Microplastics in the Oceans

This paper will report on the first full investigations on the level of occurrence and qualitative/quantitative profiles of microplastics, MP,  (1-5mm) in a number of sandy beaches in Malta, (Central Mediterranean).  Five popular beaches were investigated, including Għadira Bay, Golden Bay,  St. George’s Bay, Għajn Tuffieħa Bay and  Pretty Bay.  Samples for all bays were collected in August 2015, while further detailed sampling was carried out for the last two bays in summer and in winter of 2016. Sampling protocol was adopted from Galgani et al., (2013) and based on guidelines proposed for  the Marine Strategy Framework Directive.  For all locations, samples were collected from strandline and then at 10m up shore. For Għajn Tuffieħa and Pretty Bay, samples were also collected from 40cm depth.  MP were extracted from sand through wet sieving , and then sorted and characterized according to size, colour, shape, and polymer type.  Several parameters including degree of sea exposure and sand properties were recorded. Full beach profiles for all locations are available. Identification of polymer type was carried out by means of qualitative density tests.

In summer of 2015, the highest levels of MP were reported in Pretty Bay at 10.81 items/1000cm3 of wet sand with the lowest being in Għajn Tuffieħa, at 0.72 items/1000 cm3.  In general, levels of  MP in the dry season were found to be higher than those recorded in the wet season (winter). Higher MP concentration was recorded at 10 m up-shore as opposed to the strandline. Furthermore, surface sands contained a higher concentration of MP when compared with the subsurface sediments, though this was not was not the case at Pretty Bay in the wet season. These results are interpreted in terms of different beach profiles,  beach dynamics, sand properties and potential sources of MP.

The local level of occurrence of MP  seems to be lower when compared to other European locations studied so far. The fact that in this study, MP below 1mm were not included in the data, as well as the lack of rivers in the Maltese islands, regular beach clean ups and other factors may explain this. Data on the characterisation of MP found are provided. For example, polyethylene and polypropylene were the most common polymers recorded at Għajn Tuffieħa Bay whereas polyethylene and paint fragments were the most common MP recorded at Pretty Bay. This investigation is a contribution to our knowledge of how levels of MP in sandy beaches may be affected by sand properties and dynamics, beach profiles and  other factors.

Microplastics are causing serious environmental threats worldwide. To evaluate the current state of microplastics pollution, 28 sediment samples were examined for microplastics and plastic debris contamination along
Silver Beach, Southern India. Visual identification followed by FT-IR spectroscopy was used to estimate the overall distribution and characterization of plastic debris. The results reveal that white-colored (44%) and irregularly-shaped (82%) plastics are prevalent in the study area. Moreover, the dominant polymer in the study
area is polyvinyl chloride (79%) followed by polyethylene (14%) and nylon (7%). Based on size fractions, mesoplastics are widely distributed in the beach sediments (65%), followed by microplastics (18%) and macroplastics (17%). The regional sources of plastic debris are tourism and fishing activities followed by storm water
runoff through the Gadilam river and wave-induced deposition through high tides. Strict policy measures need to be implemented in recreational beaches like Silver beach to reduce plastic pollution.

In this study, abundance, distribution and composition of floating and seabed macro and micro litter in the Central Adriatic Sea were assessed. Floating macro litter observations were made. Floating and seabed micro litter were sampled with manta net and Van Veen grab, respectively. Micro litter particles visually found under the microscope were chemically analyzed with Fourier Transform Infrared microscope. Average calculated concentrations of floating macro (175 items/km2), floating micro (127 thousand particles/km2) and seabed micro litter (36 particles/100 g dry weight) show similar values as other published studies from the Mediterranean Sea. A statistically significant (p < 0.01) correlation between the floating micro and macro litter concentrations was found for the sites located in the channel waters. Disagreement between model and observations revealed gaps in our knowledge concerning the sea circulation and litter sources. Simultaneous samplings and observations of marine litter in different marine compartments proved possible, efficient and informative.

Пластикове забруднення - процес накопичення продуктів з пластмас в навколишньому середовищі, що негативно позначається на дикій природі, середовищі проживання диких тварин і людей. Існує дуже багато видів і форм пластикового забруднення. Пластикове забруднення негативно впливає
на земну поверхню, водні шляхи і океани. Зусилля по скороченню
пластикового забруднення робляться в різних регіонах і включають в себе спроби знизити споживання пластмас і заохочення їх переробки. Поширення пластикового забруднення корелюється з невисокою ціною та довговічністю пластмас, що визначає високий рівень їх використання людиною.
Станом на 2018 р. в усьому світі вироблялося за рік близько 380 млн. т пластику. З 1950 р. по 2018 р. було вироблено близько 6,3 млрд. т пластику, з них було перероблено близько 9 %, а спалено – 12 %. Величезна кількість пластикових відходів неминуче потрапляє в навколишнє середовище. Дослідження припускають, що тіла 90 % морських птахів містять в собі пластик.
Метою кваліфікаційної роботи було розглянути проблему надходження та накопичення пластикового сміття в Світовому океані, а також приділити увагу його трансформації в морському середовищі.
В роботі було розглянуто наслідки розкладання пластику в морському середовищі та екосистемні загрози, зокрема наслідки для біологічних організмів та людини.

J Gago, A Filgueiras, ML Pedrotti, Giuseppe Suaria, V Tirelli, J Andrade, J Frias, R Nash, I O’Connor, C Lopes, M Caetano, J Raimundo, O Carretero, L Viñas, J Antunes, F Bessa, P Sobral, A Goruppi, S Aliani, L Palazzo, GA de Lucia, A Camedda, S Muniategui, G Grueiro, V Fernandez, Gunnar Gerdts

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are a focal point for the removal of microplastic (MP) particles before they are discharged into aquatic environments. WWTPs are capable of removing substantial quantities of larger MP particles but are inefficient in removing particles with any one dimension of less than 100 μm, with influents and effluents tending to have similar quantities of these smaller particles. As a single WWTP may release >100 billion MP particles annually, collectively WWTPs are significant contributors to the problem of MP pollution of global surface waters. Currently, there are no policies or regulations requiring the removal of MPs during wastewater treatment, but as concern about MP pollution grows, the potential for wastewater technologies to capture particles before they reach surface waters has begun to attract attention. There are promising technologies in various stages of development that may improve the removal of MP particles from wastewater. Better incentivization could speed up the research, development and adoption of innovative practices. This paper describes the current state of knowledge regarding MPs, wastewater and relevant policies that could influence the development and deployment of new technologies within WWTPs. We review existing technologies for capturing very small MP particles and examine new developments that may have the potential to overcome the shortcomings of existing methods. The types of collaborations needed to encourage and incentivize innovation within the wastewater sector are also discussed, specifically strong partnerships among scientific and engineering researchers , industry stakeholders, and policy decision makers.

Current problem facing researchers globally is microplastics as well as toxic chemical pollution of the ecosystem. Microplastics carry toxic chemicals in the ecosystem serving as a vector for transport. In this study, a review of the literature has been conducted with the following objectives: (1) to summarize the concentrations of toxic chemicals such heavy metals and hydrophobic organic contaminants sorped on microplastics; (2) to evaluate their spatial distribution regarding adsorbed contaminant; (3) to discuss plausible mechanism by which microplastics adsorp or desorp toxic chemicals in the environment; (4) to discuss implications of their occurrence in air, water and soil media; and (5) to discuss the impact of ingested microplastics to human health. Microplastics are ubiquitous environmental contaminant. Concentrations of sorped toxic chemical varied by location which represents a local problem; industrialized areas (especially
areas experiencing crude oil-related activities or have history of crude oil pollution) have higher concentrations than less industrialized areas. Ingestion of microplastics has been demonstrated in a range of marine and soil organisms as well as edible plants, thus possibly contaminating the base of the food web. Potential health effect to human is by particle
localization, chemical toxicity and microbial toxins. We conclude by highlighting the gap in knowledge and suggesting key future areas of research for scientists and policymakers.

Marine plastic debris floating on the ocean surface is a major environmental problem. However, its distribution in the ocean is poorly mapped, and most of the plastic waste estimated to have entered the ocean from land is unaccounted for. Better understanding of how plastic debris is transported from coastal and marine sources is crucial to quantify and close the global inventory of marine plastics, which in turn represents critical information for mitigation or policy strategies. At the same time, plastic is a unique tracer that provides an opportunity to learn more about the physics and dynamics of our ocean across multiple scales, from the Ekman convergence in basin-scale gyres to individual waves in the surfzone. In this review, we comprehensively discuss what is known about the different processes that govern the transport of floating marine plastic debris in both the open ocean and the coastal zones, based on the published literature and referring to insights from neighbouring fields such as oil spill dispersion, marine safety recovery, plankton connectivity, and others. We discuss how measurements of marine plastics (both in situ and in the laboratory), remote sensing, and numerical simulations can elucidate these processes and their interactions across spatio-temporal scales.

Marine ecosystems are experiencing substantial disturbances due to climate change and overfishing, and plastic pollution is an additional growing threat. Microfibres are among the most pervasive pollutants in the marine environment, including in the Southern Ocean. However, evidence for microfibre contamination in the diet of top predators in the Southern Ocean is rare. King Penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) feed on mesopelagic fish, which undergo diel vertical migrations towards the surface at night. Microfibres are concentrated in surface waters and sediments but can also be concentrated in fish, therefore acting as contamination vectors for diving predators feeding at depth. In this study, we investigate microfibre contamination of King Penguin faecal samples collected in February and March 2017 at South Georgia across three groups: incubating, chick-rearing and non-breeding birds. After a KOH digestion to dissolve the organic matter and a density separation step using a NaCl solution, the samples were filtered to collect microfibres. A total of 77% of the penguin faecal samples (36 of 47) contained microfibres. Fibres were measured and characterized using Fourier-Transform Infrared spec-troscopy to determine their polymeric identity. Most fibres (88%) were made of natural cellulosic materials (e.g. cotton, linen), with only 12% synthetic (e.g. polyester, nylon) or semi-synthetic (e.g. rayon). An average of 21.9 ± 5.8 microfibres g−1 of faeces (lab dried mass) was found, with concentrations more than twice as high in incubating penguins than in penguins rearing chicks. Incubating birds forage further north at the Antarctic Polar Front and travel longer distances from South Georgia than chick-rearing birds. This suggests that long-distance travelling penguins are probably more exposed to the risk of ingesting microfibres when feeding north of the Antarctic Polar Front, which might act as a semi-permeable barrier for microfibres. Microfibres could therefore provide a signature for foraging location in King Penguins.

Microfibres are one of the most ubiquitous particulate pollutants, occurring in all environmental compartments. They are often assumed to be microplastics, but include natural as well as synthetic textile fibres and are perhaps best treated as a separate class of pollutants given the challenges they pose in terms of identification and contamination. Microfibres have been largely ignored by traditional methods used to sample floating microplastics at sea, which use 300-500 µm mesh nets that are too coarse to sample most textile fibres. There is thus a need for a consistent set of methods for sampling microfibres in seawater. We processed bulk water samples through 0.7-63 µm filters to collect microfibres in three ocean basins. Fibre density increased as mesh size decreased: 20 µm mesh sampled 41% more fibres than 63 µm, and 0.7 µm filters sampled 44% more fibres than 25 µm mesh, but mesh size (20-63 µm) had little effect on the size of fibres retained. Fibre density decreased with sample volume when processed through larger mesh filters, presumably because more fibres were flushed through the filters. Microfibres averaged 2.5 times more abundant at the sea surface than in water sampled 5 m sub-surface. However, the data were noisy; counts of replicate 10-L samples had low repeatability (0.15-0.36; CV = 56%), suggesting that single samples provide only a rough estimate of microfibre abundance. We propose that sampling for microfibres should use a combination of <1 µm and 20-25 µm filters and process multiple samples to offset high within-site variability in microfibre densities.

Microplastic (< 5 mm) pollution have raised concern on behalf of the scientific community and the general public. Microplastic occurrence in aquatic environments and organisms have been well documented. However, it is in recent years that the ecotoxicological effects of microplastics have begun to be studied. The aim of the present study was to review, evaluate and discuss the current state of art regarding microplastic and related contaminants ecotoxicological effects in microalgae, crustaceans, molluscs and fish. The results of previous studies have proven growth inhibition and chlorophyll-a decrease in microalgae. Ingestion by small crustaceans and population reduction have been evidenced. Biomarkers in bivalves and fish have shown neurotoxic effects and oxidative stress, along with abnormal behavior. The current state of art lacks realistic parameters and microplastic concentrations to assess environmental pollution. The need for further research was discussed.

While macroplastics have been washing up on Southern Ocean islands for decades and microplastics have been found in seabirds from the region since 1960, there are still relatively few quantitative data on the amount of plastic pollution, especially with regard to floating plastics, at high southern latitudes. We present a baseline estimate of the abundance of floating plastics around the Southern Ocean from a survey of floating macro-, meso- and microplastic pollution conducted during the Antarctic Circumnavigation Expedition in 2016/17. A total of 40 net trawls and 626 h of observation were performed during this survey. Of these, 33 net samples and 552 h of observation were made in polar waters south of the Subtropical Front (STF). Only 5 microplastics and 17 macrolitter items were observed south of the STF, confirming the Southern Ocean as the region with the lowest concentrations of plastic pollution globally. The mean concentrations of floating macrolitter (0.02–0.03 items·km−2) and small plastic fragments (188 ± 589 particles·km−2) south of the STF were one order of magnitude lower than in adjacent temperate waters north of the STF, which suggests that the STF acts as a barrier to the southward transport of floating debris. Despite their much lower density, the mass of macroplastics was similar to that of floating microplastics in the Southern Ocean.

Effects of microplastic pollution on benthic organisms and ecosystem services provided by sedimentary habitats are largely unknown. An outdoor mesocosm experiment was done to realistically assess the effects of three different types of microplastic pollution (one biodegradable type; polylactic acid and two conventional types; polyethylene and polyvinylchloride) at increasing concentrations (0.02, 0.2 and 2% of wet sediment weight) on the health and biological activity of lugworms, Arenicola marina (Linnaeus, 1758), and on nitrogen cycling and primary productivity of the sediment they inhabit. After 31 days, A. marina produced less casts in sediments containing microplastics. Metabolic rates of A. marina increased, while microalgal biomass decreased at high concentrations, compared to sediments with low concentrations or without microplastics. Responses were strongest to polyvinylchloride, emphasising that different materials may have differential effects. Each material needs to be carefully evaluated in order to assess their risks as microplastic pollution. Overall, both conventional and biodegradable microplastics in sandy sediments can affect the health and behaviour of lugworms and directly or indirectly reduce primary productivity of these habitats.