considering the same concept, adding certain prophylactic elements (especially at the four corners) could lead to apostrophic effect, i.e. house protection from various negative aspects. In regard of listed concepts some parallels could be found, kept until present time in the Slavic and Balkan Folklore. We have in consideration the ritual breads (round breads, somewhere eve called "house"), made for Christmas or for the saint-patron holiday of the certain house, i.e. family. On their surface often is making an application of various artistic motifs, made in dough, and schematically are coding certain categories which the house should be fulfilled ("full barns", "multiplication of the cattle in the stables", "full house with children"). Some distant ethnographic examples are referring to the possibility of here shown Neolithic altars could serve also for symbolic sheltering and serving the souls of the deceased tenants that sometime lived in the house where this altar was placed in.

In every culture, regardless of its geographic or chronological affiliation, we can identify a focus point in which it directs most of its energetic, mental and emotional potential, building, in fact, its entire social, economic and religious system around it. Among Balkan Neolithic cultures this role is carried by the house, whereas among the ones in Macedonia this character of the house is even more pronounced due to the presence of an exceptionally specific type of objects that nowhere in the world appear in such a striking form and in such a large number of specimens and variants. These are ceramic objects shaped like a human-house or more precisely woman-house, which in academia are most often referred to as anthropomorphic house models or altars in the form of an anthropomorphized house. The shape and context of discovery of these objects has so far led all researchers to the conclusion that they are symbolic objects that participated in the spiritual life of Neolithic people, i.e. in those spheres of life that today we call religion, mythology, magic and cult. According to the large number of such finds, it can be safely concluded that the territory of today’s North Macedonia was the nucleus of this phenomenon, whose peripheral manifestations can be also sporadically seen in neighboring regions. The place of Cerje-Govrlevo within the frames of this phenomenon is especially important, given the fact that the existence of the largest number of such objects (almost 160) has so far been ascertained there, based on the excavations of a fairly small part of the former Neolithic settlement. This was the reason why in this publication, dedicated to the spiritual life of the Neolithic community that existed on the site, a special place was given to these objects, also followed by an attempt to reveal their former spiritual significance. Most of the anthropomorphized house models present an unrealistic image – fusion of house and human, in numerous cases with highlighted female characteristics (breasts, pubis, pregnancy, more complex hairstyles, jewelry). In studies so far, the combination of these two elements has been interpreted as an aspiration for their symbolic identification, that is, the representation of the house as a woman, i.e. of the woman as a house. In several of our articles, including the one in the previous volume of this edition, we have justified the mentioned combination by the Neolithic man’s discovery of the common morphological and functional components in the two elements. Both the house and the woman, in fact, encompass space in which humans exist, where the space of the house is identified with the uterus, and its occupants with the fetus. Because of this, we suggested that such objects be named ceramic models of the type “Mother-House”.

Objects usually called ‘altars’, some of which have been previously published, are common to the territory of the Republic of Macedonia and appear to be specific to the Central Balkan region. In this paper we present a typology of these objects and attempt to relate the different types and subtypes into a unique system where their mutual genetic relations may be defined. In spite of the absence of immediate parallels, comparable objects of this period include ceramic models of houses from southeast Europe and the Near East. Based on a symbolic and iconographic analysis, we suggest they were cult objects of the ‘woman-house’ type. We propose they represent deified and personalized houses which symbolize several categories and functions (i.e., the power to give birth, to produce, to protect, to feed, to maintain life, to gather and to organize people, to operate community and probably to reproduce and resurrect the deceased). The meaning and cultic use of these objects are revealed by the comparative method and especially by their synchronic and diachronic aspects. The parallels for the symbolic relation of ‘woman-house’ or its wider meaning ‘woman-dwelling’, is found in several classical cultures and especially in folklore traditions in several populations from European and Asian regions, and even abroad. The general symbolic meaning of some house elements and comparative material leads us to propose several hypotheses for the cultic use of these Neolithic objects from the Republic of Macedonia: for libation or lighting and for; imitative magic in which objects were inserted in them (e.g., icon lamp, grain, bread and milk), so that in the real house ‘the hearth is forever active’ and plenty of food may be stored.

Key-words: Neolithic; Republic of Macedonia; house models; typology of ‘Woman-House’ models; symbolism of dwellings; ethnographic analogies.

The paper considers Neolithic anthropomorphic figurines and their connections to clothing, dress and costume, as represented and/or emphasized on them. It examines iconographic evidence for the use of dress and costume on various parts of the figurines’ bodies and compares it to other data, such as preserved elements of dress and costume in burial contexts. The author also considers the figurines’ associations and connection with textile tasks, the space where these tasks were performed, and the (female) performers involved. Finally, the author suggests possible directions of research concerning women’s involvement in both figurine and textile matters, both concrete and intangible.

Palaguta I. An Assemblage of Anthropomorphic Figurines of the Neolithic and Copper Age Balkan-Carpathians Cultures: some Observations on the Structure of Images and its Development // Cucuteni Culture within the European Neo-Eneolithic Context: Proceedings of the International Colloquium «Cucuteni – 130. 15–17 October 2014, Piatra-Neamţ, Romania: In Memoriam dr. Dan Monah, In Memoriam dr. Gheorghe Dumitroaia (ed.: C. Preoteasa, C.-D. Nicola). Piatra-Neamţ: Editura “Constantin Matasă”, 2016. P. 327–348

Here is the citation for this difficult to obtain paper: Lesure, Richard G., “Figurines and Femaleness in Old and New Worlds: Some Implications for Interpretation of Maltese Imagery.”  In: Exploring the Maltese Prehistoric Temple Culture: Presentations from the 2003 Conference.  Published on CD-ROM by the OTS Foundation, Sarasota, Florida, 2004.

“Standard” examples of Neolithic three-dimensional, clay images are generally isolated and static, independently of the posture in which they are depicted. However, some composite figures are uncommon, since they may be represented as if permanently “acting” or “functioning”, including even in “unnatural” occurrences. Such unusual representations could then be considered either as images of real, observed individuals in a particular condition or performing an act, or as signifiers of the communal recollection of an event or of the narration of a belief. Either reality or fiction, a specific true or mythical scene would have been memorized and materialized, fixed permanently in image, as it would have appeared during tangible or invented performance. The paper endeavours to present a number of such examples and seek possible interpretative directions of their meanings and functions.

The settlement Tråsättra was situated in the outer Archipelago of Eastern Sweden during the latter part of the Neolithic. On the site a multitude of artifacts and constructions was documented. The site consists of several dwellings organized in a circle around an open area. The western part of the open area seems to have had a function for preparation of food with several hearths and cookingpits situated around a rectangular feature. The eastern part of the open area did not have hearths but a dwelling, possibly with a ritual function, that was shielded from the rest of the site by a palisade. On the site an extraordinary collection of atifacts and Neolithic figurines was recovered. The figurines depict both humans and animals.

2 Идолът от с. Драма The idol from the village of Drama СЪДЪРЖАНИЕ АНДРЕ ЛЬОР ОА -ГУРАН Естетическа и религиозна интерпретация на фигурите и символите в праисторията · 3 АБPАM CΤОЛЯΡ Проблемът за произхода на палеолитното изобразително изкуство като предметно-генетическа задача · 9 ВИТАЛИЙ ЛАРИЧЕВ Опит за реконструкция на представиге на къснопалеолитния човек от Сибир за възникване на вселената · 14 БОРИС ФР ОЛОВ Към интерпретацията на мезинския геометричен орнамент · 22 РУЖА МАРИНСΚ А Образът в палеолитното изкуство · 24 ХЕНРИЕТА ТОДОР ОВА Върхови постижения на праисторическото изкуство от българските земи · 36 БОГДАН НИКОЛОВ Праисторически жертвеници от глина · 42 ИВАН ВАЙСОВ Антропоморфната пластика на културата Градешница · 46 ИВАН MAPАЗΟВ Богът-бик и богинята-пчела от Чатал Хюйюк -началото на един мит · 51 ВАСИЛ НИКОЛОВ Ранноенеолитна керамична статуетка на богинята Майка-Земя · 64 Аспекти на религиозно-митологичната система през ранния неолит · 67 ТОТЬО ИВАНОВ Два култови съда от Разградско · 71 МИXАИЛ ЧОХАДЖИЕВ Неолитни антропоморфни фигурки от долината на Горна Струма · 73 ИЛИЯ КРЪСТЕВ Уникално скулптурно изображение · 77 МАЯ АВРАМОВА Πраисторическата керамика от Централните Родопи · 79 MИTЪО КЪНЧЕВ Изкуството на праисторическия човек според материали от късно неолитното селище западно от Нова Загора · 82 ЯВОР БОЯДЖИЕВ Мраморни и костни идоли от епохата на късния енеолит в България · 85 АЛЕКСАНДЪР ФОЛ Миграциите в Тракия · 88 Резюмета на английски език · 92 На корицата. Съд във форма на елен от с. Мулдава, Пловдивски окръг На гърба ца корицата. Култов съд от Разградско

Η Βοιωτία είναι μία από τις πλουσιότερες αρχαιολογικά περιοχές της Ελλάδας. Αν και δεν είναι ιδιαίτερα γνωστή στο ευρύ κοινό, απετέλεσε πόλο έλξης περιηγητών και μελετητών, με αποτέλεσμα να έχει εντοπιστεί ένας σημαντικός αριθμός αρχαιολογικών θέσεων όλων των εποχών. Σύμφωνα με την μέχρι σήμερα σχετική βιβλιογραφία έχουν καταγραφεί εξήντα δύο συνολικά νεολιθικές οικιστικές θέσεις, από τις οποίες οι σαράντα τρεις είναι επιβεβαιωμένες και οι δεκαεννέα πιθανές. Προφανώς οι ευνοϊκές γεωγραφικές και γεωφυσικές συνθήκες συνέβαλαν στη συστηματική εγκατάσταση κατοίκων σχεδόν σε όλη τη σημερινή έκταση της Περιφερειακής Ενότητας της Βοιωτίας ήδη από τις
πρώιμες περιόδους της προϊστορίας.

New advances in the research on Neolithic in south-eastern Transdanubia have been principally made as a result of the large-scale salvage excavation of extensive Neolithic sites along the track of the M6 Motorway, especially in Tolna county, in the Tolna Sárköz region. The goal of this study is to present recent advances in Neolithic research in Baranya county, a region to the south, which can contribute new insights into the Neolithic of Transdanubia and of the adjacent areas in the Danube region. The discoveries discussed in this study also shed new light on the relations between the Neolithic communities of the Balkans and Central Europe in the later 6th millennium BC.

Les grands travaux publics pour la construction du canal Segarra-Garrigues dans la partie méridionale de la province de Lleida (Catalogne, Espagne) ont révélé, à trois mètres de profondeur, les restes d’un mégalithe, situé juste dans la trace d’une des conduites secondaires aménagées pour la distribution des eaux du canal principal. Une fouille préventive a été mise en place, elle a été réalisée de janvier à mai 2007 sous la direction du « Grup d’Investigació Prehistòrica » de l’Université de Lleida. Il s’agit d’un dolmen simple couvert par un tumulus et délimité par une enceinte de dalles plantées (cromlech).  Il présentait la particularité d’être partiellement bâti avec les fragments de trois statues-menhirs, sculptées avec des représentations anthropomorphes schématiques. La tombe avait été construite pendant la première moitié du IIIe millénaire BC.
Dans l’impossibilité de conserver le monument sur place, la construction du canal se poursuivant, la tombe a été démontée et les statues-menhirs stockées dans un bâtiment de la commune de Seró. Quelques années plus tard, au mois d’octobre 2013, un musée « Seró. Espai Transmissor » a été inauguré dans le village, financé par la mairie d’Artesa de Segre, un projet FEDER de l’Union Européenne et le gouvernement de la Generalitat de Catalogne. Le centre est géré par le « Museu Comarcal de la Noguera » qui a son siège à Balaguer (la Noguera, Lleida) .
L’intérêt de la découverte dans le cadre du mégalithisme de Catalogne a été immédiatement souligné (López et al. 2010 ; López, Moya 2010), mais les recherches après fouille ont permis de constater que ce qu’on avait considéré au départ comme sept stèles différentes correspondait en réalité aux débris de trois statues-menhirs décorées . Nulle part en Europe il n’existait de représentations anthropomorphes similaires. Nous présentons donc une synthèse de l’ensemble des résultats ainsi que les interprétations inédites qui permettront dorénavant de placer les statues-menhirs de Seró dans le cadre de la statuaire mégalithique européenne (Moya, Martínez, López 2010 ; Martínez, Moya, López 2014) .

Abstract
Prehistoric iconography (Neolithic period-Early Bronze Age) comprises representations of animate beings with anthropomorphic, zoomorphic and more rarely mixed features. Concerning the anthropomorphic ones, the high frequency of female figures has been exaggeratedly emphasized, although not necessarily in a flattering way, mainly in the past, while the very small percentage of clearly male figures is equally problematic. At the same time, besides these examples which reflect the biological dimorphism, in impressively numerous cases the morphology of the figurines does not permit their classification in a definite sex, while, exceptionally, features of both sexes are specified on ambiguous anthropomorphic representations.
The criteria for the choice regarding either the indication, suggestion or emphasis, or the concealment of the biological sex, as well as regarding preferences when sex is revealed, remain unknown, in spite of various hypotheses that have been expressed. The fact that there is evidence about a "third" or even a “fourth” sex/gender, which does not partake in the biological distinctions, could be interpreted in several alternative ways: -either the visibility of anatomic morphology was in certain cases inconsequential, self-evident, beside the point, or irrelevant; -or the difference emerged from other characteristics; -or a different category of social beings was implied; -or it was preferred to show a flexible multiplicity of meanings or an indefinite existence instead of an explicit -accomplished or constrained- gender-defined identity.
In an effort to proceed beyond simple visual impressions and a "literal" reading of genders, in parallel to exploring visible at first level and apparently invisible elements, it is attempted to consider as broadly as possible the general and the more specific frameworks in which the prehistoric representations had functioned, as well as their possible approaches.

The subject of this paper is the research of possible meanings of some of the elements present on the Neolithic altars of the “Mother-House” type recovered in the Republic of Macedonia. These elements are ceramic objects in the form of an anthropomorphic house (15 to 50 cm high), consisting of two parts. The lower part is in the shape of a cube and represents a realistic or schematic house, while the upper part is cylindrical, in the form of a human head or female body. Both parts are hollow and connected, bearing different openings. Judging by the obvious mythic and religious purpose of the items in question, the holes must have had a specific symbolic meaning and a certain cult purpose. The author’s approach to the analysis and interpretation of the openings on the cubic part of the altar is based on his former research, and leads the author in the direction of identifying two different meanings to the holes. The first interpretation of the meaning is based on the symbolic identification of the house windows with human or animal eyes, and arises from the functional identification of both elements (a visual perception of the outside). The basis for such an interpretation is provided by the oval and almond shape of some of the openings on the mentioned altars, and on the presence of the holes in pairs. The author corroborates this hypothesis by intercultural and diachronic comparisons referring to different cultures and heteroaspectual sources (written sources, archaeological, ethnographic and linguistic material). The author interprets the suggested semiotics of the house windows as intentional, meant to represent the mythic patroness of the house who watches over the order in the house, thus protecting it from all forms of evil and bad fortune. The second interpretation of meaning is based on the assumption that the doors of the house represent a human or animal mouth. This assumption is also derived from their functional identification (both openings enable entering and exiting in and out of the body, that is, the house). The starting point for such an interpretation is provided by the form of some of the openings on the lower part of the ceramic elements of the Neolithic altars from Macedonia. They present indentations which suggest that the opening can be identified with the terrible jaws of a beast. The author corroborates this hypothesis with extensive comparative material, as in the case of his first hypothesis. He sees the motivation for the explained semiotics in two different observed aspects. The first aspect sees the house as a grave which “devours”, that is, kills the one who enters. The second aspect sees the house as a house of initiation,
where the entrance of the neophyte through its door-jaws acquires the meaning of his death, that is, the death of the child within him, while the coming out of the house would represent the birth of a new, mature person.