Lusignan Cyprus

Famagusta Maritima: Mariners, Merchants, Pilgrims and Mercenaries
presents a collection of scholarly studies spanning the thousand year history of the port of Famagusta in Cyprus. This historic harbour city was at the heart of the Crusading Lusignan dynasty, a possession of both Genoa and Venice during the Renaissance, a port of the Ottoman Empire for three centuries, and in time, a strategic naval and intelligence node for the British Empire. It is a maritime space made famous by the realities of its extraordinary importance and influence, followed by its calamitous demise.

Contributors are: Michele Bacci, Lucie Bonato, Tomasz Borowski, Mike Carr, Pierre-Vincent Claverie, Dragos Cosmescu, Nicholas Coureas, Marko Kiessel, Antonio Musarra, William Spates, Asu Tozan, Ahmet Usta, and Michael Walsh.

A brief linguistic and ideological analysis of the profanities addressed towards several racial groups in Leontios Machairas' "Chronicle".

This is the summary of a bigger paper I wrote in 2018, during my final undergraduate year. It is unrelated to my current main academic interests.

To understand Cyprus problem and founding out a sustainable solution we need to analyze and understand the role of religion on Cyprus issues in past and today. As it is known both Christian and Muslim cultures left their signs on island and have a strong impact on today's relationships. As a result of this differ¬ent effects in The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, referred to the Orthodox Christianity and Islam as constituent elements.
After division of Christianity, the conflicts between Catholic and Orthodox Churches, Ottomans and Cyprus Orthodox Church be¬came allies. The Ottomans, while trying to reduce Latin's influ¬ence, treated the Orthodox Cypriots with the consideration and gained their good will. In 1821 with the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, the Greeks of Cyprus attempted to follow in the footsteps of those of Greece; such was the accusation, which Kuchuk Mehmed brought against the bishops and the leading Greek laymen of Cyprus. As a result of this the Archbishop and his archdeacon were hanged, the three Bishops beheaded and the notables dispatched by the Janissaries. This was the break point and beginning of political separation between Ottoman adminis¬tration and Cyprus Orthodox Church. In this article, I have tried to analyze the developments of relationships between Muslims and Christians under lights of history and give a right perspective to the future relationships.

This paper argues that the Genoese in Famagusta endeavoured to maintain commercial realtions with the Mamluks and to avoid involvement in conflicts between the Mamluks and the Lusignan kingdom of Cyprus. The decline of Famagusta under Genoese rule as well as the overall decline in Genoa's share of eastern Mediterranean commerce did not assist in the development of lively commercial relations, while the activites of Catalan and other pirates who found a market for their plunder, including seized Muslim ships, in Famagusta also caused hostility, with the Mamluks retaliating against Genoese merchants in Syria.

Monographie d’un prieuré grandmontaine du Berry, depuis sa fondation au 12e s. jusqu’au 18e s. sous le patronage d’Hugues de Lusignan, de Jean sans Terre, des Plantagenêt, (étude de la seigneurie ecclésiastique, de la mortaille et des bâtiments disparus)
Monograph of a grandmontine cell (priory) now situated in the Berry region formerly in Limousin from its foundation in the 12th century to the 18th century dealing mainly with their foundation and the ecclesiastical seigniory.

In this paper the relations between Lusignan Cyprus and the Mamluks of Syria and Egypt are examined with special attention to four distinct but inter-related areas, wafare, diplomacy, cultural and religious exchanges and finally trade and settlement.

In this paper the account of the Fifth Crusade as presented in the Chronicle of 'Amadi', the extent to which this chronicle draws on older French accounts found the the various Continuations of William of Tyre and the extent to which it diverges from such accounts, as well as the possible reasons for such divergences, will be examined and discussed .

This paper discusses the manumission of Hospitaller slaves on Rhodes and Cyprus in the fifteenth century according to gender, religion, ethnic origin and age. It examines the reasons for the manumissions, at whose request they were done, as well as the conditions, if any, attached to such manumissions. Also examined are the historical antecedents of the manumissions policy, the Hospitaller or papal rulings on this issue and where possible what became of the slaves following their manumission.

One of the most intriguing problems in the study of Gothic architecture in the Latin East concerns the network of interrelationships between the major architectural centres in the eastern Mediterranean, especially the Crusader states of the Levant, the kingdom of Cyprus and Hospitaller Rhodes. Although scholars have been aware of the artistic links between these areas for decades, the Cyprus-Rhodes connection remains to this day largely unexplored, despite the obvious interest it presents for the development of ecclesiastical architecture in the region. This article examines the architecture of the Carmelite church in Famagusta and its formal aBnities with Rhodes cathedral, in order to identify the conditions and modes of transmission of architectural designs from Cyprus to Rhodes in the second quarter of the 14th century. It will also attempt to demonstrate that the same basic design had been employed for two buildings of radically diCerent status and function, in a reflection of the circumstances, financial or ideological, surrounding their creation.

Thsi paper discusses the evolution of the Cypriot economy under its Lusignan rulers, arguing that while in terms of production it remained agricultural, it underwent diversification of the agricultural produce exported, acquired new exports markets throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea areas and became integrated into the trading networks of Venetian, Genoese and other Western merchants, bnoth as regards the carrying trade between East and West and the export of primary produce.

Here it is argued that despite adding Armenians to its ranks in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and limited numbers of Syrians, Greeks and Circassians later on, the nobility of Lusignan Cyprus remained predominantly of West European and above all French origin throughout the period of Frankish and Venetian rule.

The history of the Church of St. Mary or literally in Armenian, the Holy Mother of God, Theotokos, the medieval and post medieval Armenian community in Famagusta, Cyprus is presented, hoping it might contribute to the work of preserving and restoring the church and its fresco cycle that miraculously survived centuries of abandonment and neglect. There are no specific records relating to the circumstances or the date of the church’s construction in Armenian sources. Latin documents, however, are quite explicit. According to a papal bull of 1311, the church’s construction had recently started.

In this paper I argue that the capture of Cyprus in 1191 by King Richard I of England within the context of the Third Crusade was a premeditated act. King Richard was well aware of the strategic value of Cyprus as a nearby base from which to send supplies to the Holy Land on a regular basis and as a refuge for Christians in the Holy Land during times of crisis on account of Muslim raids or attacks. In addition, it could and did serve as a springboard for Christian attempts to recover the Holy Land, and so was a valuable asset to the Crusading movement. Following King Richard's conquest, it passed into the hands of the French Lusignans, who founded a remarkably stable royal dynasty on Cyprus, ruling the island for nearly three hundred years.

This article examines the admirals of Cyprus in chronological order, beginning with the origins of the office and of the war fleet of the Lusignan kings of the island in the late thirteenth century. It discusses the social and ethnic backgrounds of the admirals, their relations with the kings they served, their service in offices or capacities other than those of admiral of the fleet and the eventual demise of this office following the annexation of Cyprus by Venice in 1473. It endeavours to show that the ethnic background of the admirals was varied, for, besides Franks from Cyprus, Catalans and Italians also held this office. Socially their background was more uniform: all had aristocratic antecedents apart from John Monstry, whose origins from the burgess class caused resentment among the Frankish Cypriot nobility, leading to his incarceration and death. Certain admirals stand out for showing loyalty to their king in adverse conditions, sometimes to the extent of risking their lives. However, what also comes through is that from the late fourteenth century onwards the Lusignan war fleet's operational effectiveness declined, making it unable to combat piracy effectively in the course of the fifteenth century or to defeat the Mamluk fleet during the invasion of Cyprus in 1425–26. This naval weakness facilitated the Venetian annexation of Cyprus in 1473, although following the annexation the island came under the governance and protection of the powerful Venetian fleet, a development that rendered the office of admiral obsolete.

The Melkites of Cyprus like the Georgians identified with the Greek Church and followed their rite. They began settling on Cyprus during the later Byzantine period and were prominent on Lusignan Cyprus (1192-1474) as traders, especially in Famagusta, the chief port of the island. In Syria and Lebanon from the time of the seventh century Arab conquest onwards they had developed a distinct religious identity in opposition to both Muslims and non-Chalcedonian Christians, expressed through a tradition of composition or translation of religious works into Arabic. This tradition continued on Cyprus. Since, however, most of the Cypriot population were Chalcedonian Christians, Latin, Greek or Maronites, the Melkites on Cyprus were absorbed by degrees into the Latin ruling class and the Greek majority population. The absence of a politically and numerically dominant Muslim 'other' and of important non-Chalcedonian Christian groups facilitated this absorption.

This article is based on the analysis of two manuscripts in the Arabic language produced by the West Syrian scribe Yūsuf ibn Sbāt of Amida/Diyarbakır, in 1352 in Cairo and in 1358 in Famagusta, respectively. The former is one of the earliest complete and dated manuscripts written in Garshuni (Arabic in Syriac characters), whereas the latter is written in a fine, Arabic hand. By following Yūsuf across the eastern Mediterranean, this article seeks to explain his journey and scribal practices in light of contemporary cultural and socioeconomic trends. Retrospectively, it also aims to demonstrate how Yūsuf's case can shed light on the history of Syriac Christians living outside their historical homeland. It thus investigates the various ways they dealt with a challenging multicultural context, and how the latter influenced several aspects of their habits and practices.

The acquisition of territory on Cyprus by Military Orders in the form of villages known as casalia, urban properties and fortified structures was determined to a considerable extent by their relations with the crown of Cyprus and with other secular rulers. On account of this, the extent of territory they held on the island and the freedom they had in developing such territories and the incomes deriving from them fluctuated according to whether they had good relations with the kings of Cyprus and with other rulers. Sometimes, and this is especially true of the Templars and the Teutonic Knights, good relations with rulers outside Cyprus could harm relations with the kings of Cyprus. This in turn impacted on the Military Orders' ability to acquire new properties, to retain and maintain existing ones, and to utilise freely the incomes and goods acquired from their properties on Cyprus. The territoriality of the Military Orders in Cyprus was in a state of flux, hence the title of this paper. The relative paucity of documentation concerning the acquisition of Cypriot rural and urban properties by the Military Orders on Cyprus, the nature of properties acquired and how these were utilised, as well as their relations with the serfs and others on their estates or town houses impedes a discussion of these issues, but they will nonetheless be examined on the basis of the evidence available. Two important questions meriting examination are why the diocese of Limassol became the primary territorial base for all three orders, and why the Hospitallers and Teutonic Orders, while maintaining estates in Cyprus, transferred their headquarters to Rhodes and Prussia respectively, establishing ordensstaaten in these places.

In this paper it is argued that Limassol played an important part in the Third Crusade, when in 1191 the forces of King Richard I of England landed there to conquer Cyprus, in the Fifth Crusade of 1218, the planned crusade of 1227 against the Ayyubids and the Seventh Crusade of 1248, when it served as a springboard and a supply base for the campaigns against Egypt. In addition, it was an important trading centre as the principal port of Cyprus before the rise of Famagusta at the end of the thirteenth century, being geographically accessible from Western Europe, Egypt and Syria. It was also a focus of settlement, with Pisans, Venetians, Genoese, Catalans  and Provencals settling there for trading purposes.

In this paper it is argued that despite its defeat in 1426 by the Mamluks at the battle of Khirokitia, and its reduction to tributary status, the kingdom of Lusignan Cyprus benefited from its commercial relations with Mamluk Egypt and Syria, which formed important markets for Cypriot exports and provided emplyment for large numbers of Cypriots.

In this paper an examination of the persons in the royal court of Lusignan Cyprus engaging in cross-cultural activities is made, and where possible such activities will be placed in a wider context. This examination shows that the persons functioning in this capacity, effectively as cultural brokers, existed throughout the centuries of Lusignan rule and included both Latins and Greeks.

In this paper I examine the self-perception of the religious and ethnic groups living on Cyprus and, where possible, how they viewed each other, stressing the imbalance of sources, mainly Latin and Greek with few non-Chalcedonian (Syrian, Armenian, Coptic) or non-Christian sources to complete this picture. The conclusion reached is that while outbursts of inter-ethnic violence were few, the groups overall tolerated one another, with little positive interaction between them.

Kıbrıs, Doğu Akdeniz'deki jeopolitik ve stratejik konumu nedeniyle ilkçağlardan beri birçok mücadeleye sahne olmuştur. Doğu Akdeniz ve Anadolu topraklarını kontrol eden güçler adanın sahip olduğu öneme binaen Kıbrıs'a sık sık saldırı düzenlemişlerdir. 1095 yılında Clermont'ta toplanan konsil sonucunda başlayan Haçlı Seferleri, Ortaçağ'ın en önemli olaylarından bir tanesidir. Yapılan seferler sadece batı tarihini değil, Doğu Akdeniz coğrafyasının tarihini de etkilemiştir. Kudüs'ün 1187 yılında Selahaddin tarafından fethedilmesinden sonra geri alınabilmesi için Kutsal Topraklara Almanya, Fransa ve İngiltere Kralları tarafından yeni bir sefer hazırlanmıştı. İngiltere Kralı Richard, seferi sırasında Kıbrıs'a asker çıkararak buranın idaresini ele geçirmiştir. Böylece kısa süre içerisinde adada Latin idaresi kurulmuştur. Kıbrıs, Latin yönetimi altında Haçlı Seferleri'nde daha aktif rol oynamaya başlamış ve Haçlılar için burası ileri karakol görevi görmüştür. Bu çalışmada Richard tarafından adanın ele geçirilmesi süreci dönemin kaynakları kullanılarak değerlendirilmeye çalışılmıştır. 1191 yılından 1291 yılına kadar adanın önemini öne çıkaran olaylar tartışılmıştır. Ayrıca 1291 yılından sonra Doğu Akdeniz'den adaya iltica eden askerî tarikatların durumu, Templier şövalyeleri tarikatının ilgası süreci ve bunun adadaki yansımaları izah edilmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Kıbrıs, Haçlı Seferleri, Kudüs, Lusignan, Doğu Akdeniz

Cyprus, because of its geopolitical and strategic position in the Eastern Mediterranean, it has been scene of many struggles. Owing to the importance of the island, the powers which control the Eastern Mediterranean and Anatolian territories have frequently attacked Cyprus. The Crusades began as a result of the council that gathered in Clermont in 1095, which is one of the most important events of the Middle Ages. The expeditions, not only has affected the western history but has also affected the history of the Eastern Mediterranean region. After Jerusalem was conquered of by Saladin in 1187, a new expedition has been prapered to the Holy Lands by Germany, France and England Kings in order to retake it. King Richard, during the time of his expedition, disembarked his troops at Cyprus and seized the administration. Thus the Latin rule was set up on the island within a short time. Cyprus under the Latin rule has begun to play more active role in the Crusades and has served as outpost for Crusaders. In this study, the process of invading the island by Richard has been evaluated using the sources of the period. The events that put forward the importance of island from 1191 to 1291 have been discussed. Besides, the military orders that defected from the Eastern Mediterranean to Cyprus, the process of the abolition of the order of the Knights Templier and its repercussions on the island have been described. Key Words: Cyprus, Crusades, Lusignan, The Eastern Mediterranean

La période des croisades connut une série d’évolutions qui transformèrent la Méditerranée orientale en modifiant la production et la circulation monétaires des nouveaux États de l’Orient latin. Plusieurs tendances caractérisaient les monnayages de la région : l’imitation des monnayages des États voisins, l’inspiration tirée de la tradition numismatique de la patrie des conquérants ou encore l’adoption de modèles frappés par des États puissants dans le domaine politique, économique/commercial ou militaire. Cette tendance, qui favorisait comme prototypes les monnayages de la Méditerranée orientale (byzantin, fatimide, etc.), continua jusqu’au milieu du XIIIe siècle. La floraison des cités commerciales italiennes modifia cependant cette situation, car les prototypes pour les monnayages locaux furent ensuite fournis par les monnayages occidentaux (vénitien, angevin, etc.).
Dans ce contexte, le monnayage des Lusignan se révèle comme une exception. On discerne deux moments importants. Le premier correspond à l’introduction par Guy de Lusignan d’un système hybride, combinant des éléments byzantins et croisés/occidentaux. Ce système facilitait les contacts du jeune royaume avec l’Orient croisé et l’Empire byzantin. Le deuxième se traduit par la réforme monétaire d’Henri II (1285-1324) qui conduisit à l’abandon de l’étalon d’or et à l’introduction d’une monnaie d’argent pur, le gros. Ceci permit à Chypre de mieux s’intégrer dans le réseau commercial de la Méditerranée orientale, où l’argent prédominait durant la première moitié du XIVe siècle. Bien que le monnayage chypriote présente des affinités avec d’autres monnayages contemporains (byzantin et croisés au XIIe siècle, capétien et angevin aux XIIIe-XIVe siècles), il est loin de constituer une imitation de ceux-ci. En tenant compte des tendances de l’époque et des particularités de l’économie chypriote, on peut affirmer que les deux réformes monétaires des Lusignan se caractérisaient par leur degré d’innovation et par leur réalisme.

The author analyzes the monumental topography of Paphos, a harbor town in western Cyprus, during the Lusignan (A.D. 1191/2-1474/89) and the Venetian periods (A.D. 1474/89-1570/1). The analysis was based on narrative sources (primarily travelogues and chronicles), as well as archaeological finds. These were used to record the activities reflecting its economy, character, and geographical range, its mariculture. The process highlighted the vulnerability of the medieval monuments and the importance of creating a Cultural Heritage Management plan. Potential cultural trails can highlight new areas of cultural interest, consider other under new light, and raise awareness among the public in order to safeguard them.

Abstract: The island of Cyprus was a meeting point in the Eastern Mediterranean in the
medieval period hosting many people from different places, including pilgrims, traders,
refugees, slaves, mercenaries, knights, adventurers and so on. When the Lusignan Kingdom
was established in 1192 during the third Crusade, the island had experienced the existence of
different civilizations throughout the ages including Greeks, Romans, the Byzantine Empire
and centuries of Muslim Christian co-habitation into the 10th c. which had contributed to the
rich complex cultural, religious and social identities of the island‟s varied inhabitants.
Established in such a culturally diversified place, the Lusignan Kingdom, the “French”
speaking Catholic rulers of an island mostly inhabited by “Greek” speaking Orthodox subjects
and surrounded mainly by “Arabic” speaking Muslim neighbours created a sophisticated
atmosphere. Apart from these dominant languages, different dialects and the languages of the
religious and social minorities were heard on the island. This paper aims at determining the
different languages that were spoken in the Lusignan Kingdom of Cyprus between the 12th and
15th centuries and analyzing the relationship between trade, immigration and the diversity of
languages that occurred as a natural phenomenon consequent upon the connection of people
having different social and religious status passing through this frequented destination in the
Eastern Mediterranean. The accounts of the travellers, the memories of the pilgrims, the
contemporary chroniclers and secondary literary works are the primary sources employed in
this paper.

The Cypriot Peasant Revolt of 1426 represents a unique expression of peasant resistance during the period of Frankish rule in Cyprus. The island's Mamluk invasion in 1426 was followed by the defeat and capture of King Janus of Lusignan at the Battle of Khirokitia and the subsequent sack of Nicosia; upon the Muslim withdrawal, the peasants took up arms against the Frankish nobility, establishing their own hierarchy and proclaiming a peasant king: Alexis the serf. Based on the little information we possess on the event, this paper attempts to understand the nature of the revolt by transcending the methodological dichotomy of pure ethnic/national vs. pure class/ social conflict.

This paper examines the spread in the West of precious fabrics and art objects produced in Cyprus under Latin rule. It is possible to provide a picture reflecting the diversity of Cypriote production based on the church and princely inventories and books of accounts: sheets, liturgical vestments, altar cloths, silk textiles, gold-thread embroideries, chests and caskets, copper candelabra, glass carafe, wooden icons. The trade manuals and the Italian notarial deeds confirm the export of the luxury goods from Famagusta to the main western ports. Pilgrims and Crusaders also provide Cypriote luxury items to the treasures of the cathedrals. The spread of the taste of Cyprus in the West owes a great deal to Anne de Lusignan's departure to the Court of Savoy and the visit of Peter I, king of Cyprus, to different European capitals.

This article discusses and interprets the development, urban topography and main signifiers of the port city of Famagusta, Cyprus between the 14th and 16th centuries. It traces the city’s three distinct patterns of development, directly paralleling the three administrations in the years constituting the late Lusignan, Genoese and Venetian periods.

In this paper I shall examine the presence and activity of Western Metalworkers on Cyprus t the close of the thirteenth century. At this time, following the loss of Latin Syria to the Mamluks in 1291, the relocation of the Roman Catholic military orders of the Knights Templar and the Hospitallers to Cyprus and the various plans for the recovery of the Holy Land, with Cyprus as a possible springboard and supply centre, demand for weaponry was high. Whereas the export of metals from Europe to Muslim lands had been prohibited by Pope Nicholas IV in 1291 following the loss of Latin Syria, metals could be exported freely to Cyprus, a Roman Catholic kingdom under the rule of the Lusignan dynasty (1192-1474). Genoese notarila deeds drawn up in Famagusta by the Genoese notary Lamberto di Sambuceto, a resident of the city, record the presence of western metalworkers in in port. Unfortunately neither they nor any other source materials record the presence and activities of the workshops that they must have had in Famagusta.

This paper discusses the development of trading relations between the kingdoms of Cyprus and Aragonese Sicily from the late thirteenth century onwards, although relations between the two islands themselves go back to the twelfth century. The role of both Catalan and Genoese merchants in developing trade between Sicily and Cyprus in the period under discussion and the impotance of Sicilian grain shipments, to Cyprus in general and to Genoese Famagusta in particular, are underlined.

Established in 1192 on Cyprus the Lusignan Kingdom became the easternmost outpost of Latin Christianity after the fall of Acre in 1291 and it competed with its Muslim neighbours throughout the 14th century. During his reign the titular King of Jerusalem and King of Lusignan Cyprus, Pierre I, launched a number of attacks and raids, starting with the capture of Antalya (Adalia) in 1361, with the port-city held until 1373 when Lusignan Cyprus faced the domination of the Genoese and its garrison was withdrawn. The aim of this article is to address the reasons why the Lusignans took and why they held Antalya for 12 years, although the chronicles of the time often relate the difficulty in keeping the city and it becoming a burden to the island. In line with this objective, the series of attacks following the capture of Adalia and changing trade conditions are examined, in terms of their effects upon on each other.

In publishing his monograph on the "France de Chypre" (1931), Nicolae Iorga presented it as the achievement of a lifetime’s reflection on a topic discovered as a young student in the late 19th century Paris while studying the crusades. Using the key provided by the author himself, we will follow the intellectual quest which prompted him to entirely revisit the historical role of Latin presence in the Eastern Mediterranean during later crusades. We will contextualize firstly the French intellectual milieu where he was formed and which ignited Iorga’s interest on Cyprus. An analysis and an evaluation of the content of his book will afterwards be attempted. We endeavour finally to locate this book within the framework of his wider ambition to achieve a synthesis of world history. Looked at as mere curiosity in his time, yet consonant with present-day conception, Iorga argued than any subject of local history can only receive its full meaning when considered within the mainstream of global history.

The editors have tried to reproduce the Cartulary as it is preserved in Venice, that is of one manuscript, a single document, without any classicising or correction as regards orthography and grammar. Since the Cartulary imparts valuable information on the linguistic as well as the ecclesiastical history of Cyprus by "correcting" its idiosyncratic features in the fields of spelling. Therefore, corrections have been kept to an absolute minimum and in all such cases the correction is recorded in the apparatus criticus at the end of each document. The variants from all previous published editions of these charters are also given in the apparatus. A chronological table at the end of the introduction to the edition gives in columnar fashion information on authors, paces and previous editions.