Middle Eastern Music

The emergence of ISIS in 2014 brought back to centre stage a series of very old and very troubling questions about the integrity and viability of the Iraqi state. However, most analysts have framed recent events in terms of their immediate past and without the contextual background to explain their evolution. 'State and Society in Iraq' moves beyond this short-sighted analysis to place the complex and contested nature of Iraqi politics within a broader and deeper historical examination. In doing so, the chapters demonstrate that beyond the overwhelming emphasis on failed occupations, cruel tyrants, ethnic separatists and violent religious fanatics, is an Iraqi people who have routinely agitated against the state, advocated for legitimate and accountable government, and called for inter-communal harmony. When the Iraqi people are given agency in the complex process of consent, negotiation and resistance that underpin successful state-society relations, the nation can move beyond patterns of oppression and cruelty, of dangerous rhetoric and divisive politics, and towards a cohesive, peaceful and prosperous future - despite the many difficulties and the steep challenges that lie ahead.

Abstract*
Mohammad ‘Abd el-Wahhab (c. 1905 – 1991), “Musician of the Generations”, was an Egyptian singer, composer, oud and other instruments virtuoso, and actor. This dissertation explores his instrumental compositions (in Arab M’azufat, plural form of M’azufa) written between 1933-1980.
The main thesis of this work is that ‘Abd el-Wahhab created a new Arabic instrumental genre, which fused traditional Ottoman and Arabic genres with Western forms and stylistic components. The purpose of this study was to define the various styles of his  M’azufat, while focusing on their compositional structure, modality, and  rhythm. The entire corpus of el-Wahhab’s M’azufa  is categorized here according to the periods of his creative path and to his use of different forms.
The findings of this study demonstrate that, contrary to the customary view  of el-Wahhab’s M’azufat as possessing no formal organization, they do  reveal well-organized forms with unique structural characteristics. The study seeks to understand the source of these forms and to trace their development. Concomitantly, the dissertation uncovers the special compositional techniques and methods of ‘Abd el-Wahhab, which can serve as efficient tools for analyses  of contemporary instrumental art-music by Arabic composers. The study also seeks to contribute to the improvement of notation methods in order to reduce the currently existing gap between the written composition and its performance practice. Improvement of notation reflecting comprehension of the M’azufat formal structure facilitates their realistically precise transcription which corresponds to the contemporary editorial style of instrumental music.
In this work, I have collected, studied, transcribed, and edited in conventional notation 48 M’azufat. Their examination includes quantitative and qualitative analyses of their various properties, e.g.: formal structures, the different functions of different composition sections and their proportions, as well as their modal (Maqamat), rhythmic (Mawazin), and  thematic-motivic functions. This multi-dimensional analysis of the 48 M’azufat revealed three compositional styles that the composer developed over the course of three periods: The first period (1933-1939), “The She’arub Period” (“Arabization”), was characterized by an attempt to create an original Arabic style; in the second period (1941-1959), the “Central Period”, the unique style of ‘Abd el-Wahhab began to take form; and the third period (1962-1980), “The Westernization Period”, was characterized by his search for universal recognition and by Westernization of style, and performance grandiosity.
This dissertation includes 19 transcriptions of the M’azufat original recordings that I made by ear. This step was critical for analyses of the compositions and constituted a very important part of the work. In the process of transcription, I developed a unique method for notating the M’azufat in accordance with the specific structure of each composition, based on the transcription method used in the traditional genres of Bashraf and Sama’i.
The dissertation also includes a qualitative analysis of eight M’azufat – two pieces representing each of its four forms. As this kind of composition has never been analyzed before, there was no fixed point of departure, and I needed to develop my own analytical strategy for the thorough investigation of the different stylistic aspects. In addition, the abundant variety of M’azufat stylistic and formal features led me to develop different analytical methods in order to reveal the unique properties of each M’azufa. Therefore, the qualitative analysis, which engages with ‘Abd el-Wahhab’s musical language of this genre of instrumental music, constitutes a major part of my work.
The structural analysis revealed four major forms used by el-Wahhab in the Ma’zufa genre. The first is the Rondo-Sama’i form, similar in its structure to Sama’i: “ABCBDBEB”. The composer wrote six M’azufat using this form. The second is the simple and familiar Western Rondo form “ABACADA…” . ‘Abd el-Wahhab composed 18 M’azufat using this form. The third group of M’azufat exploits Ternary and Binary Forms and includes different structures based on two different  sections: “AB” or “ABA”. There are 15 M’azufat using these forms. The fourth is the Chain Form, which comprises two sub-types: the “Open Chain” form (ABCD…) and the “Closed Chain” form (ABCD…A). The composer wrote nine M’azufat in this form.
The work of ‘Abd el-Wahhab also encompasses the use of structural components from Western music (auxiliary sections). Appearing already at the onset of his career, they gained increasing significance in the course of his composing M’azufat. There are three Western structural components: opening, transitional (separating / connecting), and closing. (1) The Opening Section is usually present in one of two kinds: preludes  or introductions. The term “prelude” stands for a thematically substantial and quite lengthy Opening Section compared to an “introduction”, which is shorter and simpler. The Opening Section (either prelude or introduction), in its turn, may have one of four characters: (a) a free-style recitative; (b) rhythmic (usually set to a specific Mizan); (c) composed of the drumming of a specific Mizan for about 2-4 cycles; or (d)  composed of a rhythmic-melodic pattern (also mostly based on a specific Mizan). (2) A Transitional Section-Interlude (Separating /Connecting Bridge) is usually a short section functioning to connect or separate between two sections. There are three types of transitional sections: (a) a rhythmic-melodic pattern according to a specific Mizan; (b) a passage; and (c) new melodic material. (3) Closing Section – Postlude, whose character may vary: (a) Coda, (b) Codetta, or (c) Finale.
The quantitative analysis also relates to the modal structure of M’azufat –  Maqamat. To examine the main features of a Maqamat, I selected two elements that determine the Eastern or Western nature of the Maqam. The first and more Eastern element is the presence or absence of quarter-tones in a Maqam scale. The second element is the presence or absence of augmented seconds in a Maqam scale. According to the presence or absence of these two elements, the nine Maqam families are divided here into three categories: from the most “Western” to the most “Eastern”. Category 1: Maqamat that do not contain any of the two Eastern features. Among these Maqamat are the Nahawand – parallel to the minor mode; the ‘Ajam – parallel to the major mode; and the Kurd – which is parallel to the Phrygian modus. Category 2: Maqamat that only have the second element (an augmented second), which are the Hijaz and the Nawa-Athar. Category 3: Maqamat that have the first element (quarter-tones), which are the Rast and the Bayat, and Maqamat that have both elements, which are the Huzam, and the Saba. Both the Huzam and the Saba have  two Eastern elements, but they are included in this category because the number of M’azufat containing them was too small to establish a category of their own.
The use of “Western” and “Eastern” Maqamat in the M’azufat is interconnected with the use of Western (guitar, oboe, piccolo, and xylophone) and Eastern (oud, qanun, nay, and riq) instruments. This is why the composer used two modal spheres: one that does not include quarter-tones (categories 1+2) and is appropriate for both Western and Eastern instruments; and the other that includes quarter-tones (category 3) and is only appropriate for Eastern instruments and Western instruments that can produce quarter-tones, e.g. the bow instruments and the fretless plucked ones. The quantitative analysis of all M’azufat revealed that nearly two-thirds of the compositions do not include quarter-tones and belong to categories 1+2, probably due to their adaptation to Western orchestration in order to avoid problems in the performance and harmony.
The dissertation also presents findings regarding the Secondary Maqamat / Modulations, which differ from the primary Maqam in the composition. A transition from a primary Maqam to an other Maqam is considered a modulation in Arabic music only if the transition is made clearly and for the appropriate duration. The study also investigated rhythmic system of the Primary Mawazin (the rhythmic patterns of Arabic music): the Mizan of the first part of the composition; and the Secondary Mawazin, which are rhythms that differ from the primary Mizan of the work. In this context, I examined which Mawazin were most typical in each period of ‘Abd el-Wahhab’s work. The study presents comparative data regarding sections, Maqamat, and Mawazin in each composition, as well as data on the durations of the M’azufat and certain other compositional elements.

*I thank Professor Marina Ritzarev (Bar-Ilan University) for her help on the final stage of this project.